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Oh JW, Pushparaj SSC, Muthu M, Gopal J. Review of Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) Causing Marine Fish Kills: Toxicity and Mitigation. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:3936. [PMID: 38068573 PMCID: PMC10871120 DOI: 10.3390/plants12233936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 10/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2024]
Abstract
Extensive growth of microscopic algae and cyanobacteria results in harmful algal blooms (HABs) in marine, brackish, and freshwater environments. HABs can harm humans and animals through their toxicity or by producing ecological conditions such as oxygen depletion, which can kill fish and other economically or ecologically important organisms. This review summarizes the reports on various HABs that are able to bring about marine fish kills. The predominant HABs, their toxins, and their effects on fishes spread across various parts of the globe are discussed. The mechanism of HAB-driven fish kills is discussed based on the available reports, and existing mitigation methods are presented. Lapses in the large-scale implementation of mitigation methods demonstrated under laboratory conditions are projected. Clay-related technologies and nano-sorption-based nanotechnologies, although proven to make significant contributions, have not been put to use in real-world conditions. The gaps in the technology transfer of the accomplished mitigation prototypes are highlighted. Further uses of remote sensing and machine learning state-of-the-art techniques for the detection and identification of HABs are recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae-Wook Oh
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Republic of Korea;
| | - Suraj Shiv Charan Pushparaj
- Department of Research and Innovation, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences (SIMATS), Thandalam, Chennai 602105, Tamil Nadu, India;
| | - Manikandan Muthu
- Department of Research and Innovation, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences (SIMATS), Thandalam, Chennai 602105, Tamil Nadu, India;
| | - Judy Gopal
- Department of Research and Innovation, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences (SIMATS), Thandalam, Chennai 602105, Tamil Nadu, India;
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Llanos-Rivera A, Álvarez-Muñoz K, Astuya-Villalón A, López-Rosales L, García-Camacho F, Sánchez-Mirón A, Krock B, Gallardo-Rodríguez JJ. Sublethal effect of the toxic dinoflagellate Karlodinium veneficum on early life stages of zebrafish (Danio rerio). ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:27113-27124. [PMID: 36378374 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-24149-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Dinoflagellates of the genus Karlodinium are ichthyotoxic species that produce toxins including karlotoxins and karmitoxins. Karlotoxins show hemolytic and cytotoxic activities and have been associated with fish mortality. This study evaluated the effect of toxins released into the environment of Karlodinium veneficum strain K10 (Ebro Delta, NW Mediterranean) on the early stages of Danio rerio (zebrafish). Extracts of the supernatant of K10 contained the mono-sulfated KmTx-10, KmTx-11, KmTx-12, KmTx-13, and a di-sulfated form of KmTx-10. Total egg mortality was observed for karlotoxin concentration higher than 2.69 μg L-1. For 1.35 μg L-1, 87% of development anomalies were evidenced (all concentrations were expressed as KmTx-2 equivalent). Larvae of 8 days postfertilization exposed to 1.35 µg L-1 presented epithelial damage with 80% of cells in the early apoptotic stage. Our results indicate that supernatants with low concentration of KmTxs produce both lethal and sublethal effects in early fish stages. Moreover, apoptosis was induced at concentrations as low as 0.01 μg L-1. This is of great relevance since detrimental long-term effects due to exposure to low concentrations of these substances could affect wild and cultured fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra Llanos-Rivera
- Departamento de Oceanografía, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Oceanográficas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Katia Álvarez-Muñoz
- Departamento de Oceanografía, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Oceanográficas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Allisson Astuya-Villalón
- Departamento de Oceanografía, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Oceanográficas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- Programa Sur Austral, Centro de Investigaciones Oceanográficas en El Pacífico Sur-Oriental (COPAS Sur-Austral), Facultad de Ciencias Naturales Y Oceanográficas, Departamento de Oceanografía, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | | | | | | | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum Für Polar- Und Meeresforschung, Chemische Ökologie, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Juan José Gallardo-Rodríguez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Almería, Almería, Spain.
- Departamento de Ingeniería Química, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile.
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Long M, Krock B, Castrec J, Tillmann U. Unknown Extracellular and Bioactive Metabolites of the Genus Alexandrium: A Review of Overlooked Toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:905. [PMID: 34941742 PMCID: PMC8703713 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13120905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Various species of Alexandrium can produce a number of bioactive compounds, e.g., paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), spirolides, gymnodimines, goniodomins, and also uncharacterised bioactive extracellular compounds (BECs). The latter metabolites are released into the environment and affect a large range of organisms (from protists to fishes and mammalian cell lines). These compounds mediate allelochemical interactions, have anti-grazing and anti-parasitic activities, and have a potentially strong structuring role for the dynamic of Alexandrium blooms. In many studies evaluating the effects of Alexandrium on marine organisms, only the classical toxins were reported and the involvement of BECs was not considered. A lack of information on the presence/absence of BECs in experimental strains is likely the cause of contrasting results in the literature that render impossible a distinction between PSTs and BECs effects. We review the knowledge on Alexandrium BEC, (i.e., producing species, target cells, physiological effects, detection methods and molecular candidates). Overall, we highlight the need to identify the nature of Alexandrium BECs and urge further research on the chemical interactions according to their ecological importance in the planktonic chemical warfare and due to their potential collateral damage to a wide range of organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Long
- IFREMER, Centre de Brest, DYNECO Pelagos, 29280 Plouzané, France;
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany;
| | - Justine Castrec
- University Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, 29280 Plouzané, France;
- Station de Recherches Sous-Marines et Océanographiques (STARESO), Punta Revellata, BP33, 20260 Calvi, France
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany;
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Duarte Ferreira G, Romano F, Medić N, Pitta P, Hansen PJ, Flynn KJ, Mitra A, Calbet A. Mixoplankton interferences in dilution grazing experiments. Sci Rep 2021; 11:23849. [PMID: 34903787 PMCID: PMC8668877 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-03176-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
It remains unclear as to how mixoplankton (coupled phototrophy and phagotrophy in one cell) affects the estimation of grazing rates obtained from the widely used dilution grazing technique. To address this issue, we prepared laboratory-controlled dilution experiments with known mixtures of phyto-, protozoo-, and mixoplankton, operated under different light regimes and species combinations. Our results evidenced that chlorophyll is an inadequate proxy for phytoplankton when mixoplankton are present. Conversely, species-specific cellular counts could assist (although not fully solve) in the integration of mixoplanktonic activity in a dilution experiment. Moreover, cell counts can expose prey selectivity patterns and intraguild interactions among grazers. Our results also demonstrated that whole community approaches mimic reality better than single-species laboratory experiments. We also confirmed that light is required for protozoo- and mixoplankton to correctly express their feeding activity, and that overall diurnal grazing is higher than nocturnal. Thus, we recommend that a detailed examination of initial and final plankton communities should become routine in dilution experiments, and that incubations should preferably be started at the beginning of both day and night periods. Finally, we hypothesize that in silico approaches may help disentangle the contribution of mixoplankton to the community grazing of a given system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilherme Duarte Ferreira
- Institut de Ciències del Mar, CSIC, Pg. Marítim de la Barceloneta, 37-49, 08003, Barcelona, Spain. .,Marine Biological Section, University of Copenhagen, 3000, Helsingør, Denmark.
| | - Filomena Romano
- Marine Biological Section, University of Copenhagen, 3000, Helsingør, Denmark.,Institute of Oceanography, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, PO Box 2214, 71003, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Nikola Medić
- Marine Biological Section, University of Copenhagen, 3000, Helsingør, Denmark
| | - Paraskevi Pitta
- Institute of Oceanography, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, PO Box 2214, 71003, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Per Juel Hansen
- Marine Biological Section, University of Copenhagen, 3000, Helsingør, Denmark
| | - Kevin J Flynn
- Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Prospect Place, Plymouth, PL1 3DH, UK
| | - Aditee Mitra
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Cardiff University, Park Place, Cardiff, CF10 3AT, UK
| | - Albert Calbet
- Institut de Ciències del Mar, CSIC, Pg. Marítim de la Barceloneta, 37-49, 08003, Barcelona, Spain
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Jiang ZP, Sun SH, Yu Y, Mándi A, Luo JY, Yang MH, Kurtán T, Chen WH, Shen L, Wu J. Discovery of benthol A and its challenging stereochemical assignment: opening up a new window for skeletal diversity of super-carbon-chain compounds. Chem Sci 2021; 12:10197-10206. [PMID: 34447528 PMCID: PMC8336589 DOI: 10.1039/d1sc02810c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Super-carbon-chain compounds (SCCCs) are marine organic molecules featuring long polyol carbon chains with numerous stereocenters. Polyol-polyene compounds (PPCs) and ladder-frame polyethers (LFPs) are two major families. It is highly challenging to establish the absolute configurations of SCCCs. In this century, few new SCCC families have been reported. Benthol A, an aberrant SCCC, was obtained from a South China Sea benthic dinoflagellate that should belong to a new taxon. Its planar structure and absolute configuration, containing thirty-five carbon stereocenters, were unambiguously established by a combination of extensive NMR spectroscopic investigations, periodate degradation of the 1,2-diol groups, ozonolysis of the carbon-carbon double bonds, J-based configurational analysis, NOE interactions, modified Mosher's MTPA ester method, and DFT-NMR 13C chemical-shift calculations aided by DP4+ statistical analysis. Benthol A displayed potent antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 parasites. This new molecule combines extraordinary structural features, particularly eight scattered ether rings on a C72 backbone chain, which places it within a new SCCC family between PPCs and LFPs, herein termed polyol-polyether compounds. This suggestion was strongly supported by principal component analysis. The discovery of benthol A does not only provide new insights into the untapped biosynthetic potential of marine dinoflagellates, but also opens up a new window for skeletal diversity of SCCCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhong-Ping Jiang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University 1838 Guangzhou Avenue North Guangzhou 510515 P. R. China
| | - Shi-Hao Sun
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University 1838 Guangzhou Avenue North Guangzhou 510515 P. R. China
| | - Yi Yu
- Marine Drugs Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Jinan University 601 Huangpu Avenue West Guangzhou 510632 P. R. China
| | - Attila Mándi
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Debrecen PO Box 400 4002 Debrecen Hungary
| | - Jiao-Yang Luo
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Peking Union Medical College Beijing 100193 P. R. China
| | - Mei-Hua Yang
- Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Peking Union Medical College Beijing 100193 P. R. China
| | - Tibor Kurtán
- Department of Organic Chemistry, University of Debrecen PO Box 400 4002 Debrecen Hungary
| | - Wen-Hua Chen
- School of Biotechnology and Health Sciences, Wuyi University Jiangmen Guangdong Province 529020 P. R. China
| | - Li Shen
- Marine Drugs Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Jinan University 601 Huangpu Avenue West Guangzhou 510632 P. R. China
| | - Jun Wu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University 1838 Guangzhou Avenue North Guangzhou 510515 P. R. China
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Arias A, Selander E, Saiz E, Calbet A. Predator Chemical Cue Effects on the Diel Feeding Behaviour of Marine Protists. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2021; 82:356-364. [PMID: 33459836 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-020-01665-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
We have assessed the effect of copepod chemical cues on the diel feeding rhythms of heterotrophic and mixotrophic marine protists. All phagotrophic protists studied exhibited relatively high diurnal feeding rates. The magnitude of the diel feeding rhythm, expressed as the quotient of day and night ingestion rates, was inversely related to the time that phagotrophic protists were maintained in the laboratory in an environment without predators. In the case of the recently isolated ciliate Strombidium arenicola, the rhythm was lost after a few months. When challenged with chemical alarm signals (copepodamides) from the copepod Calanus finmarchicus at realistic concentrations (0.6-6 pM), S. arenicola partially re-established diurnal feeding. Conversely, the amplitude of the diel feeding rhythm for the ciliate Mesodinium rubrum was not affected by copepodamides, although the 24-h integrated food intake increased by approximately 23%. For the dinoflagellates Gyrodinium dominans and Karlodinium armiger, copepodamides significantly reduced the amplitude of their diel feeding rhythms; significant positive effects on total daily ingestion were only observed in G. dominans. Finally, the dinoflagellate Oxyrrhis marina, isolated >20 years ago, showed inconsistent responses to copepodamides, except for an average 6% increase in its total ingestion over 24 h. Our results demonstrate that the predation risk by copepods affects the diel feeding rhythm of marine protists and suggests a species-specific response to predation threats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Arias
- Institut de Ciències del Mar (ICM-CSIC), Passeig Marítim de la Barceloneta 37-49, 08003, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Erik Selander
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Box 461, SE-450 30, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Enric Saiz
- Institut de Ciències del Mar (ICM-CSIC), Passeig Marítim de la Barceloneta 37-49, 08003, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Albert Calbet
- Institut de Ciències del Mar (ICM-CSIC), Passeig Marítim de la Barceloneta 37-49, 08003, Barcelona, Spain
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Williams EP, Bachvaroff TR, Place AR. A Global Approach to Estimating the Abundance and Duplication of Polyketide Synthase Domains in Dinoflagellates. Evol Bioinform Online 2021; 17:11769343211031871. [PMID: 34345159 PMCID: PMC8283056 DOI: 10.1177/11769343211031871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Many dinoflagellate species make toxins in a myriad of different molecular configurations but the underlying chemistry in all cases is presumably via modular synthases, primarily polyketide synthases. In many organisms modular synthases occur as discrete synthetic genes or domains within a gene that act in coordination thus forming a module that produces a particular fragment of a natural product. The modules usually occur in tandem as gene clusters with a syntenic arrangement that is often predictive of the resultant structure. Dinoflagellate genomes however are notoriously complex with individual genes present in many tandem repeats and very few synthetic modules occurring as gene clusters, unlike what has been seen in bacteria and fungi. However, modular synthesis in all organisms requires a free thiol group that acts as a carrier for sequential synthesis called a thiolation domain. We scanned 47 dinoflagellate transcriptomes for 23 modular synthase domain models and compared their abundance among 10 orders of dinoflagellates as well as their co-occurrence with thiolation domains. The total count of domain types was quite large with over thirty-thousand identified, 29 000 of which were in the core dinoflagellates. Although there were no specific trends in domain abundance associated with types of toxins, there were readily observable lineage specific differences. The Gymnodiniales, makers of long polyketide toxins such as brevetoxin and karlotoxin had a high relative abundance of thiolation domains as well as multiple thiolation domains within a single transcript. Orders such as the Gonyaulacales, makers of small polyketides such as spirolides, had fewer thiolation domains but a relative increase in the number of acyl transferases. Unique to the core dinoflagellates, however, were thiolation domains occurring alongside tetratricopeptide repeats that facilitate protein-protein interactions, especially hexa and hepta-repeats, that may explain the scaffolding required for synthetic complexes capable of making large toxins. Clustering analysis for each type of domain was also used to discern possible origins of duplication for the multitude of single domain transcripts. Single domain transcripts frequently clustered with synonymous domains from multi-domain transcripts such as the BurA and ZmaK like genes as well as the multi-ketosynthase genes, sometimes with a large degree of apparent gene duplication, while fatty acid synthesis genes formed distinct clusters. Surprisingly the acyl-transferases and ketoreductases involved in fatty acid synthesis (FabD and FabG, respectively) were found in very large clusters indicating an unprecedented degree of gene duplication for these genes. These results demonstrate a complex evolutionary history of core dinoflagellate modular synthases with domain specific duplications throughout the lineage as well as clues to how large protein complexes can be assembled to synthesize the largest natural products known.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernest P Williams
- Institute of Marine and Environmental Technologies, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Tsvetan R Bachvaroff
- Institute of Marine and Environmental Technologies, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Allen R Place
- Institute of Marine and Environmental Technologies, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Plasticity and Multiplicity of Trophic Modes in the Dinoflagellate Karlodinium and Their Pertinence to Population Maintenance and Bloom Dynamics. JOURNAL OF MARINE SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/jmse9010051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
As the number of mixotrophic protists has been increasingly documented, “mixoplankton”, a third category separated from the traditional categorization of plankton into “phytoplankton” and “zooplankton”, has become a new paradigm and research hotspot in aquatic plankton ecology. While species of dinoflagellates are a dominant group among all recorded members of mixoplankton, the trophic modes of Karlodinium, a genus constituted of cosmopolitan toxic species, were reviewed due to their representative features as mixoplankton and harmful algal blooms (HABs)-causing dinoflagellates. Among at least 15 reported species in the genus, three have been intensively studied for their trophic modes, and all found to be phagotrophic. Their phagotrophy exhibits multiple characteristics: (1) omnivority, i.e., they can ingest a variety of preys in many forms; (2) flexibility in phagotrophic mechanisms, i.e., they can ingest small preys by direct engulfment and much bigger preys by myzocytosis using a peduncle; (3) cannibalism, i.e., species including at least K. veneficum can ingest the dead cells of their own species. However, for some recently described and barely studied species, their tropical modes still need to be investigated further regarding all of the above-mentioned aspects. Mixotrophy of Karlodinium plays a significant role in the population dynamics and the formation of HABs in many ways, which thus deserves further investigation in the aspects of physiological ecology, environmental triggers (e.g., levels of inorganic nutrients and/or presence of preys), energetics, molecular (genes and gene expression regulations) and biochemical (e.g., relevant enzymes and signal molecules) bases, origins, and evaluation of the advantages of being a phagotroph.
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Cho K, Heo J, Han J, Hong HD, Jeon H, Hwang HJ, Hong CY, Kim D, Han JW, Baek K. Industrial Applications of Dinoflagellate Phycotoxins Based on Their Modes of Action: A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E805. [PMID: 33353166 PMCID: PMC7766252 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Dinoflagellates are an important group of phytoplanktons, characterized by two dissimilar flagella and distinctive features of both plants and animals. Dinoflagellate-generated harmful algal blooms (HABs) and associated damage frequently occur in coastal areas, which are concomitant with increasing eutrophication and climate change derived from anthropogenic waste and atmospheric carbon dioxide, respectively. The severe damage and harmful effects of dinoflagellate phycotoxins in the fishing industry have been recognized over the past few decades, and the management and monitoring of HABs have attracted much attention, leaving aside the industrial application of their valuable toxins. Specific modes of action of the organisms' toxins can effectively be utilized for producing beneficial materials, such as Botox and other therapeutic agents. This review aims to explore the potential industrial applications of marine dinoflagellate phycotoxins; furthermore, this review focuses on their modes of action and summarizes the available knowledge on them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kichul Cho
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
| | - Jina Heo
- Growth Engine Research Department, Chungbuk Research Institute (CRI), Chungju, Chungchungbuk-do 28517, Korea;
| | - Jinwook Han
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
| | - Hyun Dae Hong
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
| | - Hancheol Jeon
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
| | - Hyun-Ju Hwang
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
| | - Chang-Yu Hong
- Department of Environmental and Urban Research, Jeju Research Institute, Jeju-si, Jeju-do 63147, Korea;
| | - Daekyung Kim
- Daegu Center, Korea Basic Science Institute (KBSI), Daegu, Gyeongsangbuk-do 41566, Korea
| | - Jong Won Han
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
| | - Kyunghwa Baek
- Department of Applied Marine Bioresource Science, National Marine Biodiversity Institute of Korea (MABIK), Seocheon-gun, Chungchungnam-do 33662, Korea; (K.C.); (J.H.); (H.D.H.); (H.J.); (H.-J.H.); (K.B.)
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A Polyol-Polyol Super-Carbon-Chain Compound Containing Thirty-Six Carbon Stereocenters from the Dinoflagellate Amphidinium gibbosum: Absolute Configuration and Multi-Segment Modification. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:md18120590. [PMID: 33255887 PMCID: PMC7759953 DOI: 10.3390/md18120590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Revised: 11/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
A super-carbon-chain compound, named gibbosol C, featuring a polyoxygenated C70-linear-carbon-chain backbone encompassing two acyclic polyol chains, was obtained from the South China Sea dinoflagellate Amphidinium gibbosum. Its planar structure was elucidated by extensive NMR investigations, whereas its absolute configurations, featuring the presence of 36 carbon stereocenters and 30 hydroxy groups, were successfully established by comparison of NMR data of the ozonolyzed products with those of gibbosol A, combined with J-based configuration analysis, Kishi’s universal NMR database, and the modified Mosher’s MTPA ester method. Multi-segment modification was revealed as the smart biosynthetic strategy for the dinoflagellate to create remarkable super-carbon-chain compounds with structural diversity.
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Song X, Hu Z, Shang L, Leaw CP, Lim PT, Tang YZ. Contact micropredation may play a more important role than exotoxicity does in the lethal effects of Karlodinium australe blooms: Evidence from laboratory bioassays. HARMFUL ALGAE 2020; 99:101926. [PMID: 33218448 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/17/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Multiple dinoflagellate species from the genus Karlodinium have been well known to form massive and toxic blooms that consequently cause fish kills in many coastal waters around the world. Karlodinium australe is a mixotrophic and potentially ichthyotoxic species associated with fish kills. Here, we investigated phagotrophy of K. australe (isolate KaJb05) established from a bloom event in the West Johor Strait, Malaysia, using several prey species (phytoplankton, zooplankton, and larval fish). The results showed that K. australe ingested relatively small prey cells of co-occurring microalgae by direct engulfment, while it fed on larger prey cells of microalgae by tube feeding. The results of animal exposure bioassays using rotifer (Brachionus plicatilis), brine shrimp (Artemia salina), and larval fish (Oryzias melastigma) demonstrated that phagotrophy (in terms of the trophic mode of the dinoflagellate), or micropredation (in terms of the mechanism of lethal effects on prey), played a more important role than the toxicity did in causing the lethal effects of K. australe on these aquatic animals under low cell densities of K. australe, while the mortalities of animals observed in the exposure to cell lysates of K. australe were solely caused by the toxicity. A comparison of the lethal effects between K. australe and K. veneficum revealed that the lethal effect of K. australe on rotifers was much stronger than that of K. veneficum at all cell densities applied in the experiments and the more "aggressive" micropredation of K. australe is suggested to explain the difference in lethal effect between K. austale and K. veneficum. Our results may explain why K. australe exhibited fish killings during moderate blooms at cell densities < 2.34 × 106 cells L-1, whereas K. veneficum was observed to cause massive fish kills only if the cell density was above 107 cells L-1. We believe these findings provide new insights into the ecological consequences of phagotrophy exhibited in some mixotrophic and harmful algae such as species of Karlodinium and of HAB events in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoying Song
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zhangxi Hu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China.
| | - Lixia Shang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Chui Pin Leaw
- Bachok Marine Research Station, Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences, University of Malaya, 16310, Bachok, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Po Teen Lim
- Bachok Marine Research Station, Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences, University of Malaya, 16310, Bachok, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Ying Zhong Tang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China; Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China.
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12
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Binzer SB, Varga E, Andersen AJC, Svenssen DK, de Medeiros LS, Rasmussen SA, Larsen TO, Hansen PJ. Karmitoxin production by Karlodinium armiger and the effects of K. armiger and karmitoxin towards fish. HARMFUL ALGAE 2020; 99:101905. [PMID: 33218431 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The dinoflagellate Karlodinium armiger has a huge impact on wild and caged fish during blooms in coastal waters. Recently, a new toxin, karmitoxin, was chemically characterized from K. armiger and a quantification method was established, thereby allowing investigations of the fish killing mechanism. K. armiger is not able to grow in standard growth media that are based on nitrate as a nitrogen source, and successful cultures of this species have only been achieved in mixotrophic cultures after addition of a prey source. Here we show that addition of ammonium (up to 50 µM) to the growth media is a good alternative, as K. armiger batch cultures achieve growth rates, which are comparable to growth rates reached in mixotrophic cultures. Karmitoxin production (1.9 and 2.9 pg cell-1 d-1) and cellular karmitoxin content (8.72 ± 0.25 pg cell-1 and 7.14 ± 0.29 pg cell-1) were in the same range, though significantly different, in prey-fed cultures and monocultures supplied with ammonium, respectively. Net production of karmitoxin stopped when the K. armiger cultures reached stationary growth phase, indicating no accumulation of karmitoxin in cells or growth media. Toxicity tests towards sheepshead minnow fish larvae indicated rapid death of the fish larvae when exposed to high K. armiger cell concentrations (LT50 of 2.06 h at 44.9 × 103 cells mL-1 cultivated with ammonium). Purified toxins caused the same physical damage to fish larvae as living K. armiger cultures. An exposure of purified karmitoxin to fish larvae and rainbow trout gill cells indicated that the fish larvae were about three times less sensitive than gill cells. When comparing the effect of purified toxins with the effect of whole K. armiger cultures, twice the toxin concentration of the purified toxins was needed to cause the same effect. Although a loss of karmitoxin of twenty percent was observed during the incubation, this could not explain the apparent discrepancy. Other factors, like a direct effect of the K. armiger cells on the fish larvae or other, yet unknown toxins may influence the effect of whole cell cultures. To study the effects of released karmitoxin, fish larvae were exposed to a K. armiger culture that was treated with HP-20 resin, which adsorbs extracellular karmitoxin. The 24 h HP-20 treatment resulted in a K. armiger culture that had 37% less total karmitoxin, without a reduction in cell concentration, and a reduced toxic effect was observed in the HP-20 treated culture, as compared to non-treated controls. Fish larvae that were exposed to HP-20 treated culture were immobilized, but survived during the 12 h exposure, whereas the exposure to non-treated culture led to high mortality of the fish larvae. Direct observations under the microscope revealed no evidence of micropredation of K. armiger on the fish larvae during any of the exposures. Thus, the results presented here, indicate that released karmitoxin is the main cause for fish kills by K. armiger. Finally, we found that juvenile rainbow trout were six times more sensitive than fish larvae towards K. armiger, indicating that juvenile fish are more sensitive to K. armiger in bloom situations than early larval stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Bjørnholt Binzer
- Marine Biological Section, University of Copenhagen, Strandpromenaden 5, 3000 Helsingør, Denmark
| | - Elisabeth Varga
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads 221, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Aaron John Christian Andersen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads 221, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark; National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Kemitorvet, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Daniel Killerup Svenssen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads 221, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Lívia Soman de Medeiros
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads 221, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Silas Anselm Rasmussen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads 221, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Thomas Ostenfeld Larsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads 221, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Per Juel Hansen
- Marine Biological Section, University of Copenhagen, Strandpromenaden 5, 3000 Helsingør, Denmark.
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Matsuda M, Kubota Y, Funabiki K, Uemura D, Inuzuka T. Amdigenol D, a long carbon-chain polyol, isolated from the marine dinoflagellate Amphidinium sp. Tetrahedron Lett 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2020.152376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Traboni C, Calbet A, Saiz E. Effects of prey trophic mode on the gross-growth efficiency of marine copepods: the case of mixoplankton. Sci Rep 2020; 10:12259. [PMID: 32704097 PMCID: PMC7378051 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-69174-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Copepod reproductive success largely depends on food quality, which also reflects the prey trophic mode. As such, modelling simulations postulate a trophic enhancement to higher trophic levels when mixotrophy is accounted in planktonic trophodynamics. Here, we tested whether photo-phagotrophic protists (mixoplankton) could enhance copepod gross-growth efficiency by nutrient upgrading mechanisms compared to obligate autotrophs and heterotrophs. To validate the hypothesis, we compared physiological rates of the copepod Paracartia grani under the three functional nutrition types. Ingestion and egg production rates varied depending on prey size and species, regardless of the diet. The gross-growth efficiency was variable and not significantly different across nutritional treatments, ranging from 3 to 25% in the mixoplanktonic diet compared to autotrophic (11–36%) and heterotrophic (8–38%) nutrition. Egg hatching and egestion rates were generally unaffected by diet. Overall, P. grani physiological rates did not differ under the tested nutrition types due to the large species-specific variation within trophic mode. However, when we focused on a single species, Karlodinium veneficum, tested as prey under contrasting trophic modes, the actively feeding dinoflagellate boosted the egestion rate and decreased the copepod gross-growth efficiency compared to the autotrophic ones, suggesting possible involvement of toxins in modulating trophodynamics other than stoichiometric constraints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Traboni
- Institut de Ciéncies del Mar (ICM-CSIC), Psg. Marítim Barceloneta 37-49, 08003, Barcelona, Spain. .,Laboratoire d'Ecologie des Systèmes Aquatiques, Université Libre de Bruxelles, CP221, Boulevard du Triomphe, 1050, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Albert Calbet
- Institut de Ciéncies del Mar (ICM-CSIC), Psg. Marítim Barceloneta 37-49, 08003, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Enric Saiz
- Institut de Ciéncies del Mar (ICM-CSIC), Psg. Marítim Barceloneta 37-49, 08003, Barcelona, Spain
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15
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Lassudrie M, Hégaret H, Wikfors GH, da Silva PM. Effects of marine harmful algal blooms on bivalve cellular immunity and infectious diseases: A review. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 108:103660. [PMID: 32145294 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2020.103660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Bivalves were long thought to be "symptomless carriers" of marine microalgal toxins to human seafood consumers. In the past three decades, science has come to recognize that harmful algae and their toxins can be harmful to grazers, including bivalves. Indeed, studies have shown conclusively that some microalgal toxins function as active grazing deterrents. When responding to marine Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB) events, bivalves can reject toxic cells to minimize toxin and bioactive extracellular compound (BEC) exposure, or ingest and digest cells, incorporating nutritional components and toxins. Several studies have reported modulation of bivalve hemocyte variables in response to HAB exposure. Hemocytes are specialized cells involved in many functions in bivalves, particularly in immunological defense mechanisms. Hemocytes protect tissues by engulfing or encapsulating living pathogens and repair tissue damage caused by injury, poisoning, and infections through inflammatory processes. The effects of HAB exposure observed on bivalve cellular immune variables have raised the question of possible effects on susceptibility to infectious disease. As science has described a previously unrecognized diversity in microalgal bioactive substances, and also found a growing list of infectious diseases in bivalves, episodic reports of interactions between harmful algae and disease in bivalves have been published. Only recently, studies directed to understand the physiological and metabolic bases of these interactions have been undertaken. This review compiles evidence from studies of harmful algal effects upon bivalve shellfish that establishes a framework for recent efforts to understand how harmful algae can alter infectious disease, and particularly the fundamental role of cellular immunity, in modulating these interactions. Experimental studies reviewed here indicate that HABs can modulate bivalve-pathogen interactions in various ways, either by increasing bivalve susceptibility to disease or conversely by lessening infection proliferation or transmission. Alteration of immune defense and global physiological distress caused by HAB exposure have been the most frequent reasons identified for these effects on disease. Only few studies, however, have addressed these effects so far and a general pattern cannot be established. Other mechanisms are likely involved but are under-studied thus far and will need more attention in the future. In particular, the inhibition of bivalve filtration by HABs and direct interaction between HABs and infectious agents in the seawater likely interfere with pathogen transmission. The study of these interactions in the field and at the population level also are needed to establish the ecological and economical significance of the effects of HABs upon bivalve diseases. A more thorough understanding of these interactions will assist in development of more effective management of bivalve shellfisheries and aquaculture in oceans subjected to increasing HAB and disease pressures.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hélène Hégaret
- CNRS, Univ Brest, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, F-29280, Plouzané, France
| | - Gary H Wikfors
- NOAA Fisheries Service, Northeast Fisheries Science Center, Milford, CT, 0640, USA
| | - Patricia Mirella da Silva
- Laboratory of Immunology and Pathology of Invertebrates, Department of Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraíba (UFPB), Paraíba, Brazil
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16
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Li W, Yan R, Yu Y, Shi Z, Mándi A, Shen L, Kurtán T, Wu J. Determination of the Absolute Configuration of Super‐Carbon‐Chain Compounds by a Combined Chemical, Spectroscopic, and Computational Approach: Gibbosols A and B. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:13028-13036. [PMID: 32343023 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202004358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wan‐Shan Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences Southern Medical University 1838 Guangzhou Avenue North Guangzhou 510515 China
| | - Ren‐Jie Yan
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences Southern Medical University 1838 Guangzhou Avenue North Guangzhou 510515 China
| | - Yi Yu
- Marine Drugs Research Center College of Pharmacy Jinan University 601 Huangpu Avenue West Guangzhou 510632 China
| | - Zhi Shi
- College of Life Science and Technology Jinan University 601 Huangpu Avenue West Guangzhou 510632 China
| | - Attila Mándi
- Department of Organic Chemistry University of Debrecen PO Box 400 4002 Debrecen Hungary
| | - Li Shen
- Marine Drugs Research Center College of Pharmacy Jinan University 601 Huangpu Avenue West Guangzhou 510632 China
| | - Tibor Kurtán
- Department of Organic Chemistry University of Debrecen PO Box 400 4002 Debrecen Hungary
| | - Jun Wu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences Southern Medical University 1838 Guangzhou Avenue North Guangzhou 510515 China
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17
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Li W, Yan R, Yu Y, Shi Z, Mándi A, Shen L, Kurtán T, Wu J. Determination of the Absolute Configuration of Super‐Carbon‐Chain Compounds by a Combined Chemical, Spectroscopic, and Computational Approach: Gibbosols A and B. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202004358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wan‐Shan Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences Southern Medical University 1838 Guangzhou Avenue North Guangzhou 510515 China
| | - Ren‐Jie Yan
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences Southern Medical University 1838 Guangzhou Avenue North Guangzhou 510515 China
| | - Yi Yu
- Marine Drugs Research Center College of Pharmacy Jinan University 601 Huangpu Avenue West Guangzhou 510632 China
| | - Zhi Shi
- College of Life Science and Technology Jinan University 601 Huangpu Avenue West Guangzhou 510632 China
| | - Attila Mándi
- Department of Organic Chemistry University of Debrecen PO Box 400 4002 Debrecen Hungary
| | - Li Shen
- Marine Drugs Research Center College of Pharmacy Jinan University 601 Huangpu Avenue West Guangzhou 510632 China
| | - Tibor Kurtán
- Department of Organic Chemistry University of Debrecen PO Box 400 4002 Debrecen Hungary
| | - Jun Wu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences Southern Medical University 1838 Guangzhou Avenue North Guangzhou 510515 China
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18
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Blossom HE, Markussen B, Daugbjerg N, Krock B, Norlin A, Hansen PJ. The Cost of Toxicity in Microalgae: Direct Evidence From the Dinoflagellate Alexandrium. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1065. [PMID: 31178832 PMCID: PMC6538772 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Accepted: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Empirical evidence of the cost of producing toxic compounds in harmful microalgae is completely lacking. Yet costs are often assumed to be high, implying substantial ecological benefits with adaptive significance exist. To study potential fitness costs of toxin production, 16 strains including three species of the former Alexandrium tamarense species complex were grown under both carbon limitation and unlimited conditions. Growth rates, levels of intracellular paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), and effects of lytic compounds were measured to provide trade-off curves of toxicity for both PST and lytic toxicity under high light (300 μmol photons m-2 s-1) and under low light (i.e., carbon limited; 20 μmol photons m-2 s-1). Fitness costs in terms of reduced growth rates with increasing PST content were only evident under unlimited conditions, but not under carbon limitation, in which case PST production was positively correlated with growth. The cost of production of lytic compounds was detected both under carbon limitation and unlimited conditions, but only in strains producing PST. The results may direct future research in understanding the evolutionary role and ecological function of algal toxins. The intrinsic growth rate costs should be accounted for in relation to quantifying benefits such as grazer avoidance or toxin-mediated prey capture in natural food web settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah E Blossom
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Elsinore, Denmark
| | - Bo Markussen
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Niels Daugbjerg
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred-Wegener Institut für Polar-und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Andreas Norlin
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Elsinore, Denmark
| | - Per Juel Hansen
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Elsinore, Denmark
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19
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Svenssen DK, Binzer SB, Medić N, Hansen PJ, Larsen TO, Varga E. Development of an Indirect Quantitation Method to Assess Ichthyotoxic B-Type Prymnesins from Prymnesium parvum. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11050251. [PMID: 31060245 PMCID: PMC6563205 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11050251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Revised: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 05/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms of Prymnesium parvum have recurrently been associated with the killing of fish. The causative ichthyotoxic agents of this haptophyte are believed to be prymnesins, a group of supersized ladder-frame polyether compounds currently divided into three types. Here, the development of a quantitative method to assess the molar sum of prymnesins in water samples and in algal biomass is reported. The method is based on the derivatization of the primary amine group and subsequent fluorescence detection using external calibrants. The presence of prymnesins in the underivatized sample should be confirmed by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. The method is currently only partly applicable to water samples due to the low amounts that are present. The growth and cellular toxin content of two B-type producing strains were monitored in batch cultures eventually limited by an elevated pH. The cellular toxin contents varied by a factor of ~2.5 throughout the growth cycle, with the highest amounts found in the exponential growth phase and the lowest in the stationary growth/death phases. The strain K-0081 contained ~5 times more toxin than K-0374. Further investigations showed that the majority of prymnesins were associated with the biomass (89% ± 7%). This study provides the basis for further investigations into the toxicity and production of prymnesins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Killerup Svenssen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads 221, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Sofie Bjørnholt Binzer
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Strandpromenaden 5, 3000 Helsingør, Denmark.
| | - Nikola Medić
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Strandpromenaden 5, 3000 Helsingør, Denmark.
| | - Per Juel Hansen
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Strandpromenaden 5, 3000 Helsingør, Denmark.
| | - Thomas Ostenfeld Larsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads 221, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Elisabeth Varga
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads 221, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Str. 40, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
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Abstract
Covering: January to December 2017This review covers the literature published in 2017 for marine natural products (MNPs), with 740 citations (723 for the period January to December 2017) referring to compounds isolated from marine microorganisms and phytoplankton, green, brown and red algae, sponges, cnidarians, bryozoans, molluscs, tunicates, echinoderms, mangroves and other intertidal plants and microorganisms. The emphasis is on new compounds (1490 in 477 papers for 2017), together with the relevant biological activities, source organisms and country of origin. Reviews, biosynthetic studies, first syntheses, and syntheses that led to the revision of structures or stereochemistries, have been included. Geographic distributions of MNPs at a phylogenetic level are reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony R Carroll
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia. and Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Brent R Copp
- School of Chemical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Rohan A Davis
- Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Robert A Keyzers
- Centre for Biodiscovery, School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
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21
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Brown ER, Cepeda MR, Mascuch SJ, Poulson-Ellestad KL, Kubanek J. Chemical ecology of the marine plankton. Nat Prod Rep 2019; 36:1093-1116. [DOI: 10.1039/c8np00085a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
A review of chemically mediated interactions in planktonic marine environments covering new studies from January 2015 to December 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily R. Brown
- School of Biological Sciences
- Aquatic Chemical Ecology Center
- Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences
- Georgia Institute of Technology
- Atlanta
| | - Marisa R. Cepeda
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry
- Aquatic Chemical Ecology Center
- Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences
- Georgia Institute of Technology
- Atlanta
| | - Samantha J. Mascuch
- School of Biological Sciences
- Aquatic Chemical Ecology Center
- Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences
- Georgia Institute of Technology
- Atlanta
| | | | - Julia Kubanek
- School of Biological Sciences
- Aquatic Chemical Ecology Center
- Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences
- Georgia Institute of Technology
- Atlanta
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22
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Binzer SB, Svenssen DK, Daugbjerg N, Alves-de-Souza C, Pinto E, Hansen PJ, Larsen TO, Varga E. A-, B- and C-type prymnesins are clade specific compounds and chemotaxonomic markers in Prymnesium parvum. HARMFUL ALGAE 2019; 81:10-17. [PMID: 30638493 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2018] [Revised: 11/14/2018] [Accepted: 11/16/2018] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Harmful blooms formed by planktonic microalgae (HABs) in both freshwater and coastal waters regularly lead to severe mortalities of fish and invertebrates causing substantial economic losses of marine products worldwide. The mixotrophic haptophyte Prymnesium parvum is one of the most important microalgae associated with fish kills. Here 26 strains of P. parvum with a wide geographical distribution were screened for the production of prymnesins, the suspected causative allelochemical toxins. All investigated strains produced prymnesins, indicating that the toxins play an important role for the organism. The prymnesins can be classified into three types based on the length of the carbon backbone of the compound and each algal strain produced only one of these types. Biogeographical mapping of the prymnesin distribution indicated a global distribution of each type. In addition, phylogenetic analyses based on internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences revealed monophyletic origin of all prymnesin types and clades could therefore be defined based on the toxic compound. It might be that evolution of new species within the P. parvum species complex is driven by changes in toxin type or that they are a result of it. Such a correlation between chemotype and phylotype has never been documented before for a harmful microalga. Chemotaxonomy and ITS-type classification may thus be used to further delimit the P. parvum species complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Bjørnholt Binzer
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Strandpromenaden 5, 3000, Helsingør, Denmark
| | - Daniel Killerup Svenssen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads 221, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Niels Daugbjerg
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 4, 2200, Copenhagen K, Denmark.
| | - Catharina Alves-de-Souza
- Algal Resources Collection, MARBIONC at CREST Research Park, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 5600 Marvin K. Moss Ln, Wilmington, NC, 28409, USA; Laboratório de Ficologia, Departamento de Botânica, Museu Nacional/Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Quinta da Boa Vista S/N, São Cristóvão, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 20940-040, Brazil
| | - Ernani Pinto
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Av. Prof Lineu Prestes 580, 05508-000, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Per Juel Hansen
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Strandpromenaden 5, 3000, Helsingør, Denmark.
| | - Thomas Ostenfeld Larsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads 221, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Elisabeth Varga
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads 221, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
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Xu J, Kiørboe T. Toxic dinoflagellates produce true grazer deterrents. Ecology 2018; 99:2240-2249. [DOI: 10.1002/ecy.2479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2018] [Revised: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jiayi Xu
- Centre for Ocean Life; National Institute of Aquatic Resources; Technical University of Denmark; Kemitorvet, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby Denmark
- State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research; East China Normal University; 200062 Shanghai China
| | - Thomas Kiørboe
- Centre for Ocean Life; National Institute of Aquatic Resources; Technical University of Denmark; Kemitorvet, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby Denmark
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24
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Toldrà A, Jauset-Rubio M, Andree KB, Fernández-Tejedor M, Diogène J, Katakis I, O'Sullivan CK, Campàs M. Detection and quantification of the toxic marine microalgae Karlodinium veneficum and Karlodinium armiger using recombinase polymerase amplification and enzyme-linked oligonucleotide assay. Anal Chim Acta 2018; 1039:140-148. [PMID: 30322545 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2018.07.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Revised: 07/16/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Karlodinium is a dinoflagellate responsible for fish-killing events worldwide. In Alfacs Bay (NW Mediterranean Sea), the presence of two Karlodinium species (K. veneficum and K. armiger) with different toxicities has been reported. This work presents a method that combines recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) with an enzyme-linked oligonucleotide assay (ELONA) to identify, discriminate and quantify these two species. The system was characterised using synthetic DNA and genomic DNA, and the specificity was confirmed by cross-reactivity experiments. Calibration curves were constructed using 10-fold dilutions of cultured cells, attaining a limit of detection of around 50,000 cells/L, far below the Karlodinium spp. alert threshold (200,000 cells/L). Finally, the assay was applied to spiked seawater samples, showing an excellent correlation with the spiking levels and light microscopy counts. This approach is more rapid, specific and user-friendly than traditional microscopy techniques, and shows great promise for the surveillance and management of harmful algal blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Toldrà
- IRTA, Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540, Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Míriam Jauset-Rubio
- Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Av. Països Catalans 26, 43007, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Karl B Andree
- IRTA, Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540, Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain
| | | | - Jorge Diogène
- IRTA, Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540, Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Ioanis Katakis
- Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Av. Països Catalans 26, 43007, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Ciara K O'Sullivan
- Departament d'Enginyeria Química, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Av. Països Catalans 26, 43007, Tarragona, Spain; ICREA, Pg. Lluís Companys 23, 08010, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Mònica Campàs
- IRTA, Ctra. Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540, Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Tarragona, Spain.
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25
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Binzer SB, Lundgreen RBC, Berge T, Hansen PJ, Vismann B. The blue mussel Mytilus edulis is vulnerable to the toxic dinoflagellate Karlodinium armiger-Adult filtration is inhibited and several life stages killed. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0199306. [PMID: 29912948 PMCID: PMC6005564 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0199306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Blooms of the toxic dinoflagellates Karlodinium armiger and K. veneficum are frequently observed in Alfacs Bay, Spain, causing mass mortality to wild and farmed mussels. An isolate of K. armiger from Alfacs Bay was grown in the laboratory and exposed to adults, embryos and trochophore larvae of the blue mussel, Mytilus edulis. Adult mussels rejected to filter K. armiger at cell concentrations >1.5·103 cells ml-1. Exposure of adult mussels (23-33 mm shell length) to a range of K. armiger cell concentrations led to mussel mortality with LC50 values of 9.4·103 and 6.1·103 cells ml-1 after 24 and 48 h exposure to ~3.6·104 K. armiger cells ml-1, respectively. Karlodinium armiger also affected mussel embryos and trochophore larvae and feeding by K. armiger on both embryos and larvae was observed under the microscope. Embryos exposed to low K. armiger cell concentrations suffered no measurable mortality. However, at higher K. armiger cell concentrations the mortality of the embryos increased significantly with cell concentration and reached 97% at 1.8·103 K. armiger cells ml-1 after 29 h of exposure. Natural K. armiger blooms may not only have serious direct effects on benthic communities, but may also affect the recruitment of mussels in affected areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Bjørnholt Binzer
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Helsingør, Denmark
| | | | - Terje Berge
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Helsingør, Denmark
| | - Per Juel Hansen
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Helsingør, Denmark
| | - Bent Vismann
- Marine Biological Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Helsingør, Denmark
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26
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Krock B, Busch JA, Tillmann U, García-Camacho F, Sánchez-Mirón A, Gallardo-Rodríguez JJ, López-Rosales L, Andree KB, Fernández-Tejedor M, Witt M, Cembella AD, Place AR. LC-MS/MS Detection of Karlotoxins Reveals New Variants in Strains of the Marine Dinoflagellate Karlodinium veneficum from the Ebro Delta (NW Mediterranean). Mar Drugs 2017; 15:md15120391. [PMID: 29258236 PMCID: PMC5742851 DOI: 10.3390/md15120391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Revised: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 12/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed for the detection and quantitation of karlotoxins in the selected reaction monitoring (SRM) mode. This novel method was based upon the analysis of purified karlotoxins (KcTx-1, KmTx-2, 44-oxo-KmTx-2, KmTx-5), one amphidinol (AM-18), and unpurified extracts of bulk cultures of the marine dinoflagellate Karlodinium veneficum strain CCMP2936 from Delaware (Eastern USA), which produces KmTx-1 and KmTx-3. The limit of detection of the SRM method for KmTx-2 was determined as 2.5 ng on-column. Collision induced dissociation (CID) spectra of all putative karlotoxins were recorded to present fragmentation patterns of each compound for their unambiguous identification. Bulk cultures of K. veneficum strain K10 isolated from an embayment of the Ebro Delta, NW Mediterranean, yielded five previously unreported putative karlotoxins with molecular masses 1280, 1298, 1332, 1356, and 1400 Da, and similar fragments to KmTx-5. Analysis of several isolates of K. veneficum from the Ebro Delta revealed small-scale diversity in the karlotoxin spectrum in that one isolate from Fangar Bay produced KmTx-5, whereas the five putative novel karlotoxins were found among several isolates from nearby, but hydrographically distinct Alfacs Bay. Application of this LC-MS/MS method represents an incremental advance in the determination of putative karlotoxins, particularly in the absence of a complete spectrum of purified analytical standards of known specific potency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Chemische Ökologie, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Julia A Busch
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Chemische Ökologie, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
- Common Wadden Sea Secretariat, Virchowstr. 1, 26382 Wilhelmshaven, Germany.
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Chemische Ökologie, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | | | | | - Juan J Gallardo-Rodríguez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Concepción, Concepción 4030000, Chile.
| | | | - Karl B Andree
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Ctra Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Rapita, Tarragona, Spain.
| | - Margarita Fernández-Tejedor
- Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), Ctra Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Rapita, Tarragona, Spain.
| | - Matthias Witt
- Bruker Daltonik GmbH, Fahrenheitstr. 4, 28359 Bremen, Germany.
| | - Allan D Cembella
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Chemische Ökologie, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Allen R Place
- Institute of Marine and Environmental Technology, UMCES, Baltimore, MD 21613, USA.
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27
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HPLC-HRMS Quantification of the Ichthyotoxin Karmitoxin from Karlodinium armiger. Mar Drugs 2017; 15:md15090278. [PMID: 28858210 PMCID: PMC5618417 DOI: 10.3390/md15090278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2017] [Revised: 08/21/2017] [Accepted: 08/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Being able to quantify ichthyotoxic metabolites from microalgae allows for the determination of ecologically-relevant concentrations that can be simulated in laboratory experiments, as well as to investigate bioaccumulation and degradation. Here, the ichthyotoxin karmitoxin, produced by Karlodinium armiger, was quantified in laboratory-grown cultures using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to electrospray ionisation high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HRMS). Prior to the quantification of karmitoxin, a standard of karmitoxin was purified from K. armiger cultures (80 L). The standard was quantified by fluorescent derivatisation using Waters AccQ-Fluor reagent and derivatised fumonisin B₁ and fumonisin B₂ as standards, as each contain a primary amine. Various sample preparation methods for whole culture samples were assessed, including six different solid phase extraction substrates. During analysis of culture samples, MS source conditions were monitored with chloramphenicol and valinomycin as external standards over prolonged injection sequences (>12 h) and karmitoxin concentrations were determined using the response factor of a closely eluting iturin A2 internal standard. Using this method the limit of quantification was 0.11 μg·mL-1, and the limit of detection was found to be 0.03 μg·mL-1. Matrix effects were determined with the use of K. armiger cultures grown with 13C-labelled bicarbonate as the primary carbon source.
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