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Corli G, Tirri M, Bassi M, Bernardi T, Boccuto F, Borsari M, Zauli G, Bilel S, Marti M. 5-HT 2A receptors are involved in the pharmaco-toxicological effects of the synthetic cannabinoids JWH-018 and 5F-PB22: In vivo studies in mice. Eur J Pharmacol 2024; 971:176486. [PMID: 38458413 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2024.176486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
Over the last years, Synthetic Cannabinoids (SCs) have been among the largest and most frequently seized groups of Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS). These substances have been frequently detected in biological samples from patients involved in several intoxication and death cases. Their serious adverse effects have been related to their action as potent agonist of cannabinoid CB1 receptors. However, evidence concerning the potential interaction between SCs and serotoninergic mechanisms has emerged. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the involvement of 5-HT2A receptors in the effects induced by acute systemic administration of 1-pentyl-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (JWH-018; 1 mg/kg) and quinolin-8-yl 1-pentyfluoro-1H-indole-3-8-carboxylate (5F-PB22; 1 mg/kg). Sensorimotor (visual, acoustic, and tactile) responses, pain threshold (acute mechanical and thermal nociception), core temperature, breath rate and motor performance (stepping activity) have been assessed in CD-1 male mice. The present results pointed out that both substances deeply alter sensorimotor responses, nociceptive threshold, core temperature, breath rate and motor activity in mice. Noteworthy, pretreatment with the selective 5-HT2A receptors antagonist MDL100907 (0.1 mg/kg) at least partially prevented sensorimotor disruption, antinociception and hypothermic effects. Conversely, the respiratory and motor impairment was not prevented. Thus, it states the relevance of serotoninergic 5-HT2A mechanisms on pharmaco-toxicological effects induced by SCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia Corli
- Department of Excellence of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Micaela Tirri
- Department of Excellence of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Marta Bassi
- Department of Excellence of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Tatiana Bernardi
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Prevention, University of Ferrara, 44121, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Federica Boccuto
- Department of Excellence of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Martina Borsari
- Department of Excellence of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Giorgio Zauli
- Research Department, King Khaled Eye Specialistic Hospital, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sabrine Bilel
- Department of Excellence of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Matteo Marti
- Department of Excellence of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy; Collaborative Center for the Italian National Early Warning System, Department of Anti-Drug Policies, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, Italy.
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2
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Bellman V. Review of Psilocybin Use for Depression among Cancer Patients after Approval in Oregon. Cancers (Basel) 2024; 16:1702. [PMID: 38730654 PMCID: PMC11083170 DOI: 10.3390/cancers16091702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Despite the legalization of psilocybin therapy for depression in terminal illnesses such as advanced cancer through Oregon's Measure 109 in 2020, significant challenges have impeded its implementation. This review synthesizes the empirical data supporting the utilization of psilocybin therapy for addressing cancer-related depression, including an evaluation of its purported benefits and potential adverse effects. It provides a comprehensive examination of therapeutic strategies, dosing regimens, and barriers to ensuring responsible and equitable access. Salient issues explored include the development of ethical protocols, integration within healthcare systems, ensuring statewide availability, resolving legal ambiguities, and defining clinical standards. Oregon's pioneering role serves as a case study, highlighting the necessity of addressing regulatory, logistical, and ethical obstacles to ensure the establishment of rigorous and equitable psilocybin care models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Val Bellman
- Psychiatry Residency Training Program, University of Missouri Kansas City, Kansas City, MO 64108, USA
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3
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Varty GB, Canal CE, Mueller TA, Hartsel JA, Tyagi R, Avery K, Morgan ME, Reichelt AC, Pathare P, Stang E, Palfreyman MG, Nivorozhkin A. Synthesis and Structure-Activity Relationships of 2,5-Dimethoxy-4-Substituted Phenethylamines and the Discovery of CYB210010: A Potent, Orally Bioavailable and Long-Acting Serotonin 5-HT 2 Receptor Agonist. J Med Chem 2024; 67:6144-6188. [PMID: 38593423 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c01961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
Structure-activity studies of 4-substituted-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamines led to the discovery of 2,5-dimethoxy-4-thiotrifluoromethylphenethylamines, including CYB210010, a potent and long-acting serotonin 5-HT2 receptor agonist. CYB210010 exhibited high agonist potency at 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors, modest selectivity over 5-HT2B, 5-HT1A, 5-HT6, and adrenergic α2A receptors, and lacked activity at monoamine transporters and over 70 other proteins. CYB210010 (0.1-3 mg/kg) elicited a head-twitch response (HTR) and could be administered subchronically at threshold doses without behavioral tolerance. CYB210010 was orally bioavailable in three species, readily and preferentially crossed into the CNS, engaged frontal cortex 5-HT2A receptors, and increased the expression of genes involved in neuroplasticity in the frontal cortex. CYB210010 represents a new tool molecule for investigating the therapeutic potential of 5-HT2 receptor activation. In addition, several other compounds with high 5-HT2A receptor potency, yet with little or no HTR activity, were discovered, providing the groundwork for the development of nonpsychedelic 5-HT2A receptor ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey B Varty
- Cybin IRL Limited, North Wall Quay, 1 Spencer Dock, Dublin 1 DO1 X9R7, Ireland
| | - Clinton E Canal
- Cybin IRL Limited, North Wall Quay, 1 Spencer Dock, Dublin 1 DO1 X9R7, Ireland
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mercer University, 3001 Mercer University Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, United States
| | - Tina A Mueller
- Cybin IRL Limited, North Wall Quay, 1 Spencer Dock, Dublin 1 DO1 X9R7, Ireland
- BioIVT, Hicksville, New York 11803, United States
| | - Joshua A Hartsel
- Cybin IRL Limited, North Wall Quay, 1 Spencer Dock, Dublin 1 DO1 X9R7, Ireland
- Consultant, UPS PO Box #105-650, 25422 Trabuco Road, Lake Forest, California 92630, United States
| | - Richa Tyagi
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mercer University, 3001 Mercer University Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, United States
| | - Ken Avery
- Cybin IRL Limited, North Wall Quay, 1 Spencer Dock, Dublin 1 DO1 X9R7, Ireland
| | - Michael E Morgan
- Cybin IRL Limited, North Wall Quay, 1 Spencer Dock, Dublin 1 DO1 X9R7, Ireland
| | - Amy C Reichelt
- Cybin IRL Limited, North Wall Quay, 1 Spencer Dock, Dublin 1 DO1 X9R7, Ireland
- Faculty of Biomedicine, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia
| | - Pradip Pathare
- Cybin IRL Limited, North Wall Quay, 1 Spencer Dock, Dublin 1 DO1 X9R7, Ireland
| | - Erik Stang
- Cybin IRL Limited, North Wall Quay, 1 Spencer Dock, Dublin 1 DO1 X9R7, Ireland
| | | | - Alex Nivorozhkin
- Cybin IRL Limited, North Wall Quay, 1 Spencer Dock, Dublin 1 DO1 X9R7, Ireland
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4
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Armstrong M, Castellanos J, Christie D. Chronic pain as an emergent property of a complex system and the potential roles of psychedelic therapies. FRONTIERS IN PAIN RESEARCH 2024; 5:1346053. [PMID: 38706873 PMCID: PMC11066302 DOI: 10.3389/fpain.2024.1346053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Despite research advances and urgent calls by national and global health organizations, clinical outcomes for millions of people suffering with chronic pain remain poor. We suggest bringing the lens of complexity science to this problem, conceptualizing chronic pain as an emergent property of a complex biopsychosocial system. We frame pain-related physiology, neuroscience, developmental psychology, learning, and epigenetics as components and mini-systems that interact together and with changing socioenvironmental conditions, as an overarching complex system that gives rise to the emergent phenomenon of chronic pain. We postulate that the behavior of complex systems may help to explain persistence of chronic pain despite current treatments. From this perspective, chronic pain may benefit from therapies that can be both disruptive and adaptive at higher orders within the complex system. We explore psychedelic-assisted therapies and how these may overlap with and complement mindfulness-based approaches to this end. Both mindfulness and psychedelic therapies have been shown to have transdiagnostic value, due in part to disruptive effects on rigid cognitive, emotional, and behavioral patterns as well their ability to promote neuroplasticity. Psychedelic therapies may hold unique promise for the management of chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Armstrong
- Department of Family & Community Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States
| | - Joel Castellanos
- Division of Pain Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Devon Christie
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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5
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Laabi S, LeMmon C, Vogel C, Chacon M, Jimenez VM. Deciphering psilocybin: Cytotoxicity, anti-inflammatory effects, and mechanistic insights. Int Immunopharmacol 2024; 130:111753. [PMID: 38401463 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2024.111753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/26/2024]
Abstract
A decade of clinical research has indicated psilocybin's effectiveness in treating various neuropsychiatric disorders, such as depression and substance abuse. The correlation between increased pro-inflammatory cytokines and the severity of neuropsychiatric symptoms, along with the known anti-inflammatory potential of some psychedelics, suggests an immunomodulatory role for psilocybin. This study aims to understand the mechanism of action of psilocybin by investigating the cytotoxic and immunomodulatory effects of psilocybin and psilocin on both resting and LPS-activated RAW 264.7 murine macrophages. The study evaluated the cytotoxicity of psilocybin and psilocin using an LDH assay across various doses and assessed their impact on cytokine production in RAW 264.7 cells, measuring cytokine expression via ELISA. Different doses, including those above and below the LC50, were used in both pre-treatment and post-treatment approaches. The LDH assay revealed that psilocybin is almost twice as cytotoxic as psilocin, with an LC50 of 12 ng/ml and 28 ng/ml, respectively. In resting macrophages, both psilocybin and psilocin triggered significant release of TNF- α after 4 h, with the lowest doses inducing higher levels of the cytokine than the highest doses. IL-10 expression in resting cells was only triggered by the highest dose of psilocin in the 4-hour incubation group. In LPS-stimulated cells, psilocin reduced TNF- α levels more than psilocybin in pre-treatment and post-treatment, with no significant effects on IL-10 in pre-treatment. Psilocin, but not psilocybin, induced a significant increase of IL-10 in post-treatment, leading to the conclusion that psilocin, but not psilocybin, exerts anti-inflammatory effects on classically activated macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salma Laabi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Noorda College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2162 S 180 E, Provo, UT 84606, United States
| | - Claire LeMmon
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Noorda College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2162 S 180 E, Provo, UT 84606, United States
| | - Callie Vogel
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Noorda College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2162 S 180 E, Provo, UT 84606, United States
| | - Mariana Chacon
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Noorda College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2162 S 180 E, Provo, UT 84606, United States
| | - Victor M Jimenez
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Noorda College of Osteopathic Medicine, 2162 S 180 E, Provo, UT 84606, United States; Department of Pharmacy, Roseman University of Health Sciences, 10920 S River Front Pkwy, South Jordan, UT 84095, United States.
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6
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Tabaac BJ, Shinozuka K, Arenas A, Beutler BD, Cherian K, Evans VD, Fasano C, Muir OS. Psychedelic Therapy: A Primer for Primary Care Clinicians-Psilocybin. Am J Ther 2024; 31:e121-e132. [PMID: 38518269 DOI: 10.1097/mjt.0000000000001724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/24/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The primary psychoactive drug in magic mushrooms, psilocybin, induces profound alterations in consciousness through the 5-HT2A receptor. This review consolidates current research findings to elucidate the pharmacology, safety profile, and clinical applications of psilocybin. AREAS OF UNCERTAINTY Despite initial concerns that psilocybin could cause psychosis, contemporary research has demonstrated that psilocybin is generally safe. The most common adverse effects are nausea and headache, yet both tend to be transient. Serious adverse events can generally be avoided in controlled settings such as clinical trials. However, in the largest clinical trial to date, there were a total of 7 reported cases of suicidal ideation, up to 12 weeks after receiving a single 25 mg dose of psilocybin. That being said, all 7 cases did not respond to the treatment. Although selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors may blunt the hallucinogenic qualities of psilocybin, preliminary research suggests that they may enhance its antidepressant effects. THERAPEUTIC ADVANCES In clinical trials, psilocybin has shown promise for treating major depressive disorder and treatment-resistant depression. Initial studies indicated that 42%-57% of patients underwent remission after psilocybin-assisted therapy, which suggests that psilocybin is more effective than existing antidepressant medications. Clinical data have also demonstrated that psilocybin can manage substance use disorders and end-of-life anxiety with clinical outcomes that are sustained for months and sometimes years after 1 or 2 doses. LIMITATIONS However, larger Phase II trials with more than 100 depressed participants have shown a much smaller remission rate of 25%-29%, though these studies still observed that psilocybin causes a significant reduction in depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS Aside from ketamine, psilocybin is the most clinically well-researched psychedelic drug, with trials that have enrolled hundreds of participants and multiple therapeutic applications. Phase III trials will determine whether psilocybin lives up to the promise that it showed in previous clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Burton J Tabaac
- Reno School of Medicine, University of Nevada, Reno, NV
- Department of Neurology, Carson Tahoe Health, Carson City, NV
| | - Kenneth Shinozuka
- Centre for Eudaimonia and Human Flourishing, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Alejandro Arenas
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
| | - Bryce D Beutler
- Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Kirsten Cherian
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA
| | - Viviana D Evans
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY
| | | | - Owen S Muir
- Fermata Health, Brooklyn, NY; and
- Acacia Clinics, Sunnyvale, CA
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7
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Shahar O, Botvinnik A, Shwartz A, Lerer E, Golding P, Buko A, Hamid E, Kahn D, Guralnick M, Blakolmer K, Wolf G, Lotan A, Lerer L, Lerer B, Lifschytz T. Effect of chemically synthesized psilocybin and psychedelic mushroom extract on molecular and metabolic profiles in mouse brain. Mol Psychiatry 2024:10.1038/s41380-024-02477-w. [PMID: 38378926 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-024-02477-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Psilocybin, a naturally occurring, tryptamine alkaloid prodrug, is currently being investigated for the treatment of a range of psychiatric disorders. Preclinical reports suggest that the biological effects of psilocybin-containing mushroom extract or "full spectrum" (psychedelic) mushroom extract (PME), may differ from those of chemically synthesized psilocybin (PSIL). We compared the effects of PME to those of PSIL on the head twitch response (HTR), neuroplasticity-related synaptic proteins and frontal cortex metabolomic profiles in male C57Bl/6j mice. HTR measurement showed similar effects of PSIL and PME over 20 min. Brain specimens (frontal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, striatum) were assayed for the synaptic proteins, GAP43, PSD95, synaptophysin and SV2A, using western blots. These proteins may serve as indicators of synaptic plasticity. Three days after treatment, there was minimal increase in synaptic proteins. After 11 days, PSIL and PME significantly increased GAP43 in the frontal cortex (p = 0.019; p = 0.039 respectively) and hippocampus (p = 0.015; p = 0.027) and synaptophysin in the hippocampus (p = 0.041; p = 0.05) and amygdala (p = 0.035; p = 0.004). PSIL increased SV2A in the amygdala (p = 0.036) and PME did so in the hippocampus (p = 0.014). In the striatum, synaptophysin was increased by PME only (p = 0.023). There were no significant effects of PSIL or PME on PSD95 in any brain area when these were analyzed separately. Nested analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed a significant increase in each of the 4 proteins over all brain areas for PME versus vehicle control, while significant PSIL effects were observed only in the hippocampus and amygdala and were limited to PSD95 and SV2A. Metabolomic analyses of the pre-frontal cortex were performed by untargeted polar metabolomics utilizing capillary electrophoresis - Fourier transform mass spectrometry (CE-FTMS) and showed a differential metabolic separation between PME and vehicle groups. The purines guanosine, hypoxanthine and inosine, associated with oxidative stress and energy production pathways, showed a progressive decline from VEH to PSIL to PME. In conclusion, our synaptic protein findings suggest that PME has a more potent and prolonged effect on synaptic plasticity than PSIL. Our metabolomics data support a gradient of effects from inert vehicle via chemical psilocybin to PME further supporting differential effects. Further studies are needed to confirm and extend these findings and to identify the molecules that may be responsible for the enhanced effects of PME as compared to psilocybin alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orr Shahar
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory and Hadassah BrainLabs Center for Psychedelic Research, Hadassah Medical Center, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Alexander Botvinnik
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory and Hadassah BrainLabs Center for Psychedelic Research, Hadassah Medical Center, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Amit Shwartz
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory and Hadassah BrainLabs Center for Psychedelic Research, Hadassah Medical Center, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Elad Lerer
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory and Hadassah BrainLabs Center for Psychedelic Research, Hadassah Medical Center, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
- Israel Institute for Biology, Nes Ziona, Israel
| | - Peretz Golding
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory and Hadassah BrainLabs Center for Psychedelic Research, Hadassah Medical Center, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Alex Buko
- Human Metabolome Technologies, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ethan Hamid
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory and Hadassah BrainLabs Center for Psychedelic Research, Hadassah Medical Center, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Dani Kahn
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory and Hadassah BrainLabs Center for Psychedelic Research, Hadassah Medical Center, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Miles Guralnick
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory and Hadassah BrainLabs Center for Psychedelic Research, Hadassah Medical Center, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | | | - Gilly Wolf
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory and Hadassah BrainLabs Center for Psychedelic Research, Hadassah Medical Center, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
- Achva Academic College, Beer Tuvia, Israel
| | - Amit Lotan
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory and Hadassah BrainLabs Center for Psychedelic Research, Hadassah Medical Center, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Leonard Lerer
- Parow Entheobiosciences (ParowBio), Chicago, IL, USA
- Back of the Yards Algae Sciences (BYAS), Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Bernard Lerer
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory and Hadassah BrainLabs Center for Psychedelic Research, Hadassah Medical Center, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel.
| | - Tzuri Lifschytz
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory and Hadassah BrainLabs Center for Psychedelic Research, Hadassah Medical Center, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel.
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8
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Fletcher PJ, Li Z, Ji XD, Lê AD. Established sensitization of ethanol-induced locomotor activity is not reversed by psilocybin or the 5-HT 2A receptor agonist TCB-2 in male DBA/2J mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2024; 235:173703. [PMID: 38154589 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2023.173703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Revised: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Psychedelic drugs, which share in common 5-HT2A receptor agonist activity, have shown promise in treating alcohol-use disorders (AUDs). Repeated exposure to ethanol (EtOH) induces molecular and behavioural changes reflective of neuroadaptations that may contribute to addiction. Psychedelic drugs can induce neuroplasticity also, raising the possibility that their potential clinical effects in AUD may involve an action to reverse or offset effects of long-term changes induced by EtOH. This possibility was examined by investigating whether psilocybin, or the 5-HT2A receptor agonist TCB-2, counteracted established sensitization of EtOH-induced locomotor activity. METHODS Male DBA/2J mice received repeated injections of 2.2 g/kg EtOH to induce a sensitized locomotor activity response. In two experiments separate groups of mice were then injected with psilocybin (0, 0.3 and 1 kg/kg) or TCB-2 (0, 1 and 3 mg/kg) on 5 consecutive days. Next, mice were challenged with 1.8 g/kg EtOH and locomotor activity measured for 15 min. RESULTS Relative to naïve controls, previously sensitized mice showed enhanced locomotor activity to the challenge dose. Despite reducing locomotor activity in their own right psilocybin and TCB-2 did not alter the strength of this sensitized response. CONCLUSION Psilocybin and TCB-2 at behaviourally effective doses did not reverse sensitization of EtOH-induced activity. This suggests that mechanisms involved in mediating short-term reductions in EtOH intake by psilocybin or TCB-2 may not involve a capacity of these drugs to offset enduring changes in behaviour and any underlying neural adaptations induced by repeated intermittent exposure to EtOH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Fletcher
- Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
| | - Zhaoxia Li
- Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Xiao Dong Ji
- Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Anh D Lê
- Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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9
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Sherwood AM, Burkhartzmeyer EK, Williamson SE, Baumann MH, Glatfelter GC. Psychedelic-like Activity of Norpsilocin Analogues. ACS Chem Neurosci 2024; 15:315-327. [PMID: 38189238 PMCID: PMC10797613 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.3c00610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Primary metabolites of mushroom tryptamines, psilocybin and baeocystin (i.e., psilocin and norpsilocin), exhibit potent agonist activity at the serotonin 2A receptor (5-HT2A) in vitro but differ in their 5-HT2A-mediated effects in vivo. In particular, psilocin produces centrally mediated psychedelic effects in vivo, whereas norpsilocin, differing only by the loss of an N-methyl group, is devoid of psychedelic-like effects. These observations suggest that the secondary methylamine group in norpsilocin impacts its central nervous system (CNS) bioavailability but not its receptor pharmacodynamics. To test this hypothesis, eight norpsilocin derivatives were synthesized with varied secondary alkyl-, allyl-, and benzylamine groups, primarily aiming to increase their lipophilicity and brain permeability. Structure-activity relationships for the norpsilocin analogues were evaluated using the mouse head-twitch response (HTR) as a proxy for CNS-mediated psychedelic-like effects. HTR studies revealed that extending the N-methyl group of norpsilocin by a single methyl group, to give the corresponding secondary N-ethyl analogue (4-HO-NET), was sufficient to produce psilocin-like activity (median effective dose or ED50 = 1.4 mg/kg). Notably, N-allyl, N-propyl, N-isopropyl, and N-benzyl derivatives also induced psilocin-like HTR activity (ED50 = 1.1-3.2 mg/kg), with variable maximum effects (26-77 total HTR events). By contrast, adding bulkier tert-butyl or cyclohexyl groups in the same position did not elicit psilocin-like HTRs. Pharmacological assessments of the tryptamine series in vitro demonstrated interactions with multiple serotonin receptor subtypes, including 5-HT2A, and other CNS signaling proteins (e.g., sigma receptors). Overall, our data highlight key structural requirements for CNS-mediated psychedelic-like effects of norpsilocin analogues.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Michael H. Baumann
- Designer
Drug Research Unit, National Institute on
Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, United States
| | - Grant C. Glatfelter
- Designer
Drug Research Unit, National Institute on
Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, United States
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10
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Braun D, Rosenberg AM, Rabaniam E, Haruvi R, Malamud D, Barbara R, Aiznkot T, Levavi-Sivan B, Kawashima T. High-resolution tracking of unconfined zebrafish behavior reveals stimulatory and anxiolytic effects of psilocybin. Mol Psychiatry 2024:10.1038/s41380-023-02391-7. [PMID: 38233467 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-023-02391-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
Serotonergic psychedelics are emerging therapeutics for psychiatric disorders, yet their underlying mechanisms of action in the brain remain largely elusive. Here, we developed a wide-field behavioral tracking system for larval zebrafish and investigated the effects of psilocybin, a psychedelic serotonin receptor agonist. Machine learning analyses of precise body kinematics identified latent behavioral states reflecting spontaneous exploration, visually-driven rapid swimming, and irregular swim patterns following stress exposure. Using this method, we found that acute psilocybin treatment has two behavioral effects: [i] facilitation of spontaneous exploration ("stimulatory") and [ii] prevention of irregular swim patterns following stress exposure ("anxiolytic"). These effects differed from the effect of acute SSRI treatment and were rather similar to the effect of ketamine treatment. Neural activity imaging in the dorsal raphe nucleus suggested that psilocybin inhibits serotonergic neurons by activating local GABAergic neurons, consistent with psychedelic-induced suppression of serotonergic neurons in mammals. These findings pave the way for using larval zebrafish to elucidate neural mechanisms underlying the behavioral effects of serotonergic psychedelics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dotan Braun
- Department of Brain Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot, Israel
- The Jerusalem Mental Health Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ayelet M Rosenberg
- Department of Brain Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Elad Rabaniam
- Department of Brain Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Ravid Haruvi
- Department of Brain Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Dorel Malamud
- Department of Brain Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Rani Barbara
- Department of Brain Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Tomer Aiznkot
- Department of Animal Sciences, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food, and Environment, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 229 Herzl Street, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Berta Levavi-Sivan
- Department of Animal Sciences, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food, and Environment, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 229 Herzl Street, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Takashi Kawashima
- Department of Brain Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl Street, Rehovot, Israel.
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11
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Jones NT, Wagner L, Hahn MCP, Scarlett CO, Wenthur CJ. In vivo validation of psilacetin as a prodrug yielding modestly lower peripheral psilocin exposure than psilocybin. Front Psychiatry 2024; 14:1303365. [PMID: 38264637 PMCID: PMC10804612 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1303365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction The use of the psychedelic compound psilocybin in conjunction with psychotherapy has shown promising results in the treatment of psychiatric disorders, though the underlying mechanisms supporting these effects remain unclear. Psilocybin is a Schedule I substance that is dephosphorylated in vivo to form an active metabolite, psilocin. Psilacetin, also known as O-acetylpsilocin or 4-acetoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (4-AcO-DMT), is an unscheduled compound that has long been suggested as an alternative psilocin prodrug, though direct in vivo support for this hypothesis has thus far been lacking. Methods This study employed liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to assess the time-course and plasma concentrations of psilocin following the intraperitoneal (IP) administration of psilacetin fumarate or psilocybin to male and female C57Bl6/J mice. Results Direct comparisons of the time courses for psilocin exposure arising from psilocybin and psilacetin found that psilocybin led to 10-25% higher psilocin concentrations than psilacetin at 15-min post-injection. The half-life of psilocin remained approximately 30 min, irrespective of whether it came from psilocybin or psilacetin. Overall, the relative amount of psilocin exposure from psilacetin fumarate was found to be approximately 70% of that from psilocybin. Discussion These findings provide the first direct support for the long-standing assumption in the field that psilacetin functions as a prodrug for psilocin in vivo. In addition, these results indicate that psilacetin fumarate results in lower peripheral psilocin exposure than psilocybin when dosed on an equimolar basis. Thoughtful substitution of psilocybin with psilacetin fumarate appears to be a viable approach for conducting mechanistic psychedelic research in C57Bl6/J mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan T. Jones
- School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Laura Wagner
- School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Molly C. Pellitteri Hahn
- Analytical Instrumentation Center, School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Cameron O. Scarlett
- Analytical Instrumentation Center, School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Cody J. Wenthur
- School of Pharmacy, Transdisciplinary Center for Research in Psychoactive Substances, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
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12
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Wsół A. Cardiovascular safety of psychedelic medicine: current status and future directions. Pharmacol Rep 2023; 75:1362-1380. [PMID: 37874530 PMCID: PMC10661823 DOI: 10.1007/s43440-023-00539-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Revised: 10/02/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
Psychedelics are powerful psychoactive substances that alter perception and mood processes. Their effectiveness in the treatment of psychiatric diseases was known before their prohibition. An increasing number of recent studies, due to the indisputable resurgence of serotonergic hallucinogens, have shown their efficacy in alleviating depression, anxiety, substance abuse therapies, and existential distress treatment in patients facing life-threatening illness. Psychedelics are generally considered to be physiologically safe with low toxicity and low addictive potential. However, their agonism at serotonergic receptors should be considered in the context of possible serotonin-related cardiotoxicity (5-HT2A/2B and 5-HT4 receptors), influence on platelet aggregation (5-HT2A receptor), and their proarrhythmic potential. The use of psychedelics has also been associated with significant sympathomimetic effects in both experimental and clinical studies. Therefore, the present review aims to provide a critical discussion of the cardiovascular safety of psilocybin, d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), N,N-dimethyltryptamine, ayahuasca, and mescaline, based on the results of experimental research and clinical trials in humans. Experimental studies provide inconsistent information on the potential cardiovascular effects and toxicity of psychedelics. Data from clinical trials point to the relative cardiovascular safety of psychedelic-assisted therapies in the population of "healthy" volunteers. However, there is insufficient evidence from therapies carried out with microdoses of psychedelics, and there is still a lack of data on the safety of psychedelics in the population of patients with cardiovascular disease. Therefore, the exact determination of the cardiovascular safety of psychedelic therapies (especially long-term therapies) requires further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Wsół
- Chair and Department of Experimental and Clinical Physiology, Laboratory of Centre for Preclinical Research, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1B, 02-097, Warsaw, Poland.
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13
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Glatfelter GC, Vandeputte MM, Chen L, Walther D, Tsai MHM, Shi L, Stove CP, Baumann MH. Alkoxy chain length governs the potency of 2-benzylbenzimidazole 'nitazene' opioids associated with human overdose. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2023; 240:2573-2584. [PMID: 37658878 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-023-06451-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Novel synthetic opioids (NSOs) are emerging in recreational drug markets worldwide. In particular, 2-benzylbenzimidazole 'nitazene' compounds are problematic NSOs associated with serious clinical consequences, including fatal respiratory depression. Evidence from in vitro studies shows that alkoxy chain length can influence the potency of nitazenes at the mu-opioid receptor (MOR). However, structure-activity relationships (SARs) of nitazenes for inducing opioid-like effects in animal models are not well understood compared to relevant opioids contributing to the ongoing opioid crisis (e.g., fentanyl). OBJECTIVES Here, we examined the in vitro and in vivo effects of nitazene analogues with varying alkoxy chain lengths (i.e., metonitazene, etonitazene, isotonitazene, protonitazene, and butonitazene) as compared to reference opioids (i.e., morphine and fentanyl). METHODS AND RESULTS Nitazene analogues displayed nanomolar affinities for MOR in rat brain membranes and picomolar potencies to activate MOR in transfected cells. All compounds induced opioid-like effects on locomotor activity, hot plate latency, and body temperature in male mice, and alkoxy chain length markedly influenced potency. Etonitazene, with an ethoxy chain, was the most potent analogue in MOR functional assays (EC50 = 30 pM, Emax = 103%) and across all in vivo endpoints (ED50 = 3-12 μg/kg). In vivo SARs revealed that ethoxy, isopropoxy, and propoxy chains engendered higher potencies than fentanyl, whereas methoxy and butoxy analogues were less potent. MOR functional potencies, but not MOR affinities, were positively correlated with in vivo potencies to induce opioid effects. CONCLUSIONS Overall, our data show that certain nitazene NSOs are more potent than fentanyl as MOR agonists in mice, highlighting concerns regarding the high potential for overdose in humans who are exposed to these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grant C Glatfelter
- Designer Drug Research Unit, National Institute On Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Marthe M Vandeputte
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Li Chen
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, National Institute On Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Donna Walther
- Designer Drug Research Unit, National Institute On Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Meng-Hua M Tsai
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, National Institute On Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Lei Shi
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, National Institute On Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Michael H Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit, National Institute On Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
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14
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Miller DR, Jacobs JT, Rockefeller A, Singer H, Bollinger IM, Conway J, Slot JC, Cliffel DE. Cultivation, chemistry, and genome of Psilocybe zapotecorum. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.11.01.564784. [PMID: 37961470 PMCID: PMC10635036 DOI: 10.1101/2023.11.01.564784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Psilocybe zapotecorum is a strongly blue-bruising psilocybin mushroom used by indigenous groups in southeastern Mexico and beyond. While this species has a rich history of ceremonial use, research into its chemistry and genetics have been limited. Herein, we detail mushroom morphology and report on cultivation parameters, chemical profile, and the full genome sequence of P. zapotecorum . First, growth and cloning methods are detailed that are simple, and reproducible. In combination with high resolution microscopic analysis, the strain was barcoded, confirming species-level identification. Full genome sequencing reveals the architecture of the psilocybin gene cluster in P. zapotecorum, and can serve as a reference genome for Psilocybe Clade I. Characterization of the tryptamine profile revealed a psilocybin concentration of 17.9±1.7 mg/g, with a range of 10.6-25.7 mg/g (n=7), and similar tryptamines (psilocin, baeocystin, norbaeocystin, norpsilocin, aeruginascin, 4-HO-tryptamine, and tryptamine) in lesser concentrations for a combined tryptamine concentration of 22.5±3.2 mg/g. These results show P. zapotecorum to be a potent - and variable - Psilocybe mushroom. Chemical profiling, genetic analysis, and cultivation assist in demystifying these mushrooms. As clinical studies with psilocybin gain traction, understanding the diversity of psilocybin mushrooms will assure that psilocybin therapy does not become synonymous with psilocybin mushrooms.
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15
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Rijsketic DR, Casey AB, Barbosa DAN, Zhang X, Hietamies TM, Ramirez-Ovalle G, Pomrenze MB, Halpern CH, Williams LM, Malenka RC, Heifets BD. UNRAVELing the synergistic effects of psilocybin and environment on brain-wide immediate early gene expression in mice. Neuropsychopharmacology 2023; 48:1798-1807. [PMID: 37248402 PMCID: PMC10579391 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-023-01613-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The effects of context on the subjective experience of serotonergic psychedelics have not been fully examined in human neuroimaging studies, partly due to limitations of the imaging environment. Here, we administered saline or psilocybin to mice in their home cage or an enriched environment, immunofluorescently-labeled brain-wide c-Fos, and imaged iDISCO+ cleared tissue with light sheet fluorescence microscopy (LSFM) to examine the impact of environmental context on psilocybin-elicited neural activity at cellular resolution. Voxel-wise analysis of c-Fos-immunofluorescence revealed clusters of neural activity associated with main effects of context and psilocybin-treatment, which were validated with c-Fos+ cell density measurements. Psilocybin increased c-Fos expression in subregions of the neocortex, caudoputamen, central amygdala, and parasubthalamic nucleus while it decreased c-Fos in the hypothalamus, cortical amygdala, striatum, and pallidum in a predominantly context-independent manner. To gauge feasibility of future mechanistic studies on ensembles activated by psilocybin, we confirmed activity- and Cre-dependent genetic labeling in a subset of these neurons using TRAP2+/-;Ai14+ mice. Network analyses treating each psilocybin-sensitive cluster as a node indicated that psilocybin disrupted co-activity between highly correlated regions, reduced brain modularity, and dramatically attenuated intermodular co-activity. Overall, our results indicate that main effects of context and psilocybin were robust, widespread, and reorganized network architecture, whereas context×psilocybin interactions were surprisingly sparse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Ryskamp Rijsketic
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Austen B Casey
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Daniel A N Barbosa
- Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Xue Zhang
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Tuuli M Hietamies
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Grecia Ramirez-Ovalle
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Matthew B Pomrenze
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- Nancy Pritzker Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Casey H Halpern
- Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Leanne M Williams
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- Sierra-Pacific Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center (MIRECC) Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Robert C Malenka
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
- Nancy Pritzker Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Boris D Heifets
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
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16
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Chen X, Li J, Yu L, Maule F, Chang L, Gallant JA, Press DJ, Raithatha SA, Hagel JM, Facchini PJ. A cane toad (Rhinella marina) N-methyltransferase converts primary indolethylamines to tertiary psychedelic amines. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:105231. [PMID: 37690691 PMCID: PMC10570959 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Psychedelic indolethylamines have emerged as potential medicines to treat several psychiatric pathologies. Natural sources of these compounds include 'magic mushrooms' (Psilocybe spp.), plants used to prepare ayahuasca, and toads. The skin and parotid glands of certain toads accumulate a variety of specialized metabolites including toxic guanidine alkaloids, lipophilic alkaloids, poisonous steroids, and hallucinogenic indolethylamines such as DMT, 5-methoxy-DMT, and bufotenin. The occurrence of psychedelics has contributed to the ceremonial use of toads, particularly among Mesoamerican peoples. Yet, the biosynthesis of psychedelic alkaloids has not been elucidated. Herein, we report a novel indolethylamine N-methyltransferase (RmNMT) from cane toad (Rhinella marina). The RmNMT sequence was used to identify a related NMT from the common toad, Bufo bufo. Close homologs from various frog species were inactive, suggesting a role for psychedelic indolethylamine biosynthesis in toads. Enzyme kinetic analyses and comparison with functionally similar enzymes showed that recombinant RmNMT was an effective catalyst and not product inhibited. The substrate promiscuity of RmNMT enabled the bioproduction of a variety of substituted indolethylamines at levels sufficient for purification, pharmacological screening, and metabolic stability assays. Since the therapeutic potential of psychedelics has been linked to activity at serotonergic receptors, we evaluated binding of derivatives at 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors. Primary amines exhibited enhanced affinity at the 5-HT1A receptor compared with tertiary amines. With the exception of 6-substituted derivatives, N,N-dimethylation also protected against catabolism by liver microsomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Chen
- Discovery Group, Enveric Biosciences Inc, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jing Li
- Discovery Group, Enveric Biosciences Inc, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Lisa Yu
- Discovery Group, Enveric Biosciences Inc, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Francesca Maule
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Limei Chang
- Discovery Group, Enveric Biosciences Inc, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | | | - David J Press
- Discovery Group, Enveric Biosciences Inc, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | | | - Jillian M Hagel
- Discovery Group, Enveric Biosciences Inc, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Peter J Facchini
- Discovery Group, Enveric Biosciences Inc, Calgary, Alberta, Canada; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
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17
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Tagen M, Mantuani D, van Heerden L, Holstein A, Klumpers LE, Knowles R. The risk of chronic psychedelic and MDMA microdosing for valvular heart disease. J Psychopharmacol 2023; 37:876-890. [PMID: 37572027 DOI: 10.1177/02698811231190865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/14/2023]
Abstract
Psychedelic microdosing is the practice of taking very low doses of psychedelic substances, typically over a longer period of time. The long-term safety of chronic microdosing is relatively uncharacterized, but valvular heart disease (VHD) has been proposed as a potential risk due to activation of the serotonin 5-HT2B receptor. However, this risk has not yet been comprehensively assessed. This analysis searched for all relevant in vitro, animal, and clinical studies related to the VHD risk of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin, mescaline, N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), and the non-psychedelic 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). All five compounds and some metabolites could bind to the 5-HT2B receptor with potency equal to or greater than that of the 5-HT2A receptor, the primary target of psychedelics. All compounds were partial agonists at the 5-HT2B receptor with the exception of mescaline, which could not be adequately assessed due to low potency. Safety margins relative to the maximum plasma concentrations from typical microdoses were greater than known valvulopathogens, but not without potential risk. No animal or clinical studies appropriately designed to evaluate VHD risk were found for the four psychedelics. However, there is some clinical evidence that chronic ingestion of full doses of MDMA is associated with VHD. We conclude that VHD is a potential risk with chronic psychedelic microdosing, but further studies are necessary to better define this risk.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel Mantuani
- Delos Psyche Research Group, Mountain View, CA, USA
- Delos Therapeutics, Mountain View, CA, USA
| | - Liron van Heerden
- Delos Psyche Research Group, Mountain View, CA, USA
- Delos Therapeutics, Mountain View, CA, USA
| | - Alex Holstein
- Delos Psyche Research Group, Mountain View, CA, USA
- Delos Therapeutics, Mountain View, CA, USA
| | - Linda E Klumpers
- Verdient Science LLC, Englewood, CO, USA
- Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, USA
| | - Richard Knowles
- Delos Psyche Research Group, Mountain View, CA, USA
- Delos Therapeutics, Mountain View, CA, USA
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18
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Pham DNK, Sackett NB, Chadeayne AR, Golen JA, Manke DR. Bis(4-acetoxy- N-ethyl- N- n-propyl-tryptammonium) fumarate-fumaric acid (1/1). IUCRDATA 2023; 8:x230779. [PMID: 37818476 PMCID: PMC10561228 DOI: 10.1107/s2414314623007794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The solid-state structure of the title salt/adduct (systemic name: bis-{[2-(4-acet-yloxy-1H-indol-3-yl)eth-yl](eth-yl)propyl-aza-nium} but-2-enedioate-(E)-butenedioic acid (1/1)), 2C17H25N2O2 +·C4H2O4 2-·C4H4O4, was determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The asymmetric unit consists of a singly protonated tryptammonium cation, one half of a fumarate dianion and one half of a fumaric acid mol-ecule. In the crystal, the ions and mol-ecules are linked together in infinite chains propagating along [001] through a series of N-H⋯O and O-H⋯O hydrogen bonds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duyen N. K. Pham
- University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 285 Old Westport Road, North Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA
| | - Nathan B. Sackett
- University of Washington, Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Center for Novel Therapeutics in Addiction Psychiatry, 1959 NE Pacific Street, Box 356560, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | | | - James A. Golen
- University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 285 Old Westport Road, North Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA
| | - David R. Manke
- University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 285 Old Westport Road, North Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA
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19
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Naeem M, Le AN, Bauer BE, Chadeayne AR, Golen JA, Manke DR. N-Cyclo-hexyl-tryptamine: freebase, bromide and fumarate. Acta Crystallogr E Crystallogr Commun 2023; 79:752-756. [PMID: 37601400 PMCID: PMC10439405 DOI: 10.1107/s2056989023006217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
The solid-state structures of N-cyclo-hexyl-tryptamine (I) {systematic name: N-[2-(1H-indol-3-yl)eth-yl]cyclo-hexa-namine}, C16H22N2, and two of its salts, N-cyclo-hexyl-tryptammonium bromide (II) {systematic name: N-[2-(1H-indol-3-yl)eth-yl]cyclo-hexa-naminium bromide}, C16H23N2 +·Br-, and N-cyclo-hexyl-tryptammonium fumarate (III) (systematic name: bis-{N-[2-(1H-indol-3-yl)eth-yl]cyclo-hexa-naminium} (2E)-but-2-enedioate), 2C16H23N2 +·C4H2O4 2-, were determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The freebase compound forms infinite chains along [010] through N-H⋯N hydrogen bonds. The bromide salt is held together by N-H⋯Br inter-actions in two-dimensional sheets along (001). The fumarate salt is held together in infinite three-dimensional frameworks by N-H⋯O hydrogen bonds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilyn Naeem
- University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 285 Old Westport Road, North Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA
| | - Alexander N. Le
- University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 285 Old Westport Road, North Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA
| | - Barbara E. Bauer
- CaaMTech, Inc., 58 East Sunset Way, Suite 209, Issaquah, WA 98027, USA
| | | | - James A. Golen
- University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 285 Old Westport Road, North Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA
| | - David R. Manke
- University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 285 Old Westport Road, North Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA
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20
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Meyer M, Slot J. The evolution and ecology of psilocybin in nature. Fungal Genet Biol 2023; 167:103812. [PMID: 37210028 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2023.103812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Fungi produce diverse metabolites that can have antimicrobial, antifungal, antifeedant, or psychoactive properties. Among these metabolites are the tryptamine-derived compounds psilocybin, its precursors, and natural derivatives (collectively referred to as psiloids), which have played significant roles in human society and culture. The high allocation of nitrogen to psiloids in mushrooms, along with evidence of convergent evolution and horizontal transfer of psilocybin genes, suggest they provide a selective benefit to some fungi. However, no precise ecological roles of psilocybin have been experimentally determined. The structural and functional similarities of psiloids to serotonin, an essential neurotransmitter in animals, suggest that they may enhance the fitness of fungi through interference with serotonergic processes. However, other ecological mechanisms of psiloids have been proposed. Here, we review the literature pertinent to psilocybin ecology and propose potential adaptive advantages psiloids may confer to fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Meyer
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Environmental Science Graduate Program, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Center for Psychedelic Drug Research and Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
| | - Jason Slot
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Center for Psychedelic Drug Research and Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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21
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Naeem M, Anas NA, Chadeayne AR, Golen JA, Manke DR. N-Methyl-serotonin hydrogen oxalate. IUCRDATA 2023; 8:x230378. [PMID: 37287863 PMCID: PMC10242732 DOI: 10.1107/s2414314623003784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The solid-state structure of N-methyl-serotonin {systematic name: [2-(5-hy-droxy-1H-indol-3-yl)eth-yl](meth-yl)aza-nium hydrogen oxalate}, C11H15N2O+·C2HO4 -, is reported. The structure possesses a singly protonated N-methylserotonin cation and one hydrogen oxalate anion in the asymmetric unit. In the crystal, the mol-ecules are linked by N-H⋯O and O-H⋯O hydrogen bonds into a three-dimensional network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilyn Naeem
- University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 285 Old Westport Road, North Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA
| | - Nicholas A. Anas
- CaaMTech, Inc., 58 East Sunset Way, Suite 209, Issaquah, WA 98027, USA
| | | | - James A. Golen
- University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 285 Old Westport Road, North Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA
| | - David R. Manke
- University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 285 Old Westport Road, North Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA
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22
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Glatfelter GC, Naeem M, Pham DNK, Golen JA, Chadeayne AR, Manke DR, Baumann MH. Receptor Binding Profiles for Tryptamine Psychedelics and Effects of 4-Propionoxy- N,N-dimethyltryptamine in Mice. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2023; 6:567-577. [PMID: 37082754 PMCID: PMC10111620 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.2c00222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Abstract
Analogues of 4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (psilocybin) are being sold on recreational drug markets and developed as potential medications for psychedelic-assisted therapies. Many of these tryptamine-based psilocybin analogues produce psychedelic-like effects in rodents and humans primarily by agonist activity at serotonin 2A receptors (5-HT2A). However, the comprehensive pharmacological target profiles for these compounds compared to psilocybin and its active metabolite 4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (psilocin) are unknown. The present study determined the receptor binding profiles of various tryptamine-based psychedelics structurally related to psilocybin across a broad range of potential targets. Specifically, we examined tryptamine psychedelics with different 4-position (hydroxy, acetoxy, propionoxy) and N,N-dialkyl (dimethyl, methyl-ethyl, diethyl, methyl-propyl, ethyl-propyl, diisopropyl, methyl-allyl, diallyl) substitutions. Further, the psilocybin analogue 4-propionoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (4-PrO-DMT) was administered to mice in experiments measuring head twitch response (HTR), locomotor activity, and body temperature. Overall, the present pharmacological profile screening data show that the tryptamine psychedelics target multiple serotonin receptors, including serotonin 1A receptors (5-HT1A). 4-Acetoxy and 4-propionoxy analogues of 4-hydroxy compounds displayed somewhat weaker binding affinities but similar target profiles across 5-HT receptors and other identified targets. Additionally, differential binding screen profiles were observed with N,N-dialkyl position variations across several non-5-HT receptor targets (i.e., alpha receptors, dopamine receptors, histamine receptors, and serotonin transporters), which could impact in vivo pharmacological effects of the compounds. In mouse experiments, 4-PrO-DMT displayed dose-related psilocybin-like effects to produce 5-HT2A-mediated HTR (0.3-3 mg/kg s.c.) as well as 5-HT1A-mediated hypothermia and hypolocomotion (3-30 mg/kg s.c.). Lastly, our data support a growing body of evidence that the 5-HT2A-mediated HTR induced by tryptamine psychedelics is attenuated by 5-HT1A receptor agonist activity at high doses in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grant C. Glatfelter
- Designer
Drug Research Unit, National Institute on
Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland 21224 United States
| | - Marilyn Naeem
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of Massachusetts Dartmouth, North Dartmouth, Massachusetts 02747, United States
| | - Duyen N. K. Pham
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of Massachusetts Dartmouth, North Dartmouth, Massachusetts 02747, United States
| | - James A. Golen
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of Massachusetts Dartmouth, North Dartmouth, Massachusetts 02747, United States
| | | | - David R. Manke
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of Massachusetts Dartmouth, North Dartmouth, Massachusetts 02747, United States
| | - Michael H. Baumann
- Designer
Drug Research Unit, National Institute on
Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland 21224 United States
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23
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Zia FZ, Baumann MH, Belouin SJ, Dworkin RH, Ghauri MH, Hendricks PS, Henningfield JE, Lanier RK, Ross S, Berger A. Are psychedelic medicines the reset for chronic pain? Preliminary findings and research needs. Neuropharmacology 2023; 233:109528. [PMID: 37015315 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/06/2023]
Abstract
Chronic pain is a leading cause of disability, reduced productivity, healthcare seeking, and a contributor to opioid overdose in the United States. For many people, pain can be satisfactorily managed by existing medicines and comprehensive psychosocial treatments. For others, available treatments are either ineffective or not acceptable due to side effects and concerns about risks. Preliminary evidence suggests that some psychedelics may be effective for certain types of pain and/or improved quality of life with increased functionality and reduced disability and distress in people whose pain may never be completely relieved. Efficacy in these quality-of-life related outcomes would be consistent with the "reset in thinking" about chronic pain management increasingly called for as a more realistic goal for some people than complete elimination of pain. This commentary summarizes the rationale for conducting more basic research and clinical trials to further explore the potential for psychedelics in chronic pain management. And, if shown to be effective, to determine whether the effects of psychedelics are primarily due to direct antinociceptive or anti-inflammatory mechanisms, or via increased tolerability, acceptance, and sense of spirituality, that appear to at least partially mediate the therapeutic effects of psychedelics observed in psychiatric disorders such as major depression. This commentary represents a collaboration of clinical and more basic scientists examining these issues and developing recommendations for research ranging from neuropharmacology to the biopsychosocial treatment factors that appear to be as important in pain management as in depression and other disorders in which psychedelic medicines are under development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farah Z Zia
- Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, OCCAM 9609 Medical Center Drive, Suite 1W-706, Rockville, MD, 20850, USA.
| | - Michael H Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit (DDRU) Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, 333 Cassell Drive, Suite 4400, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Sean J Belouin
- United States Public Health Service, Germantown, MD, USA; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Robert H Dworkin
- University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY, USA; Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Management, Hospital for Special Surgery Research Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - Majid H Ghauri
- Spine and Pain Clinics of North America, Fair Oaks Medical Building, 4001 Fair Ridge Drive, Suite 202, Fairfax, VA, USA; University of Virginia (UVA) Health System, Departments of Anesthesiology and Pain Management, 1215 Lee Street, Charlottesville, VA, 22903, USA
| | - Peter S Hendricks
- Department of Health Behavior, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1665 University Blvd Birmingham, AL 3522, USA
| | - Jack E Henningfield
- PineyAssociates, Inc, 4800 Montgomery Lane, Suite 400, Bethesda, MD, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ryan K Lanier
- PineyAssociates, Inc, 4800 Montgomery Lane, Suite 400, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Stephen Ross
- NYU Langone Center for Psychedelic Medicine, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, One Park Ave, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Ann Berger
- Pain and Palliative Care, National Institutes of Health Clinical Center, Bethesda, MD, USA
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24
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Wulff AB, Nichols CD, Thompson SM. Preclinical perspectives on the mechanisms underlying the therapeutic actions of psilocybin in psychiatric disorders. Neuropharmacology 2023; 231:109504. [PMID: 36921889 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023]
Abstract
Psychedelic compounds have shown extraordinary potential in treating a wide range of neuropsychiatric disorders. Psilocybin, for example, has now been shown in several clinical trials to induce a rapid (within days) and persistent (3-12 months) improvement in human treatment-resistant depression and other neuropsychiatric conditions. Here we review the preclinical models and experimental approaches that have been used to study the neurobiological actions of psychedelic drugs. We further summarize the insights these studies have provided into the possible mechanisms underlying the induction of their therapeutic actions, including the receptors to which psychedelics bind and the second messenger signaling cascades that they activate. We also discuss potential biological processes that psychedelics may alter to produce the lasting amelioration of symptoms, including improvements in synaptic structure and function and suppression of inflammation. Improved mechanistic understanding of psychedelic drug actions will aid in the advancement of these promising new medicines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas B Wulff
- Department of Physiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA; Program in Neuroscience, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Charles D Nichols
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, LSU Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Scott M Thompson
- Department of Physiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
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25
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The Bright Side of Psychedelics: Latest Advances and Challenges in Neuropharmacology. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24021329. [PMID: 36674849 PMCID: PMC9865175 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24021329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The need to identify effective therapies for the treatment of psychiatric disorders is a particularly important issue in modern societies. In addition, difficulties in finding new drugs have led pharmacologists to review and re-evaluate some past molecules, including psychedelics. For several years there has been growing interest among psychotherapists in psilocybin or lysergic acid diethylamide for the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder, of depression, or of post-traumatic stress disorder, although results are not always clear and definitive. In fact, the mechanisms of action of psychedelics are not yet fully understood and some molecular aspects have yet to be well defined. Thus, this review aims to summarize the ethnobotanical uses of the best-known psychedelic plants and the pharmacological mechanisms of the main active ingredients they contain. Furthermore, an up-to-date overview of structural and computational studies performed to evaluate the affinity and binding modes to biologically relevant receptors of ibogaine, mescaline, N,N-dimethyltryptamine, psilocin, and lysergic acid diethylamide is presented. Finally, the most recent clinical studies evaluating the efficacy of psychedelic molecules in some psychiatric disorders are discussed and compared with drugs already used in therapy.
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26
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Hobbs C. The Health and Clinical Benefits of Medicinal Fungi. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2023; 184:285-356. [PMID: 37468715 DOI: 10.1007/10_2023_230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
The human uses of mushrooms and cultured mycelium products for nutrition and medicine are detailed and supported by available human studies, which in many cases are clinical trials published in peer-reviewed journals. The major medically active immunomodulating compounds in the cell walls-chitin, beta-glucans, and glycoproteins, as well as lower weight molecules-nitrogen-containing compounds, phenolics, and terpenes-are discussed in relation to their current clinical uses. The nutritional content and foods derived from mushrooms, particularly related to their medical benefits, are discussed. High-quality major nutrients such as the high amounts of complete protein and prebiotic fibers found in edible and medicinal fungi and their products are presented. Mushrooms contain the highest amount of valuable medicinal fiber, while dried fruiting bodies of some fungi have up to 80% prebiotic fiber. These fibers are particularly complex and are not broken down in the upper gut, so they can diversify the microbiome and increase the most beneficial species, leading to better immune regulation and increasing normalizing levels of crucial neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine. Since the growth of medicinal mushroom products is expanding rapidly worldwide, attention is placed on reviewing important aspects of mushroom and mycelium cultivation and quality issues relating to adulteration, substitution, and purity and for maximizing medicinal potency. Common questions surrounding medicinal mushroom products in the marketplace, particularly the healing potential of fungal mycelium compared with fruiting bodies, extraction methods, and the use of fillers in products, are all explored, and many points are supported by the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Hobbs
- Institute for Natural Products Research, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA.
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27
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Psilocybin for Depression: From Credibility to Feasibility, What's Missing? Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 16:ph16010068. [PMID: 36678564 PMCID: PMC9861656 DOI: 10.3390/ph16010068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Psilocybin has been suggested as a promising transdiagnostic treatment strategy for a wide range of psychiatric disorders. Recent findings showed that psychedelic-assisted/"psycholitic" psychotherapy should provide significant and sustained alleviation of depressive symptoms. However, to date, there have been several study limitations (e.g., small sample sizes, blinding, limited follow-up, highly screened treatment populations) and some health/political issues, including practitioners' experience, lack of standardized protocols, psychedelics' legal status, ethical concerns, and potential psychological/psychopathological/medical untoward effects. The focus here is on a range of clinical and methodological issues, also aiming at outlining some possible suggestions. We are confident that newer evidence, more precise protocols, and eventual reclassification policies may allow a better understanding of the real potential of psilocybin as a transdiagnostic therapeutic molecule.
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