Preparation and Biophysical Characterization of Quercetin Inclusion Complexes with β-Cyclodextrin Derivatives to be Formulated as Possible Nose-to-Brain Quercetin Delivery Systems

Application of Natural Products in Neurodegenerative Diseases by Intranasal Administration: A Review

Natural products derived from traditional Chinese medicine have received significant attention as potential treatments for neurodegenerative disorders due to their wide availability, demonstrated efficacy, and favorable safety profiles. Intranasal delivery provides distinct advantages for targeting the central nervous system (CNS), enabling direct therapeutic agent delivery to the brain by bypassing the blood-brain barrier (BBB). This review evaluates natural products administered intranasally for neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), highlighting their therapeutic potential and addressing formulation challenges related to physicochemical properties. Strategic optimization approaches are proposed, including novel carrier systems, molecular modifications, and combination therapies. By discussing current difficulties and offering practical recommendations, this review aims to encourage further scholarly research and clinical application.

Cyclodextrin-based delivery systems for chemical and genetic drugs: Current status and future

Cyclodextrins (CDs) are cyclic polysaccharides characterized by their unique hollow structure, making them highly effective carriers for pharmaceutical agents. CD-based delivery systems are extensively utilized to enhance drug stability, increase solubility, improve oral bioavailability, and facilitate controlled release and targeted delivery. This review initially provides a concise overview of nano drug delivery systems, followed by a detailed introduction of the structural features and benefits of CDs. It further summarizes the applications of CD-based delivery systems and offers insights for the rational design of drug delivery systems. In this review, CD-based delivery systems are categorized into several types, such as covalently modified CD derivatives, non-modified CD inclusion complexes, poly-cyclodextrins and others. The application of CD-based systems for the delivery of genetic therapeutic agents and co-delivery of gene and drug is also presented. Finally, this review discusses potential challenges and opportunities that may arise in the future. With the development of nanotechnology and optimization of preparation process, CD-based drug delivery systems will provide a more effective, precise and safe approach to drug therapy.

Thermal Characterization and Heat Capacities of Seven Polyphenols

Polyphenolic compounds are key elements in sectors such as pharmaceutics, cosmetics and food; thus, their physicochemical characterization is a vital task. In this work, the thermal behavior of seven polyphenols (trans-resveratrol, trans-polydatin, kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin, hesperidin, and (-)-epicatechin) was investigated with DSC (differential scanning calorimetry) and TGA (thermogravimetric analysis). Melting temperatures, enthalpies of fusion and decomposition temperatures were determined, and heat capacities were measured in the temperature range from 283.15 K to 363.15 K. Results were compared to the scarce experimental data available in the literature, showing a satisfactory agreement. All compounds were found to be thermally stable until melting, upon which they rapidly decomposed. Myricetin was the only polyphenol that presented polymorphic behavior, exhibiting two phase transitions prior to melting. Heat capacities increased minimally with temperature in the studied range. In addition, the group contribution method developed by Marrero and Gani was used to estimate the thermal properties of the polyphenols, achieving high accuracy for melting temperatures.

The Effect of Quercetin on Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) and the Role of Beclin1, P62, and LC3: An Experimental Study

Background/Objectives: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a major metabolic disorder with no established pharmacotherapy. Quercetin, a polyphenolic flavonoid, demonstrates potential hepatoprotective effects but has limited bioavailability. This study evaluates the impact of quercetin on NAFLD and assesses the roles of autophagy-related proteins in disease progression. Methods: Forty-seven male C57BL/6J mice were fed a high-fat diet (HFD) for 12 weeks to induce NAFLD, followed by quercetin treatment for 4 weeks. Mice were divided into baseline, control, and two quercetin groups, receiving low (10 mg/kg) and high (50 mg/kg) doses. Liver histology was scored using the NAFLD Activity Score (NAS). Immunohistochemistry and immunoblotting were performed to analyze autophagy markers. Results: Quercetin-treated groups showed significant reductions in NAS compared to controls (p = 0.011), mainly in steatosis and steatohepatitis. Immunohistochemistry indicated increased expression of autophagy markers LCA and p62 in quercetin groups. Western blot analysis revealed significant elevations in LC3A in the treated groups, suggesting improved autophagic activity and lipid degradation. Conclusions: Quercetin effectively reduces NAFLD severity and modulates autophagy-related proteins. These findings suggest that quercetin enhances autophagic flux, supporting its therapeutic potential for NAFLD. Additional research is needed to clarify the molecular mechanisms of quercetin and to determine the optimal dosing for clinical application.

Effect of long-term oral administration of the flavonoid quercetin on the antioxidant profile of young and adult reproductive rabbit does

In industrialized farms, rabbit does undergo intensive production rhythms which overlap lactation and gestation, leading to a high energy mobilization and increasing oxidative stress. Accordingly, we hypothesize that administration of the flavonoid quercetin (QUR) may improve the antioxidant status of young and adult rabbit reproductive females. In this study, the effect of daily oral administration of 300 mg/kg QUR for 8 weeks was assessed on the antioxidant profile of 24 New Zealand × Californian rabbit does, assigned to 4 experimental groups: rearing young (8-16 weeks old) and adult does at the end of their reproductive life (12-14 months old, with at least 3-4 reproductive cycles) treated (YQ and AQ) or not (YC and AC) with QUR, respectively. Plasma glutathione (GSH), as well as serum superoxide dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA) were measured during the experimental period. To assess the health status of the animals, a physical examination was also performed. GSH plasma concentrations were significantly higher in young does at weeks 1 and 4, but not at week 8 of the experiment, irrespectively of QUR administration. An increase in GSH plasma concentration was observed during the 8-week experiment in both AQ and AC groups. Furthermore, QUR administration did not alter either SOD or MDA serum activity and concentration in any group during the experimental period. Physical examination revealed no differences between the experimental groups. In conclusion, under our experimental conditions, QUR did not modify the general clinical or the antioxidant profile of young and adult reproductive rabbit females.

Nanophytomedicine: A promising practical approach in phytotherapy

The long and rich history of herbal therapeutic nutrients is fascinating. It is incredible to think about how ancient civilizations used plants and herbs to treat various ailments and diseases. One group of bioactive phytochemicals that has gained significant attention recently is dietary polyphenols. These compounds are commonly found in a variety of fruits, vegetables, spices, nuts, drinks, legumes, and grains. Despite their incredible therapeutic properties, one challenge with polyphenols is their poor water solubility, stability, and bioavailability. This means that they are not easily absorbed by the body when consumed in essential diets. Because of structural complexity, polyphenols with high molecular weight cannot be absorbed in the small intestine and after arriving in the colon, they are metabolized by gut microbiota. However, researchers are constantly working on finding solutions to enhance the bioavailability and absorption of these compounds. This study aims to address this issue by applying nanotechnology approaches to overcome the challenges of the therapeutic application of dietary polyphenols. This combination of nanotechnology and phytochemicals could cause a completely new field called nanophytomedicine or herbal nanomedicine.

Design and development of a chitosan-based nasal powder of dimethyl fumarate-cyclodextrin binary systems aimed at nose-to-brain administration. A stability study

The nasal administration route has been studied for the delivery of active molecules directed to the Central Nervous System, thanks to the anatomical connection between the nasal cavity and the brain. Dimethyl fumarate is used to treat relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis, with a role as an immunomodulator towards T- T-cells and a cytoprotector towards neurons and glial cells. Its use in therapy is hindered by its low aqueous solubility, and low stability, due to hydrolysis and sublimation at room temperature. To overcome this limitation, in this study we evaluated the feasibility of using two amorphous β-cyclodextrin derivatives, namely hydroxypropyl β-cyclodextrin and methyl β-cyclodextrin, to obtain a nasally administrable powder with a view to nose-to-brain administration. Initially, the interaction product was studied using different analytical methods (differential scanning calorimetry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and powder X-ray diffraction) to detect the occurrence of binary product formation, while phase solubility analysis was used to probe the complexation in solution. The dimethyl fumarate-cyclodextrin binary product showing best solubility and stability properties was subsequently used in the development of a chitosan-based mucoadhesive nasally administrable powder comparing different preparative methods. The best performance in terms of both hydrolytic stability and DMF recovery was achieved by the powder obtained via freeze-drying.

Synthesis, characterization, molecular modeling, binding energies of β-cyclodextrin-inclusion complexes of quercetin: Modification of photo physical behavior upon β-CD complexation

We prepared a naturally occurring flavanoid namely quercetin from tea leaves and analyzed by Absorption, Emission, FT-IR, 1H, 13C nmr spectra and ESI-MS analysis. The inclusion behavior of quercetin in cyclodextrins like α-, β-, γ-, per-6-ABCD and mono-6-ABCD cavities were supported such as UV-vis., Emission, FT-IR and ICD spectra and energy minimization studies. From the absorption and emission results, the type of complexes formed were found to depend on stoichiometry of Host:Guest. FT-IR data of CD complexes of quercetin supported inclusion complex formation of the substrate with α-, β- and γ-CDs. The inclusion of host-guest complexation of quercetin with α-, β-, γ-CDs, per-6-ABCD and mono-6-ABCDs provides very valuable information about the CD:quercetin complexes, the study also shows that β-CD complexation improves water solubility, chemical stability and bioavailability of quercetin. Besides, phase solubility studies also supported the formation of 1:1 drug-CD soluble complexes. All these spectral results provide insight into the binding behavior of substrate into CD cavity in the order per-6-ABCD > Mono-6-ABCD > γ-CD > β-CD > α-CD. The proposed model also finds strong support from the fact with excess CD this exciton coupling disappears indicates the formation of only 1:1 complex.

Nose-to-brain delivery of nanotherapeutics: Transport mechanisms and applications

The blood-brain barrier presents a key limitation to the administration of therapeutic molecules for the treatment of brain disease. While drugs administered orally or intravenously must cross this barrier to reach brain targets, the unique anatomical structure of the olfactory system provides a route to deliver drugs directly to the brain. Entering the brain via receptor, carrier, and adsorption-mediated transcytosis in the nasal olfactory and trigeminal regions has the potential to increase drug delivery. In this review, we introduce the physiological and anatomical structures of the nasal cavity, and summarize the possible modes of transport and the relevant receptors and carriers in the nose-to-brain pathway. Additionally, we provide examples of nanotherapeutics developed for intranasal drug delivery to the brain. Further development of nanoparticles that can be applied to intranasal delivery systems promises to improve drug efficacy and reduce drug resistance and adverse effects by increasing molecular access to the brain. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Neurological Disease.

Pharmacological and mechanistic aspects of quercetin in osteoporosis

Osteoporosis (OP) is a bone disease associated with increasing age. Currently, the most common medications used to treat OP are anabolic agents, anti-resorptive agents, and medications with other mechanisms of action. However, many of these medications have unfavorable adverse effects or are not intended for long-term use, potentially exerting a severe negative impact on a patient's life and career and placing a heavy burden on families and society. There is an urgent need to find new drugs that can replace these and have fewer adverse effects. Quercetin (Que) is a common flavonol in nature. Numerous studies have examined the therapeutic applications of Que. However, a comprehensive review of the anti-osteoporotic effects of Que has not yet been conducted. This review aimed to describe the recent studies on the anti-osteoporotic effects of Que, including its biological, pharmacological, pharmacokinetic, and toxicological properties. The outcomes demonstrated that Que could enhance OP by increasing osteoblast differentiation and activity and reducing osteoclast differentiation and activity via the pathways of Wnt/β-catenin, BMP/SMAD/RUNX2, OPG/RANKL/RANK, ERK/JNK, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and transcription factors. Thus, Que is a promising novel drug for the treatment of OP.

Paradigms and Success Stories of Natural Products in Drug Discovery Against Neurodegenerative Disorders (NDDs)

Neurodegenerative disorders (NDDs) are multifaceted complex disorders that have put a great health and economic burden around the globe nowadays. The multi-factorial nature of NDDs has presented a great challenge in drug discovery and continuous efforts are in progress in search of suitable therapeutic candidates. Nature has a great wealth of active principles in its lap that has cured the human population since ancient times. Natural products have revealed several benefits over conventional synthetic medications and scientists have shifted their vision towards exploring the therapeutic potentials of natural products in the past few years. The structural mimicking of natural compounds to endogenous ligands has presented them as a potential therapeutic candidate to prevent the development of NDDs. In the presented review, authors have summarized demographical facts about various NDDs including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD) and various types of sclerosis in the brain. The significant findings of new active principles of natural origin along with their therapeutic potentials on NDDs have been included. Also, a description of clinical trials and patents on natural products has been enlisted in this compilation. Although natural products have shown promising success in drug discovery against NDDs, still their use is associated with several ethical issues which need to be solved in the upcoming time.

Quercetin: A Potential Polydynamic Drug

The study of natural products as potential drug leads has gained tremendous research interest. Quercetin is one of those natural products. It belongs to the family of flavonoids and, more specifically, flavonols. This review summarizes the beneficial pharmaceutical effects of quercetin, such as its anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties, which are some of the quercetin effects described in this review. Nevertheless, quercetin shows poor bioavailability and low solubility. For this reason, its encapsulation in macromolecules increases its bioavailability and therefore pharmaceutical efficiency. In this review, a brief description of the different forms of encapsulation of quercetin are described, and new ones are proposed. The beneficial effects of applying new pharmaceutical forms of nanotechnology are outlined.

Comparative Serum and Brain Pharmacokinetics of Quercetin after Oral and Nasal Administration to Rats as Lyophilized Complexes with β-Cyclodextrin Derivatives and Their Blends with Mannitol/Lecithin Microparticles

Quercetin (Que) is one of the most studied flavonoids with strong antioxidant properties ascribed to its ability to bind free radicals and inactivate them. However, the low solubility of the compound along with its inadequate absorption after oral administration limit its beneficial effects. Que's complexation with two different cyclodextrin (CD) derivatives (hydroxypropyl-β-CD and methyl-β-CD) via the neutralization/lyophilization method has been found to improve its physicochemical properties. Moreover, blends of the lyophilized powders with mannitol/lecithin microparticles (MLMPs) have been proposed as candidates for intranasal (IN) administration after in vitro and ex vivo evaluations. In this context, a comparative pharmacokinetic (PK) study of the IN vs oral administration of Que lyophilized powders and their blends with MLMPs (75:25 w/w) was performed on Wistar rats. The PK parameters estimated by a non-compartmental analysis using the sparse data methodology in Phoenix® 8.3 (Certara, Princeton, NJ, USA) illustrated the effectiveness of IN administration either in brain targeting or in reaching the bloodstream. Significant levels of the compound were achieved at both sites, compared to those after oral delivery which were negligible. These results favor the potential application of the prepared Que nasal powders for systemic and nose-to-brain delivery for the prevention and/or treatment of neuroinflammatory degenerative conditions, such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease.

Preparation and Characterization of a Nano-Inclusion Complex of Quercetin with β-Cyclodextrin and Its Potential Activity on Cancer Cells

Quercetin (QRC), a flavonoid found in foods and plants such as red wine, onions, green tea, apples, and berries, possesses remarkable anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. These properties make it effective in combating cancer cells, reducing inflammation, protecting against heart disease, and regulating blood sugar levels. To enhance the potential of inclusion complexes (ICs) containing β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) in cancer therapy, they were transformed into nano-inclusion complexes (NICs). In this research, NICs were synthesized using ethanol as a reducing agent in the nanoprecipitation process. By employing FT-IR analysis, it was observed that hydrogen bonds were formed between QRC and β-CD. Moreover, the IC molecules formed NICs through the aggregation facilitated by intermolecular hydrogen bonds. Proton NMR results further confirmed the occurrence of proton shielding and deshielding subsequent to the formation of NICs. The introduction of β-CDs led to the development of a distinctive feather-like structure within the NICs. The particle sizes were consistently measured around 200 nm, and both SAED and XRD patterns indicated the absence of crystalline NICs, providing supporting evidence. Through cytotoxicity and fluorescence-assisted cell-sorting analysis, the synthesized NICs showed no significant damage in the cell line of MCF-7. In comparison to QRC alone, the presence of high concentrations of NICs exhibited a lesser degree of toxicity in normal human lung fibroblast MRC-5 cells. Moreover, the individual and combined administration of both low and high concentrations of NICs effectively suppressed the growth of cancer cells (MDA-MB-231). The solubility improvement resulting from the formation of QRC-NICs with β-CD enhanced the percentage of cell survival for MCF-7 cell types.

Enzymatic formation of cyclic maltooligosaccharides for the application of quercetin inclusion complex

To improve the applicability of quercetin (QCT), we produced a QCT and cycloamylose (CA-QCT) inclusion complex based on the cyclization activity of cyclodextrin glucanotransferase (CGTase; EC 2.4.1.19). The encapsulated QCT was purified using recycling preparative high-performance liquid chromatography, and its formation was analyzed using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry. The water solubility of CA-QCT was 55,000-fold higher than that of QCT. CA-QCT had 97 % stability for one week at pH 8 in a 4 °C water bath. According to a 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity assay, CA-QCT activity in aqueous solution was 24 times higher than that of an equal amount of QCT in aqueous solution. In an anti-inflammatory assay using lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW264.7 macrophages, CA-QCT in aqueous solution decreased nitric oxide production in a similar manner to QCT in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). Additionally, even under aqueous conditions, CA-QCT more effectively inhibited the production of inflammatory mediators, such as interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, and cyclooxygenase, compared with QCT dissolved in DMSO.

Conjugation, Prodrug, and Co-Administration Strategies in Support of Nanotechnologies to Improve the Therapeutic Efficacy of Phytochemicals in the Central Nervous System

Phytochemicals, produced as secondary plant metabolites, have shown interesting potential therapeutic activities against neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. Unfortunately, poor bioavailability and rapid metabolic processes compromise their therapeutic use, and several strategies are currently proposed for overcoming these issues. The present review summarises strategies for enhancing the central nervous system's phytochemical efficacy. Particular attention has been paid to the use of phytochemicals in combination with other drugs (co-administrations) or administration of phytochemicals as prodrugs or conjugates, particularly when these approaches are supported by nanotechnologies exploiting conjugation strategies with appropriate targeting molecules. These aspects are described for polyphenols and essential oil components, which can improve their loading as prodrugs in nanocarriers, or be part of nanocarriers designed for targeted co-delivery to achieve synergistic anti-glioma or anti-neurodegenerative effects. The use of in vitro models, able to simulate the blood-brain barrier, neurodegeneration or glioma, and useful for optimizing innovative formulations before their in vivo administration via intravenous, oral, or nasal routes, is also summarised. Among the described compounds, quercetin, curcumin, resveratrol, ferulic acid, geraniol, and cinnamaldehyde can be efficaciously formulated to attain brain-targeting characteristics, and may therefore be therapeutically useful against glioma or neurodegenerative diseases.

Supramolecular β-Cyclodextrin-Quercetin Based Metal-Organic Frameworks as an Efficient Antibiofilm and Antifungal Agent

The loading of drugs or medicinally active compounds has recently been performed using metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), which are thought to be a new type of porous material in which organic ligands and metal ions can self-assemble to form a network structure. The quercetin (QRC) loading and biofilm application on a cyclodextrin-based metal-organic framework via a solvent diffusion approach is successfully accomplished in the current study. The antibacterial plant flavonoid QRC is loaded onto β-CD-K MOFs to create the composite containing inclusion complexes (ICs) and denoted as QRC:β-CD-K MOFs. The shifting in the chemical shift values of QRC in the MOFs may be the reason for the interaction of QRC with the β-CD-K MOFs. The binding energies and relative contents of MOFs are considerably changed after the formation of QRC:β-CD-K MOFs, suggesting that the interactions took place during the loading of QRC. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) showed a reduction in the formation of biofilm. The results of the cell aggregation and hyphal growth are consistent with the antibiofilm activity that is found in the treatment group. Therefore, QRC:β-CD-K MOFs had no effect on the growth of planktonic cells while inhibiting the development of hyphae and biofilm in C. albicans DAY185. This study creates new opportunities for supramolecular β-CD-based MOF development for use in biological research and pharmaceutical production.

Guest-host Relationship of Cyclodextrin and its Pharmacological Benefits

Many methods, including solid dispersion, micellization, and inclusion complexes, have been employed to increase the solubility of potent drugs. Beta-cyclodextrin (βCD) is a cyclic oligosaccharide consisting of seven glucopyranoside molecules, and is a widely used polymer for formulating soluble inclusion complexes of hydrophobic drugs. The enzymatic activity of Glycosyltransferase or α-amylase converts starch or its derivatives into a mixture of cyclodextrins. The βCD units are characterized by α -(1-4) glucopyranose bonds. Cyclodextrins possess certain properties that make them very distinctive because of their toroidal or truncated cage-like supramolecular configurations with multiple hydroxyl groups at each end. This allowed them to encapsulate hydrophobic compounds by forming inclusion complexes without losing their solubility in water. Chemical modifications and newer derivatives, such as methylated βCD, more soluble hydroxyl propyl methyl βCD, and sodium salts of sulfobutylether-βCD, known as dexolve® or captisol®, have envisaged the use of CDs in various pharmaceutical, medical, and cosmetic industries. The successful inclusion of drug complexes has demonstrated improved solubility, bioavailability, drug resistance reduction, targeting, and penetration across skin and brain tissues. This review encompasses the current applications of β-CDs in improving the disease outcomes of antimicrobials and antifungals as well as anticancer and anti-tubercular drugs.

Development of a DHA-Losartan hybrid as a potent inhibitor of multiple pathway-induced platelet aggregation

Despite the scientific progression in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) they remain the leading cause of mortality and disability worldwide. The classic treatment involves the simultaneous dosing of two antiplatelet drugs, aspirin and clopidogrel/prasugrel. However, besides drug resistance, severe side effects have been also manifested including acute bleeding and toxicity. Thus, new therapeutic agents with enhanced efficacy and diminished side effects are of importance. Towards this end, omega-3 (ω-3) fatty acids have demonstrated potent efficacy against CVDs through inhibiting platelet aggregation that bears a pivotal role in atherothrombosis. Another factor that displays a critical role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases is the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), and especially the AT₁R blocker losartan that has been reported to exert antiplatelet activity mediated by this receptor. Along these lines, we envisaged developing a molecular hybrid consisted of docosahexaenoic acid (ω-3 fatty acid) and losartan, that could exert a notable antiplatelet effect against CVDs. The design and synthesis of the new DHA-losartan hybrid, designated DHA-L, bestowed with the additive properties of the parent compounds, is reported. In silico studies were first exploited to validate the potential of DHA-L to retain losartan's ability to bind AT₁R. The antiplatelet activity of DHA-L was evaluated against in vitro platelet aggregation induced by several platelet agonists. Notably, the hybrid illustrated a pleiotropic antiplatelet profile inhibiting platelet aggregation through multiple platelet activation pathways including P2Y12, PAR-1 (Protease-Activated Receptor-1), PAF (Platelet Activating Factor), COX-1 (cyclooxygenase-1) and collagen receptors. The stability of DHA-L in human plasma and in a wide range of pH values was also evaluated over time using an HPLC protocol. The hybridization approach described herein could pave the way for the development of novel potent multitargeted therapeutics with enhanced antiplatelet profile.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Current Update on Transcellular Brain Drug Delivery

It is well known that the presence of a blood-brain barrier (BBB) makes drug delivery to the brain more challenging. There are various mechanistic routes through which therapeutic molecules travel and deliver the drug across the BBB. Among all the routes, the transcellular route is widely explored to deliver therapeutics. Advances in nanotechnology have encouraged scientists to develop novel formulations for brain drug delivery. In this article, we have broadly discussed the BBB as a limitation for brain drug delivery and ways to solve it using novel techniques such as nanomedicine, nose-to-brain drug delivery, and peptide as a drug delivery carrier. In addition, the article will help to understand the different factors governing the permeability of the BBB, as well as various formulation-related factors and the body clearance of the drug delivered into the brain.

Glycolysis: The Next Big Breakthrough in Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disease characterized by the death of dopaminergic neurons. Its pathogenesis comprises defects in the physiological pathway of mitophagy and mutations in the genes involved in this process's regulatory mechanism. PD manifests itself with multiple motor and non-motor symptoms, and currently, there are multiple pharmacological treatments, and unconventional non-drug treatments available. The mainstay of Parkinson's disease treatment has centered around directly manipulating neural mechanisms to retain high dopamine levels, either by exogenous administration, increasing intrinsic production, or inhibiting the breakdown of dopamine. In this review, we highlight a new potential biochemical modality of treatment, treating PD through glycolysis. We highlight how terazosin (TZ), via PGK1, increases ATP levels and how enhanced glycolysis serves a neuroprotective role in PD, and compensates for damage caused by mitophagy. We also discuss the role of quercetin, a bioactive flavonoid, in preventing the development of PD, and reversing mitochondrial dysfunction but only so in diabetic patients. Thus, further research should be conducted on glycolysis as a protective target in PD that can serve to not just prevent, but also alleviate the non-dopaminergic signs and symptoms of PD.

Enhancement of the oral bioavailability of isopropoxy benzene guanidine though complexation with hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin

Isopropoxy benzene guanidine (IBG) is a novel substituted benzene guanidine analogue with antibacterial activity against multidrug-resistant bacteria. However, the bioavailability of IBG is not optimal due to its finite aqueous solubility, thus hampering its potential therapeutic exploitation. In this study, we prepared IBG/hydroxypropyl-β-CD (IBG/HP-β-CD) complex, and characterized it by differential scanning calorimetry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, powder X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy. Physicochemical characterization indicated that the crystal morphology of IBG transformed into an amorphous state, thus forming IBG/HP-β-CD inclusion complexes. Complexation with HP-β-CD significantly improve the aqueous solubility, pharmaceutical properties, absorption, and bioavailability of IBG.

Comparative Interaction Studies of Quercetin with 2-Hydroxyl-propyl-β-cyclodextrin and 2,6-Methylated-β-cyclodextrin

Quercetin (QUE) is a well-known natural product that can exert beneficial properties on human health. However, due to its low solubility its bioavailability is limited. In the present study, we examine whether its formulation with two cyclodextrins (CDs) may enhance its pharmacological profile. Comparative interaction studies of quercetin with 2-hydroxyl-propyl-β-cyclodextrin (2HP-β-CD) and 2,6-methylated cyclodextrin (2,6Me-β-CD) were performed using NMR spectroscopy, DFT calculations, and in silico molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Using T1 relaxation experiments and 2D DOSY it was illustrated that both cyclodextrin vehicles can host quercetin. Quantum mechanical calculations showed the formation of hydrogen bonds between QUE with 2HP-β-CD and 2,6Μe-β-CD. Six hydrogen bonds are formed ranging between 2 to 2.8 Å with 2HP-β-CD and four hydrogen bonds within 2.8 Å with 2,6Μe-β-CD. Calculations of absolute binding free energies show that quercetin binds favorably to both 2,6Me-β-CD and 2HP-β-CD. MM/GBSA results show equally favorable binding of quercetin in the two CDs. Fluorescence spectroscopy shows moderate binding of quercetin in 2HP-β-CD (520 M-1) and 2,6Me-β-CD (770 M-1). Thus, we propose that both formulations (2HP-β-CD:quercetin, 2,6Me-β-CD:quercetin) could be further explored and exploited as small molecule carriers in biological studies.

Development and In Vitro-Ex Vivo Evaluation of Novel Polymeric Nasal Donepezil Films for Potential Use in Alzheimer's Disease Using Experimental Design

The objective and novelty of the present study is the development and optimization of innovative nasal film of Donepezil hydrochloride (DH) for potential use in Alzheimer’s disease. Hydroxypropyl-methyl-cellulose E50 (factor A) nasal films, with Polyethylene glycol 400 as plasticizer (factor B), and Methyl-β-Cyclodextrin, as permeation enhancer (factor C), were prepared and characterized in vitro and ex vivo. An experimental design was used to determine the effects of the selected factors on permeation profile of DH through rabbit nasal mucosa (response 1), and on film flexibility/foldability (response 2). A face centered central composite design with three levels was applied and 17 experiments were performed in triplicate. The prepared films exhibited good uniformity of DH content (90.0 ± 1.6%−99.8 ± 4.9%) and thickness (19.6 ± 1.9−170.8 ± 11.5 μm), storage stability characteristics, and % residual humidity (<3%), as well as favourable swelling and mucoadhesive properties. Response surface methodology determined the optimum composition for flexible nasal film with maximized DH permeation. All selected factors interacted with each other and the effect of these interactions on responses is strongly related to the factor’s concentration ratios. Based on these encouraging results, in vivo serum and brain pharmacokinetic study of the optimized nasal film, in comparison to DH oral administration, is ongoing in an animal model.

Potential Pharmaceutical Applications of Quercetin in Cardiovascular Diseases

Quercetin, as a member of flavonoids, has emerged as a potential therapeutic agent in cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) in recent decades. In this comprehensive literature review, our goal was a critical appraisal of the pathophysiological mechanisms of quercetin in relation to the classical cardiovascular risk factors (e.g., hyperlipidemia), atherosclerosis, etc. We also assessed experimental and clinical data about its potential application in CVDs. Experimental studies including both in vitro methods and in vivo animal models mainly outline the following effects of quercetin: (1) antihypertensive, (2) hypolipidemic, (3) hypoglycemic, (4) anti-atherosclerotic, and (5) cardioprotective (suppressed cardiotoxicity). From the clinical point of view, there are human studies and meta-analyses implicating its beneficial effects on glycemic and lipid parameters. In contrast, other human studies failed to demonstrate consistent favorable effects of quercetin on other cardiometabolic risk factors such as MS, obesity, and hypertension, underlying the need for further investigation. Analyzing the reason of this inconsistency, we identified significant drawbacks in the clinical trials’ design, while the absence of pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic tests prior to the studies attenuated the power of clinical results. Therefore, additional well-designed preclinical and clinical studies are required to examine the therapeutic mechanisms and clinical efficacy of quercetin in CVDs.

Micro- and Nanosized Carriers for Nose-to-Brain Drug Delivery in Neurodegenerative Disorders

Neurodegenerative disorders (NDs) have become a serious health problem worldwide due to the rapid increase in the number of people that are affected and the constantly aging population. Among all NDs, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease are the most common, and many efforts have been made in the development of effective and reliable therapeutic strategies. The intranasal route of drug administration offers numerous advantages, such as bypassing the blood–brain barrier and providing a direct entrance to the brain through the olfactory and trigeminal neurons. The present review summarizes the available information on recent advances in micro- and nanoscale nose-to-brain drug-delivery systems as a novel strategy for the treatment of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. Specifically, polymer- and lipid-base micro- and nanoparticles have been studied as a feasible approach to increase the brain bioavailability of certain drugs. Furthermore, nanocomposites are discussed as a suitable formulation for administration into the nasal cavity.

Research Progress of Quercetin Delivery Systems

Quercetin is the main dietary flavonoid with a wide range of pharmacological activities. However, the poor gastrointestinal absorption and low bioavailability of quercetin curtails its clinical applications.. Enhancement the bioavailability of quercetin focuses on the application of delivery systems technologies such as microparticle delivery systems, solid dispersions, encapsulation, phospholipid complexes, and hydrogels , which have been systematically reviewed .And theirapplications in vitro and in vivo animal experiments also been described, promoting the development and optimization of drug delivery system for clinical applications.

Enhancing the stability of zein/fucoidan composite nanoparticles with calcium ions for quercetin delivery

In this study, zein and fucoidan-based composite nanoparticles were prepared by the antisolvent precipitation method. The effects of different calcium ion (Ca²⁺, 0-3.0 mM) concentrations on the stability of the composite nanosystems loaded with quercetin were studied under different conditions (pH, temperature, salt concentration, and ultraviolet light irradiation), and the composite nanoparticles were characterized. Electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic interactions are the main forces underlying the formation of composite nanoparticles. The addition of Ca²⁺ led to improved release of the active substances from the composite nanoparticles in simulated digestive solutions (especially when the Ca²⁺ concentration was 1.5 mM). The composite nanosystems based on alcohol-soluble proteins and anionic polysaccharides with added Ca²⁺ can be potentially applied for the delivery of active substances.

Polyphenols as Antioxidants for Extending Food Shelf-Life and in the Prevention of Health Diseases: Encapsulation and Interfacial Phenomena

Toxicity caused by the exposure to human-made chemicals and environmental conditions has become a major health concern because they may significantly increase the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), negatively affecting the endogenous antioxidant defense. Living systems have evolved complex antioxidant mechanisms to protect cells from oxidative conditions. Although oxidative stress contributes to various pathologies, the intake of molecules such as polyphenols, obtained from natural sources, may limit their effects because of their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties against lipid peroxidation and against a broad range of foodborne pathogens. Ingestion of polyphenol-rich foods, such as fruits and vegetables, help to reduce the harmful effects of ROS, but the use of supramolecular and nanomaterials as delivery systems has emerged as an efficient method to improve their pharmacological and therapeutic effects. Suitable exogenous polyphenolic antioxidants should be readily absorbed and delivered to sites where pathological oxidative damage may take place, for instance, intracellular locations. Many potential antioxidants have a poor bioavailability, but they can be encapsulated to improve their ideal solubility and permeability profile. Development of effective antioxidant strategies requires the creation of new nanoscale drug delivery systems to significantly reduce oxidative stress. In this review we provide an overview of the oxidative stress process, highlight some properties of ROS, and discuss the role of natural polyphenols as bioactives in controlling the overproduction of ROS and bacterial and fungal growth, paying special attention to their encapsulation in suitable delivery systems and to their location in colloidal systems where interfaces play a crucial role.

Enhanced oral bioavailability of koumine by complexation with hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin: preparation, optimization, ex vivo and in vivo characterization

Koumine (KME) is an active alkaloid extracted from Gelsemium elegans, and its diverse bioactivities have been studied for decades. However, KME exhibits poor solubility and low oral bioavailability, which hampers its potential therapeutic exploitation. This work aimed to develop optimized inclusion complexes to improve the bioavailability of KME. The KME/hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (KME/HP-β-CD) inclusion complexes were prepared by the solvent evaporation method and later optimized using the Box-Behnken design. The optimal KME/HP-β-CD was characterized by scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The physicochemical characterization results revealed that the crystalline state of KME was transformed into an amorphous form, forming KME/HP-β-CD inclusion complexes. Compared with KME, the solubility and in vitro release rate of KME/HP-β-CD was significantly enhanced by 52.34- and 1.3-fold, respectively. Further research was performed to investigate the intestinal absorption characteristics and in vivo bioavailability in rats. The optimal KME/HP-β-CD showed enhanced absorptive permeability and relative bioavailability increased more than two-fold compared to that of raw KME. These results indicate that the optimal KME/HP-β-CD can be used as an effective drug carrier to improve the solubility, intestinal absorption, and bioavailability of KME.

Resveratrol and cyclodextrins, an easy alliance: Applications in nanomedicine, green chemistry and biotechnology

Most drugs or the natural substances reputed to display some biological activity are hydrophobic molecules that demonstrate low bioavailability regardless of their mode of absorption. Resveratrol and its derivatives belong to the chemical group of stilbenes; while stilbenes are known to possess very interesting properties, these are limited by their poor aqueous solubility as well as low bioavailability in animals and humans. Among the substances capable of forming nanomolecular inclusion complexes which can be used for drug delivery, cyclodextrins show spectacular physicochemical and biomedical implications in stilbene chemistry for their possible application in nanomedicine. By virtue of their properties, cyclodextrins have also demonstrated their possible use in green chemistry for the synthesis of stilbene glucosylated derivatives with potential applications in dermatology and cosmetics. Compared to chemical synthesis and genetically modified microorganisms, plant cell or tissue systems provide excellent models for obtaining stilbenes in few g/L quantities, making feasible the production of these compounds at a large scale. However, the biosynthesis of stilbenes is only possible in the presence of the so-called elicitor compounds, the most commonly used of which are cyclodextrins. We also report here on the induction of resveratrol production by cyclodextrins or combinatory elicitation with methyljasmonate in plant cell systems as well as the mechanisms by which they are able to trigger a stilbene response. The present article therefore discusses the role of cyclodextrins in stilbene chemistry both at the physico-chemical level as well as the biomedical and biotechnological levels, emphasizing the notion of "easy alliance" between these compounds and stilbenes.

Nasal powders of quercetin-β-cyclodextrin derivatives complexes with mannitol/lecithin microparticles for Nose-to-Brain delivery: In vitro and ex vivo evaluation

Quercetin, a flavonoid with possible neuroprotective action has been recently suggested for the early-stage treatment of Alzheimer's disease. The low solubility and extended first pass effect render quercetin unsuitable for oral administration. Alternatively, brain targeting is more feasible with nasal delivery, by-passing, non-invasively, Blood-Brain Barrier and ensuring rapid onset of action. Aiming to increase quercetin's disposition into brain, nasal powders consisting of quercetin-cyclodextrins (methyl-β-cyclodextrin and hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin) lyophilizates blended with spray-dried microparticles of mannitol/lecithin were prepared. Quercetin's solubility at 37 °C and pH 7.4 was increased 19-35 times when complexed with cyclodextrins. Blending lyophilizates in various ratios with mannitol/lecithin microparticles, results in powders with improved morphological characteristics as observed by X-ray Diffraction and Scanning Electron Microscopy analysis. In vitro characterization of these powders using Franz cells, revealed rapid dissolution and permeation 17 (methyl-β-cyclodextrin) to 48 (hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin) times higher than that of pure quercetin. Ex vivo powders' transport across rabbit nasal mucosa was found more efficient in comparison with the pure Que. The overall better performance of quercetin-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin powders is confirmed by ex vivo experiments revealing amount of quercetin permeated ranging from 0.03 ± 0.01 to 0.22 ± 0.05 μg/cm² for hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin and 0.022 ± 0.01 to 0.17 ± 0.04 μg/cm² for methyl-β-cyclodextrin powders, while the permeation of pure quercetin was negligible.

Progress in nasal drug delivery systems

Most of the available drugs are usually administered orally (e.g. in tablets or capsules) or by parenteral injection in the case of substances being destroyed in the gastric environment or not being absorbed. However, this bears disadvantages as many people have trouble swallowing tablets and parenteral injection requires trained personnel and/or a reasonably sterile environment to minimize the possibility of contamination. Thus, as an easy to use alternative nasal drug delivery was developed. Drug delivery systems are used to achieve a reproducible high drug concentration. These systems overcome various disadvantages leading to stabilization of the drug, advanced drug transport, improvement of the physicochemical properties of the drug like water solubility, and increase of drug uptake and bioavailability. In addition, properties such as bad taste or smell of the drug are masked. Nasal drug delivery systems are suitable for use both locally and systemically. In the last five years, the development and progression of nasal drug delivery systems has gained importance due to their numerous advantages. This work gives an overview of the basics, such as structure and function of the nose, as well as a short introduction to local and systemic application of drugs. Furthermore, selected drug delivery systems are explained with examples of active ingredients, as well as additional possibilities to increase nasal drug uptake and factors influencing the absorption.

The importance of pre-formulation studies and of 3D-printed nasal casts in the success of a pharmaceutical product intended for nose-to-brain delivery

This review aims to cement three hot topics in drug delivery: (a) the pre-formulation of new products intended for nose-to-brain delivery; (b) the development of nasal casts for studying the efficacy of potential new nose-to-brain delivery systems at the early of their development (pre-formulation); (c) the use of 3D printing based on a wide variety of materials (transparent, biocompatible, flexible) providing an unprecedented fabrication tool towards personalized medicine by printing nasal cast on-demand based on CT scans of patients. This review intends to show the links between these three subjects. Indeed, the pathway selected to administrate the drug to the brain not only influence the formulation strategies to implement but also the design of the cast, to get the most convincing measures from it. Moreover, the design of the cast himself influences the choice of the 3D-printing technology, which, in its turn, bring more constraints to the nasal replica design. Consequently, the formulation of the drug, the cast preparation and its realisation should be thought of as a whole and not separately.

Versatile Nasal Application of Cyclodextrins: Excipients and/or Actives?

Cyclodextrins (CDs) are oligosaccharides widely used in the pharmaceutical field. In this review, a detailed examination of the literature of the last two decades has been made to understand the role of CDs in nasal drug delivery systems. In nasal formulations, CDs are used as pharmaceutical excipients, as solubilizers and absorption promoters, and as active ingredients due to their several biological activities (antiviral, antiparasitic, anti-atherosclerotic, and neuroprotective). The use of CDs in nasal formulations allowed obtaining versatile drug delivery systems intended for local and systemic effects, as well as for nose-to-brain transport of drugs. In vitro and in vivo models currently employed are suitable to analyze the effects of CDs in nasal formulations. Therefore, CDs are versatile pharmaceutical materials, and due to the continual synthesis of new CDs derivatives, the research on the new nasal applications is an interesting field evolving in the coming years, to which Italian research will still contribute.

Quercetin: A Bioactive Compound Imparting Cardiovascular and Neuroprotective Benefits: Scope for Exploring Fresh Produce, Their Wastes, and By-Products

Quercetin, a bioactive secondary metabolite, holds incredible importance in terms of bioactivities, which has been proved by in vivo and in vitro studies. The treatment of cardiovascular and neurological diseases by quercetin has been extensively investigated over the past decade. Quercetin is present naturally in appreciable amounts in fresh produce (fruits and vegetables). However, today, corresponding to the growing population and global demand for fresh fruits and vegetables, a paradigm shift and focus is laid towards exploring industrial food wastes and/or byproducts as a new resource to obtain bioactive compounds such as quercetin. Based on the available research reports over the last decade, quercetin has been suggested as a reliable therapeutic candidate for either treating or alleviating health issues, mainly those of cardiovascular and neurological diseases. In the present review, we have summarized some of the critical findings and hypotheses of quercetin from the available databases foreseeing its future use as a potential therapeutic agent to treat cardiovascular and neurological diseases. It is anticipated that this review will be a potential reference material for future research activities to be undertaken on quercetin obtained from fresh produce as well as their respective processing wastes/byproducts that rely on the circular concept.