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Devi LS, Casadidio C, Gigliobianco MR, Di Martino P, Censi R. Multifunctionality of cyclodextrin-based polymeric nanoparticulate delivery systems for chemotherapeutics, combination therapy, and theranostics. Int J Pharm 2024; 654:123976. [PMID: 38452831 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2024.123976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
As cancer being the most difficult disease to treat, different kinds of medications and therapeutic approaches have been prominently developed by scientists. For certain families of drugs, such as immuno-therapeutics or antibody-drug conjugates, efficient delivery systems are required during administration to protect the drugs from chemical degradation or biological inactivation. Delivery systems with the ability to carry different therapeutics or diagnostic agents or both, hold promising potential to tackle the abnormalities behind cancer. In this context, this review provides updated insights on how cyclodextrin-based polymeric nanosystems have become an effective treatment approach against cancer. Cyclodextrins (CDs) are natural oligosaccharides that are famously exploited in pharmaceutical research due to their exceptional quality of entrapping water-insoluble molecules inside their hydrophobic core and providing enhanced solubility with the help of their hydrophilic exterior. Combining the properties of CDs with polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) brings out excellent versatile and tunable profiles, thanks to the submicron-sized PNPs. By introducing the significance of CD as a delivery system, a collective discussion on different binding approaches and release mechanisms of CD-drug complexation, followed by their characterization studies has been done in this review. Further, in light of recent studies, the article majorly focuses on conveying how promoting CD to a polymeric and nanoscale elevates the multifunctional advantages against cancer that can be successfully applied in combination therapy and theranostics. Moreover, CD-based delivery systems including CALAA-01, CRLX101, and CRLX301, have demonstrated improved tumor targeting, reduced side effects, and prolonged drug release in preclinical studies and clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lakshmi Sathi Devi
- School of Pharmacy, Drug Delivery Division, University of Camerino, ChIP Research Center, Via Madonna delle Carceri, 62032 Camerino, (MC), Italy
| | - Cristina Casadidio
- School of Pharmacy, Drug Delivery Division, University of Camerino, ChIP Research Center, Via Madonna delle Carceri, 62032 Camerino, (MC), Italy; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Utrecht University 99, 3508 TB Utrecht, the Netherlands.
| | - Maria Rosa Gigliobianco
- School of Pharmacy, Drug Delivery Division, University of Camerino, ChIP Research Center, Via Madonna delle Carceri, 62032 Camerino, (MC), Italy.
| | - Piera Di Martino
- Department of Pharmacy, Università "G. d'Annunzio" di Chieti e Pescara, Via dei Vestini 1, 66100 Chieti, (CH), Italy
| | - Roberta Censi
- School of Pharmacy, Drug Delivery Division, University of Camerino, ChIP Research Center, Via Madonna delle Carceri, 62032 Camerino, (MC), Italy
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Zlotnikov ID, Malashkeevich SM, Belogurova NG, Kudryashova EV. Thermoreversible Gels Based on Chitosan Copolymers as "Intelligent" Drug Delivery System with Prolonged Action for Intramuscular Injection. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15051478. [PMID: 37242720 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15051478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Revised: 05/06/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Thermosensitive gels based on copolymers (PEG-chitosan, chitosan-polyethylenimine, chitosan-arginine and glycol-chitosan-spermine) are presented as promising polycations for the formation of DNA polyplexes and the potential for the development of drugs with prolonged release (up to 30 days). Being in liquid form at room temperature, such compounds can be injected into muscle tissue with rapid gel formation at human body temperature. An intramuscular depot is formed with a therapeutic agent that provides a gradual release of the drug, such as an antibacterial or cytostatic. The physico-chemical parameters of the formation of polyplexes between polycationic polymers of various compositions and molecular architecture and DNA were studied via FTIR, UV-vis and fluorescence spectroscopy using the dyes rhodamine 6G (R6G) and acridine orange (AO). The competitive displacement of AO from AO-DNA complexes showed that, with a ratio of N/P = 1, most of the DNA is bound to a polycation. During the formation of polyplexes, the DNA charge is neutralized by a polycation, which is reflected in electrophoretic immobility. The cationic polymers described in this work at a concentration of 1-4% are capable of forming gels, and the thermoreversible property is most characteristic of pegylated chitosan. BSA, as a model anionic molecule, is released by half in 5 days from the Chit5-PEG5 gel; full release is achieved in 18-20 days. At the same time, in 5 days, the gel is destroyed up to 30%, and in 20 days, by 90% (release of chitosan particles). For the first time, flow cytometry was used to study DNA polyplexes, which showed the existence of fluorescent particles in a much larger number in combination with free DNA. Thus, functional stimulus-sensitive polymers are potentially applicable for the creation of prolonged therapeutic formulations for gene delivery systems, which were obtained. The revealed regularities appear to be a platform for the design of polyplexes with controllable stability, in particular, fulfilling the requirements imposed for gene delivery vehicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor D Zlotnikov
- Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory, 1/3, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | | | - Natalia G Belogurova
- Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory, 1/3, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Elena V Kudryashova
- Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory, 1/3, 119991 Moscow, Russia
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Zlotnikov ID, Kudryashova EV. Spectroscopy Approach for Highly-Efficient Screening of Lectin-Ligand Interactions in Application for Mannose Receptor and Molecular Containers for Antibacterial Drugs. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15050625. [PMID: 35631451 PMCID: PMC9146875 DOI: 10.3390/ph15050625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Rational search of a ligand for a specific receptor is a cornerstone of a typical drug discovery process. However, to make it more “rational” one would appreciate having detailed information on the functional groups involved in ligand-receptor interaction. Typically, the 3D structure of a ligand-receptor complex can be built on the basis of time-consuming X-ray crystallography data. Here, a combination of FTIR and fluorescence methods, together with appropriate processing, yields valuable information about the functional groups of both the ligand and receptor involved in the interaction, with the simplicity of conventional spectrophotometry. We have synthesized the “molecular containers” based on cyclodextrins, polyethyleneimines (PEI) or spermine with mannose-rich side-chains of different molecular architecture (reticulated, star-shaped and branched) with variable parameters to facilitate delivery to alveolar macrophages. We have shown that synthetic mannose-rich conjugates are highly affine to the model mannose receptor ConA: Kd ≈ 10−5–10−7 M vs. natural ligand trimannoside (10−5 M). Further, it was shown that molecular containers effectively load levofloxacin (dissociation constants are 5·10−4–5·10−6 M) and the eugenol adjuvant (up to 15–80 drug molecules for each conjugate molecule) by including them in the cyclodextrins cavities, as well as by interacting with polymer chains. Promising formulations of levofloxacin and its enhancer (eugenol) in star-shaped and polymer conjugates of high capacity were obtained. UV spectroscopy demonstrated a doubling of the release time of levofloxacin into the external solution from the complexes with conjugates, and the effective action time (time of 80% release) was increased from 0.5 to 20–70 h. The synergy effect of antibacterial activity of levofloxacin and its adjuvants eugenol and apiol on Escherichia coli was demonstrated: the minimum effective concentration of the antibiotic was approximately halved.
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Against the Resilience of High-Grade Gliomas: Gene Therapies (Part II). Brain Sci 2021; 11:brainsci11080976. [PMID: 34439595 PMCID: PMC8393930 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11080976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: High-grade gliomas (HGGs) still have a high rate of recurrence and lethality. Gene therapies were projected to overcome the therapeutic resilience of HGGs, due to the intrinsic genetic heterogenicity and immune evasion pathways. The present literature review strives to provide an updated overview of the novel gene therapies for HGGs treatment, highlighting evidence from clinical trials, molecular mechanisms, and future perspectives. Methods: An extensive literature review was conducted through PubMed/Medline and ClinicalTrials.gov databases, using the keywords “high-grade glioma,” “glioblastoma,” and “malignant brain tumor”, combined with “gene therapy,” “oncolytic viruses,” “suicide gene therapies,” “tumor suppressor genes,” “immunomodulatory genes,” and “gene target therapies”. Only articles in English and published in the last 15 years were chosen, further screened based on best relevance. Data were analyzed and described according to the PRISMA guidelines. Results: Viruses were the most vehicles employed for their feasibility and transduction efficiency. Apart from liposomes, other viral vehicles remain largely still experimental. Oncolytic viruses and suicide gene therapies proved great results in phase I, II preclinical, and clinical trials. Tumor suppressor, immunomodulatory, and target genes were widely tested, showing encouraging results especially for recurrent HGGs. Conclusions: Oncolytic virotherapy and suicide genes strategies are valuable second-line treatment options for relapsing HGGs. Immunomodulatory approaches, tumor suppressor, and target genes therapies may implement and upgrade standard chemoradiotherapy. Future research aims to improve safety profile and prolonging therapeutic effectiveness. Further clinical trials are needed to assess the efficacy of gene-based therapies.
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Ansari I, Singh P, Mittal A, Mahato RI, Chitkara D. 2,2-Bis(hydroxymethyl) propionic acid based cyclic carbonate monomers and their (co)polymers as advanced materials for biomedical applications. Biomaterials 2021; 275:120953. [PMID: 34218051 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.120953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Designing grafted biodegradable polymers with tailored multi-functional properties is one of the most researched fields with extensive biomedical applications. Among many biodegradable polymers, polycarbonates have gained much attention due to their ease of synthesis, high drug loading, and excellent biocompatibility profiles. Among various monomers, 2,2-bis(hydroxymethyl) propionic acid (bis-MPA) derived cyclic carbonate monomers have been extensively explored in terms of their synthesis as well as their polymerization. Since the late 90s, significant advancements have been made in the design of bis-MPA derived cyclic carbonate monomers as well as in their reaction schemes. Currently, bis-MPA derived polycarbonates have taken a form of an entire platform with a multitude of applications, the latest being in the field of nanotechnology, targeted drug, and nucleic acid delivery. The present review outlines an up to date developments that have taken place in the last two decades in the design, synthesis, and biomedical applications of bis-MPA derived cyclic carbonates and their (co)polymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imran Ansari
- Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani (BITS Pilani), Vidya Vihar Campus, Pilani, 333 031, Rajasthan, India
| | - Prabhjeet Singh
- Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani (BITS Pilani), Vidya Vihar Campus, Pilani, 333 031, Rajasthan, India
| | - Anupama Mittal
- Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani (BITS Pilani), Vidya Vihar Campus, Pilani, 333 031, Rajasthan, India
| | - Ram I Mahato
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198, USA
| | - Deepak Chitkara
- Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani (BITS Pilani), Vidya Vihar Campus, Pilani, 333 031, Rajasthan, India.
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Kumar R, Santa Chalarca CF, Bockman MR, Bruggen CV, Grimme CJ, Dalal RJ, Hanson MG, Hexum JK, Reineke TM. Polymeric Delivery of Therapeutic Nucleic Acids. Chem Rev 2021; 121:11527-11652. [PMID: 33939409 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The advent of genome editing has transformed the therapeutic landscape for several debilitating diseases, and the clinical outlook for gene therapeutics has never been more promising. The therapeutic potential of nucleic acids has been limited by a reliance on engineered viral vectors for delivery. Chemically defined polymers can remediate technological, regulatory, and clinical challenges associated with viral modes of gene delivery. Because of their scalability, versatility, and exquisite tunability, polymers are ideal biomaterial platforms for delivering nucleic acid payloads efficiently while minimizing immune response and cellular toxicity. While polymeric gene delivery has progressed significantly in the past four decades, clinical translation of polymeric vehicles faces several formidable challenges. The aim of our Account is to illustrate diverse concepts in designing polymeric vectors towards meeting therapeutic goals of in vivo and ex vivo gene therapy. Here, we highlight several classes of polymers employed in gene delivery and summarize the recent work on understanding the contributions of chemical and architectural design parameters. We touch upon characterization methods used to visualize and understand events transpiring at the interfaces between polymer, nucleic acids, and the physiological environment. We conclude that interdisciplinary approaches and methodologies motivated by fundamental questions are key to designing high-performing polymeric vehicles for gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramya Kumar
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | | | - Matthew R Bockman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Craig Van Bruggen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Christian J Grimme
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Rishad J Dalal
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Mckenna G Hanson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Joseph K Hexum
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Theresa M Reineke
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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Xu C, Yu B, Qi Y, Zhao N, Xu F. Versatile Types of Cyclodextrin-Based Nucleic Acid Delivery Systems. Adv Healthc Mater 2021; 10:e2001183. [PMID: 32935932 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202001183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 08/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Nowadays, nucleic acid therapy has become a promising way for the treatment of various malignant diseases. Cyclodextrin (CD)-based nucleic acid delivery systems have attracted widespread attention due to the favorable chemical structures and excellent biological properties of CD. Recently, a variety of CD-based nucleic acid delivery systems has been designed according to the different functions of CD for flexible gene therapies. In this review, the construction strategies and biomedical applications of CD-based nucleic acid delivery systems are mainly focused on. The review begins with an introduction to the synthesis and properties of simple CD-grafted polycations. Thereafter, CD-related supramolecular assemblies based on different guest components are discussed in detail. Finally, different CD-based organic/inorganic nanohybrids and their relevant functions are demonstrated. It is hoped that this brief review will motivate the delicate design of CD-based nucleic acid delivery systems for potential clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Xu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering Key Lab of Biomedical Materials of Natural Macromolecules (Beijing University of Chemical Technology Ministry of Education) Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials Beijing University of Chemical Technology Beijing 100029 China
| | - Bingran Yu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering Key Lab of Biomedical Materials of Natural Macromolecules (Beijing University of Chemical Technology Ministry of Education) Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials Beijing University of Chemical Technology Beijing 100029 China
| | - Yu Qi
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering Key Lab of Biomedical Materials of Natural Macromolecules (Beijing University of Chemical Technology Ministry of Education) Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials Beijing University of Chemical Technology Beijing 100029 China
| | - Nana Zhao
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering Key Lab of Biomedical Materials of Natural Macromolecules (Beijing University of Chemical Technology Ministry of Education) Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials Beijing University of Chemical Technology Beijing 100029 China
| | - Fu‐Jian Xu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering Key Lab of Biomedical Materials of Natural Macromolecules (Beijing University of Chemical Technology Ministry of Education) Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials Beijing University of Chemical Technology Beijing 100029 China
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Wei Q, Bai L, Qin X, Hu C, Li L, Jiang W, Song F, Wang Y. Contrastive study on β-cyclodextrin polymers resulted from different cavity-modifying molecules as efficient bi-functional adsorbents. REACT FUNCT POLYM 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2020.104686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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9
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Seidi F, Jin Y, Xiao H. Polycyclodextrins: Synthesis, functionalization, and applications. Carbohydr Polym 2020; 242:116277. [PMID: 32564845 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2020] [Revised: 03/17/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Cyclodextrins (CDs) are cyclic oligosaccharides with unique conical structure enabling host-guest inclusion complexes. However, virgin CDs sufferfrom low solubility, lack of functional groups and its inability to strong complexation with the guests. One of the most efficient ways to improve the properties of cyclodextrins is the synthesis of polycyclodextrins. Generally, there are two types of polycyclodextrins: 1) polymers containing CD units as parts of the main backbone; and 2) polymers with CD units as side chains. These polycyclodextrins are produced (i) from direct copolymerization of virgin cyclodextrins or cyclodextrins derivatives with various monomers including isocyanates, epoxides, carboxylic acids, anhydrides, acrylates, acrylamides and fluorinated aromatic compounds, or (ii) by post-functionalization of other polymers with CDs or CD derivatives.. By selecting the proper derivatives of CDs and controlling the polymerization, polycyclodextrins with linear, hyperbranched, and crosslinked structures have been synthesized. Polycyclodextrins have found significant applications in numerous areas, as adsorbents for removal of organic pollutants, carriers in gene/drug delivery, and for preparation of supramolecular based hydrogels. The focus of this review paper is placed on the synthesis, characterization, and applications of CDs so as to highlight challenges as well as the promising features of the future ahead of material developments based on CDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farzad Seidi
- Provincial Key Lab of Pulp and Paper Science and Technology and Joint International Research Lab of Lignocellulosic Functional Materials, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
| | - Yongcan Jin
- Provincial Key Lab of Pulp and Paper Science and Technology and Joint International Research Lab of Lignocellulosic Functional Materials, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Huining Xiao
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, New Brunswick, E3B 5A3 Canada.
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Cyclodextrin as a magic switch in covalent and non-covalent anticancer drug release systems. Carbohydr Polym 2020; 242:116401. [PMID: 32564836 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Revised: 04/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Cancer has been a threat to human health, so its treatment is a huge challenge to the present medical field. One of commonly used methods is the controlled release of anticancer drug to reduce the dose for patients, increase the stability of drug treatment and minimize side effects. Cyclodextrin is a kind of cyclic oligosaccharide produced by amylase hydrolysis. Because cyclodextrin contains a cavity structure and active hydroxyl groups, it has a positive effect on the study of the controlled release of anticancer drugs. This article reviews the controlled release of current anticancer drugs based on cyclodextrins as a "flexible switch", and discusses the classification of different types of release systems, highlighting their role in cancer treatment. Moreover, the opportunities and challenges of cyclodextrin as a magic switch in the controlled release of anticancer drugs are discussed.
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Caira MR. Cyclodextrin Inclusion of Medicinal Compounds for Enhancement of their Physicochemical and Biopharmaceutical Properties. Curr Top Med Chem 2019; 19:2357-2370. [PMID: 31648636 DOI: 10.2174/1568026619666191018101524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2018] [Revised: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Owing to their wide structural diversity and unique complexing properties, cyclodextrins (CDs) find manifold applications in drug discovery and development. The focus of this mini-review is on their uses as 'enabling excipients' both in the context of early drug discovery and in subsequent optimisation of drug performance. Features highlighted here include descriptions of the structures of CDs, synthetic derivatisation to fine-tune their properties, the nature of inclusion complexation of drugs within the CD cavity, methodology for the study of free and complexed hosts in the solid state and in solution, the inherent pharmacological activity of several CDs and its utility, novel CD-based drug delivery systems, and the role of CDs in drug discovery and optimisation. Illustrative examples are generally based on research reported during the last two decades. Application of CDs to the optimisation of the performance of established drugs is commonplace, but there are many opportunities for the intervention of CDs during the early stages of drug discovery, which could guide the selection of suitable candidates for development, thereby contributing to reducing the attrition rate of new molecular entities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mino R Caira
- Department of Chemistry, Centre for Supramolecular Chemistry Research, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa
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Lai WF, Hu C, Deng G, Lui KH, Wang X, Tsoi TH, Wang S, Wong WT. A biocompatible and easy-to-make polyelectrolyte dressing with tunable drug delivery properties for wound care. Int J Pharm 2019; 566:101-110. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2019.05.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Revised: 04/19/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Design of cyclodextrin-based systems for intervention execution. DELIVERY OF THERAPEUTICS FOR BIOGERONTOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS 2019. [PMCID: PMC7150343 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-816485-3.00005-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Technologies for nucleic acid delivery have displayed high practical potential in mediating genetic manipulation to modulate metabolic pathways to combat aging. In the previous chapter, we have delineated a series of techniques for designing and developing polymeric vectors as nonviral carriers. Based on what we have discussed, this chapter will introduce how the delivery performance and versatility of polymeric vectors can be further enhanced by using cyclodextrins (CDs). Over the years, CDs have shown promising application potential in different areas, ranging from controlled drug release to chiral separation of basic drugs. These applications are largely mediated by the ability of CDs to undergo host–guest inclusion complexation. Upon incorporation of CDs into the design of a polymeric vector, not only can the flexibility of the design be increased, but the development of a multifunctional carrier for genetic manipulation can also be facilitated.
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Xu FJ. Versatile types of hydroxyl-rich polycationic systems via O-heterocyclic ring-opening reactions: From strategic design to nucleic acid delivery applications. Prog Polym Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2017.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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15
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Delivery of NF-κB shRNA using carbamate-mannose modified PEI for eliminating cancer stem cells. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2017; 14:405-414. [PMID: 29175597 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2017.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2017] [Revised: 10/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The presence of cancer stem cells (CSCs) is one of the main reasons that cause cancer relapse and metastasis. In this study, NF-κB shRNA was delivered to target CSCs using carbamate-mannose modified PEI (CMP) as a non-viral gene vector. The polymer was synthesized by blocking primary amine groups of branched PEI (10kDa) through nucleophilic addition between PEI and protected mannose-functionalized cyclic carbonate, followed by mannose deprotection. CMP/control shRNA nanocomplexes showed lower cytotoxicity and higher transfection efficiency in 4T1 murine breast cancer cells than unmodified PEI/control shRNA nanocomplexes. Importantly, CMP/NF-κB shRNA nanocomplexes (CMPN) were capable of inhibiting migration and invasion, decreasing mammosphere and colony formation and lowering ALDH+ CSC population. Furthermore, CMPN not only induced apoptosis and inhibited cell proliferation, but also sensitized the cells to the treatment with doxorubicin-loaded micellar nanoparticles. Therefore, CMPN may provide a promising approach for eliminating CSCs to prevent cancer relapse and metastasis.
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Zhao MR, Wang LS, Liu HW, Wang YJ, Yang H. Preparation, physicochemical characterization and in vitro dissolution studies of azithromycin-cyclodextrin inclusion complexes. J INCL PHENOM MACRO 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s10847-016-0613-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Wu X, Gao L, Hu XY, Wang L. Supramolecular Drug Delivery Systems Based on Water-Soluble Pillar[n]arenes. CHEM REC 2016; 16:1216-27. [DOI: 10.1002/tcr.201500265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Wu
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry of MOE Center for Multimolecular Organic Chemistry School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Nanjing University; Nanjing 210023 P. R. China
| | - Lei Gao
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry of MOE Center for Multimolecular Organic Chemistry School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Nanjing University; Nanjing 210023 P. R. China
| | - Xiao-Yu Hu
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry of MOE Center for Multimolecular Organic Chemistry School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Nanjing University; Nanjing 210023 P. R. China
| | - Leyong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Mesoscopic Chemistry of MOE Center for Multimolecular Organic Chemistry School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering; Nanjing University; Nanjing 210023 P. R. China
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Teo PY, Cheng W, Hedrick JL, Yang YY. Co-delivery of drugs and plasmid DNA for cancer therapy. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2016; 98:41-63. [PMID: 26529199 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2015.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Revised: 10/21/2015] [Accepted: 10/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cancer is an extremely complex disease involving multiple signaling pathways that enable tumor cells to evade programmed cell death, thus making cancer treatment extremely challenging. The use of combination therapy involving both gene therapy and chemotherapy has resulted in enhanced anti-cancer effects and has become an increasingly important strategy in medicine. This review will cover important design parameters that are incorporated into delivery systems for the co-administration of drug and plasmid-based nucleic acids (pDNA and shRNA), with particular emphasis on polymers as delivery materials. The unique challenges faced by co-delivery systems and the strategies to overcome such barriers will be discussed. In addition, the advantages and disadvantages of combination therapy using separate carrier systems versus the use of a single carrier will be evaluated. Finally, future perspectives in the design of novel platforms for the combined delivery of drugs and genes will be presented.
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Lai WF, Shum HC. Hypromellose-graft-chitosan and Its Polyelectrolyte Complex as Novel Systems for Sustained Drug Delivery. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2015; 7:10501-10510. [PMID: 25946653 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b01984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Polyelectrolyte complexes formed between chitosan (CS) and anionic polymers have attracted increasing interest in drug delivery. In this study, CS is copolymerized with hypromellose via a coupling reagent-mediated approach to form a water-soluble, nontoxic CS derivative, namely hypromellose-graft-CS (HC), which is subsequently complexed with carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) to generate a polyampholytic hydrogel. When compared with conventional CS, HC is highly water-soluble across a wide pH range, and has a substantially higher pH buffering capacity to provide a pH-stable environment for delivery of drugs. In addition, the polyelectrolyte complex of HC exhibits a drug encapsulation efficiency of over 90% in all drugs tested, which is 1-2 fold higher than the efficiency attainable by the polyelectrolyte complex of conventional CS, with a 2-3 fold longer duration of sustained drug release. Our results indicate that as a novel polymer, HC has excellent promise for future pharmaceutical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wing-Fu Lai
- †Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Ho Cheung Shum
- †Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
- ‡HKU-Shenzhen Institute of Research and Innovation, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518000, China
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Zhao Y, Yu B, Hu H, Hu Y, Zhao NN, Xu FJ. New low molecular weight polycation-based nanoparticles for effective codelivery of pDNA and drug. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2014; 6:17911-17919. [PMID: 25247587 DOI: 10.1021/am5046179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The development of new cationic nanoparticles that are safe and effective for biomedical applications has attracted considerable attention. Low molecular weight polycations generally exhibit low toxicity; however, their poor efficiency in drug delivery systems hampers their application. In this work, a series of new low molecular weight 2,6-bis(1-methylbenzimidazolyl)pyridinyl (BIP)-terminated ethanolamine-functionalized poly(glycidyl methacrylate)s (BIP-PGEAs) were readily fabricated for effective codelivery of a gene and a drug. The BIP-PGEAs could form well-defined cationic nanoparticles (NPs) in an aqueous solution. They could effectively bind pDNA with an appropriate particle size and ζ-potential. More importantly, the BIP-PGEA NPs demonstrated much higher transfection efficiencies than linear PGEA (L-PGEA) and the traditional "gold-standard" branched polyethylenimine (25 kDa). Moreover, the BIP-PGEA NPs could effectively entrap a hydrophobic anticancer drug such as 10-hydroxy camptothecin (CPT). The synergistic antitumor effect of the BIP-PGEA-CPT NPs was demonstrated by employing a suicide gene therapy system, which contained cytosine deaminase and 5-fluorocytosine (CD/5-FC). The present strategy for preparing well-defined cationic nanoparticles from low-molecular-weight polycations could provide an intriguing method to produce new multifunctional, therapeutic NPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology , Beijing 100029, China
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Kwiatkowska A, Nandhu MS, Behera P, Chiocca EA, Viapiano MS. Strategies in gene therapy for glioblastoma. Cancers (Basel) 2013; 5:1271-305. [PMID: 24202446 PMCID: PMC3875940 DOI: 10.3390/cancers5041271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2013] [Accepted: 10/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive form of brain cancer, with a dismal prognosis and extremely low percentage of survivors. Novel therapies are in dire need to improve the clinical management of these tumors and extend patient survival. Genetic therapies for GBM have been postulated and attempted for the past twenty years, with variable degrees of success in pre-clinical models and clinical trials. Here we review the most common approaches to treat GBM by gene therapy, including strategies to deliver tumor-suppressor genes, suicide genes, immunomodulatory cytokines to improve immune response, and conditionally-replicating oncolytic viruses. The review focuses on the strategies used for gene delivery, including the most common and widely used vehicles (i.e., replicating and non-replicating viruses) as well as novel therapeutic approaches such as stem cell-mediated therapy and nanotechnologies used for gene delivery. We present an overview of these strategies, their targets, different advantages, and challenges for success. Finally, we discuss the potential of gene therapy-based strategies to effectively attack such a complex genetic target as GBM, alone or in combination with conventional therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aneta Kwiatkowska
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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Abstract
Cyclodextrins (CDs) are naturally occurring cyclic oligosaccharides. They consist of (α-1,4)-linked glucose units, and possess a basket-shaped topology with an "inner-outer" amphiphilic character. Over the years, substantial efforts have been undertaken to investigate the possible use of CDs in drug delivery and controlled drug release, yet the potential of CDs in gene delivery has received comparatively less discussion in the literature. In this article, we will first discuss the properties of CDs for gene delivery, followed by a synopsis of the use of CDs in development and modification of non-viral gene carriers. Finally, areas that are noteworthy in CD-based gene delivery will be highlighted for future research. Due to the application prospects of CDs, it is anticipated that CDs will continue to emerge as an important tool for vector development, and will play significant roles in facilitating non-viral gene delivery in the forthcoming decades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wing-Fu Lai
- Division in Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, College of Dentistry, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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Zhang J, Ma PX. Cyclodextrin-based supramolecular systems for drug delivery: recent progress and future perspective. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2013; 65:1215-33. [PMID: 23673149 PMCID: PMC3885994 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2013.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 561] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2012] [Revised: 04/28/2013] [Accepted: 05/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The excellent biocompatibility and unique inclusion capability as well as powerful functionalization capacity of cyclodextrins and their derivatives make them especially attractive for engineering novel functional materials for biomedical applications. There has been increasing interest recently to fabricate supramolecular systems for drug and gene delivery based on cyclodextrin materials. This review focuses on state of the art and recent advances in the construction of cyclodextrin-based assemblies and their applications for controlled drug delivery. First, we introduce cyclodextrin materials utilized for self-assembly. The fabrication technologies of supramolecular systems including nanoplatforms and hydrogels as well as their applications in nanomedicine and pharmaceutical sciences are then highlighted. At the end, the future directions of this field are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianxiang Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Peter X Ma
- Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Macromolecular Science and Engineering Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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Patnaik S, Gupta KC. Novel polyethylenimine-derived nanoparticles for in vivo gene delivery. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2012; 10:215-28. [PMID: 23252504 DOI: 10.1517/17425247.2013.744964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Branched and linear polyethylenimines (PEIs) are cationic polymers that have been used to deliver nucleic acids both in vitro and in vivo. Owing to the high cationic charge, the branched polymers exhibit high transfection efficiency, and particularly PEI of molecular weight 25 kDa is considered as a gold standard in gene delivery. These polymers have been extensively studied and modified with different ligands so as to achieve the targeted delivery. AREAS COVERED The application of PEI in vivo promises to take the polymer-based vector to the next level wherein it can undergo clinical trials and subsequently could be used for delivery of therapeutics in humans. This review focuses on the various recent developments that have been made in the field of PEI-based delivery vectors for delivery of therapeutics in vivo. EXPERT OPINION The efficacy of PEI-based delivery vectors in vivo is significantly high and animal studies demonstrate that such systems have a potential in humans. However, we feel that though PEI is a promising vector, further studies involving PEI in animal models are needed so as to get a detailed toxicity profile of these vectors. Also, it is imperative that the vector reaches the specific organ causing little or no undesirable effects to other organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soma Patnaik
- CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, M.G. Marg, Lucknow, 226 001, India
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Samal SK, Dash M, Van Vlierberghe S, Kaplan DL, Chiellini E, van Blitterswijk C, Moroni L, Dubruel P. Cationic polymers and their therapeutic potential. Chem Soc Rev 2012; 41:7147-94. [PMID: 22885409 DOI: 10.1039/c2cs35094g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 459] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The last decade has witnessed enormous research focused on cationic polymers. Cationic polymers are the subject of intense research as non-viral gene delivery systems, due to their flexible properties, facile synthesis, robustness and proven gene delivery efficiency. Here, we review the most recent scientific advances in cationic polymers and their derivatives not only for gene delivery purposes but also for various alternative therapeutic applications. An overview of the synthesis and preparation of cationic polymers is provided along with their inherent bioactive and intrinsic therapeutic potential. In addition, cationic polymer based biomedical materials are covered. Major progress in the fields of drug and gene delivery as well as tissue engineering applications is summarized in the present review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangram Keshari Samal
- Polymer Chemistry & Biomaterials Research Group, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281, S4-Bis, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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Fan H, Hu QD, Xu FJ, Liang WQ, Tang GP, Yang WT. In vivo treatment of tumors using host-guest conjugated nanoparticles functionalized with doxorubicin and therapeutic gene pTRAIL. Biomaterials 2012; 33:1428-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.10.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2011] [Accepted: 10/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Salústio PJ, Pontes P, Conduto C, Sanches I, Carvalho C, Arrais J, Marques HMC. Advanced technologies for oral controlled release: cyclodextrins for oral controlled release. AAPS PharmSciTech 2011; 12:1276-92. [PMID: 21948320 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-011-9690-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2010] [Accepted: 09/07/2011] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclodextrins (CDs) are used in oral pharmaceutical formulations, by means of inclusion complexes formation, with the following advantages for the drugs: (1) solubility, dissolution rate, stability, and bioavailability enhancement; (2) to modify the drug release site and/or time profile; and (3) to reduce or prevent gastrointestinal side effects and unpleasant smell or taste, to prevent drug-drug or drug-additive interactions, or even to convert oil and liquid drugs into microcrystalline or amorphous powders. A more recent trend focuses on the use of CDs as nanocarriers, a strategy that aims to design versatile delivery systems that can encapsulate drugs with better physicochemical properties for oral delivery. Thus, the aim of this work was to review the applications of the CDs and their hydrophilic derivatives on the solubility enhancement of poorly water-soluble drugs in order to increase their dissolution rate and get immediate release, as well as their ability to control (to prolong or to delay) the release of drugs from solid dosage forms, either as complexes with the hydrophilic (e.g., as osmotic pumps) and/or hydrophobic CDs. New controlled delivery systems based on nanotechnology carriers (nanoparticles and conjugates) have also been reviewed.
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Díaz-Moscoso A, Guilloteau N, Bienvenu C, Méndez-Ardoy A, Jiménez Blanco JL, Benito JM, Le Gourriérec L, Di Giorgio C, Vierling P, Defaye J, Ortiz Mellet C, García Fernández JM. Mannosyl-coated nanocomplexes from amphiphilic cyclodextrins and pDNA for site-specific gene delivery. Biomaterials 2011; 32:7263-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2011] [Accepted: 06/09/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Böhm I, Kreth SK, Ritter H, Branscheid R, Kolb U. Switchable Supramolecular Crosslinking of Cyclodextrin-Modified Hyperbranched Polyethylenimine via Anthraquinone Dyes. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.201100259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Arun KT, Jayaram DT, Avirah RR, Ramaiah D. β-Cyclodextrin as a Photosensitizer Carrier: Effect on Photophysical Properties and Chemical Reactivity of Squaraine Dyes. J Phys Chem B 2011; 115:7122-8. [DOI: 10.1021/jp201784b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kalliat T. Arun
- Photosciences and Photonics, Chemical Sciences and Technology Division, National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST), CSIR, Trivandrum 695 019, India
| | - Dhanya T. Jayaram
- Photosciences and Photonics, Chemical Sciences and Technology Division, National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST), CSIR, Trivandrum 695 019, India
| | - Rekha R. Avirah
- Photosciences and Photonics, Chemical Sciences and Technology Division, National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST), CSIR, Trivandrum 695 019, India
| | - Danaboyina Ramaiah
- Photosciences and Photonics, Chemical Sciences and Technology Division, National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST), CSIR, Trivandrum 695 019, India
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Hu QD, Fan H, Ping Y, Liang WQ, Tang GP, Li J. Cationic supramolecular nanoparticles for co-delivery of gene and anticancer drug. Chem Commun (Camb) 2011; 47:5572-4. [DOI: 10.1039/c1cc10721f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Supramolecular nanoparticles have been developed to perform co-delivery of anticancer drug via host–guest interaction and EGFP gene with efficient transfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi-Da Hu
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Pharmaceutical Chemistry
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310028
- China
- Department of General Surgery
| | - Hui Fan
- Department of Pharmaceutics
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310058
- China
| | - Yuan Ping
- Division of Bioengineering
- Faculty of Engineering
- National University of Singapore
- Singapore 117574
- Singapore
| | - Wen-Quan Liang
- Department of Pharmaceutics
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310058
- China
| | - Gu-Ping Tang
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Pharmaceutical Chemistry
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310028
- China
| | - Jun Li
- Division of Bioengineering
- Faculty of Engineering
- National University of Singapore
- Singapore 117574
- Singapore
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