Mammalian O-mannosylation pathway: glycan structures, enzymes, and protein substrates

Malformations of Core M3 on α-Dystroglycan Are the Leading Cause of Dystroglycanopathies

Dystroglycanopathies (DGPs) are a group of autosomal recessive neuromuscular diseases with significant clinical and genetic heterogeneity. They originate due to defects in the O-mannosyl glycosylation of α-dystroglycan (α-DG), a prominent linker between the intracellular cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix (ECM). Fundamentally, such interactions are crucial for the integrity of muscle fibers and neuromuscular synapses, where their defects are mainly associated with muscle and brain dysfunction. To date, biallelic variants in 18 genes have been associated with DGPs, where the underlying cause is still undefined in a significant proportion of patients. Glycosylation of α-DG generates three core motifs where the core M3 is responsible for interaction with the basement membrane. Consistently, all gene defects that corrupt core M3 maturation have been identified as causes of DGPs. POMGNT1 which stimulates the generation of core M1 is also associated with DGPs, as it plays a central role in core M3 processing. Other genes involved in the glycosylation of α-DG seem unrelated to DPGs. The current review illustrates the O-mannosylation pathway of α-DG highlighting the functional properties of related genes and their contribution to the progression of DPGs. Different classes of DPGs are also elaborated characterizing the clinical features of each distinct type and phenotypes associated with each single gene. Finally, current therapeutic approaches with favorable outcomes are addressed. Potential achievements of preclinical and clinical studies would introduce effective curative therapies for this group of disorders in the near future.

Phosphorylation of N-glycans in the brain: The case for a non-canonical pathway?

Asparagine-linked glycosylation (N-glycosylation) is a common co- and post-translational modification that refers to the addition of complex carbohydrates, called N-linked glycans (N-glycans), to asparagine residues within defined sequons of polypeptide acceptors. Some N-glycans can be modified by the addition of phosphate moieties to their monosaccharide residues, thus forming phospho-N-glycans (PNGs). The most prominent such carbohydrate modification is mannose-6-phosphate (M6P) which plays a well-established role in trafficking of acid hydrolases to lysosomes. However, comparatively little is known about potential alternative types of glycan phosphorylation, particularly when it comes to the brain which is especially rich in phosphorylated oligosaccharides. Combining data from the literature and novel insights derived from our own analyses of published datasets, here we present what is currently known about PNGs in the brain and the glycoproteins they modify. We show that brain PNGs exhibit several distinctive features that don't completely align with our current understanding of the canonical M6P pathway. Furthermore, we demonstrate that there are numerous differences in the way that lysosomal and non-lysosomal neural glycoproteins are modified by PNGs. Based on these observations, we put forward the hypothesis that, in addition to the conventional M6P pathway, the brain employs an alternative oligosaccharide phosphorylation mechanism for the modification of a discrete set of glycoproteins. Here we examine the evidence underpinning this hypothesis and discuss the implications that it raises. Overall, our work suggests that phosphorylation of N-glycans in the brain may be more complex and more diverse than previously recognised.

White Isthmus Transcriptome Analysis Reveals the Mechanism of Translucent Eggshell Formation

The presence of translucent eggshells is a type of egg quality issue that impacts egg sales. While many researchers have studied them, the exact mechanisms behind their formation remain unclear. In this study, we conducted a transcriptomic differential expression analysis of the isthmus region of the oviduct in both normal egg- and translucent egg-laying hens. The analysis revealed that differentially expressed gene pathways were predominantly concentrated in the synthesis, modification, and transport of eggshell membrane proteins, particularly collagen proteins, which provide structural support. These findings suggest that variations in the physical structure of the eggshell membrane, resulting from changes in its chemical composition, are the fundamental cause of translucent eggshell formation. This research provides a theoretical reference for reducing the occurrence of translucent eggs.

The underlying mechanisms of arenaviral entry through matriglycan

Matriglycan, a recently characterized linear polysaccharide, is composed of alternating xylose and glucuronic acid subunits bound to the ubiquitously expressed protein α-dystroglycan (α-DG). Pathogenic arenaviruses, like the Lassa virus (LASV), hijack this long linear polysaccharide to gain cellular entry. Until recently, it was unclear through what mechanisms LASV engages its matriglycan receptor to initiate infection. Additionally, how matriglycan is synthesized onto α-DG by the Golgi-resident glycosyltransferase LARGE1 remained enigmatic. Recent structural data for LARGE1 and for the LASV spike complex informs us about the synthesis of matriglycan as well as its usage as an entry receptor by arenaviruses. In this review, we discuss structural insights into the system of matriglycan generation and eventual recognition by pathogenic viruses. We also highlight the unique usage of matriglycan as a high-affinity host receptor compared with other polysaccharides that decorate cells.

Cancer snap-shots: Biochemistry and glycopathology of O-glycans: A review

Cancer pathogenesis is strongly linked to the qualitative and quantitative alteration of the cell surface glycans, that are glycosidically linked to proteins and lipids. Glycans that are covalently linked to the polypeptide backbone of a protein through nitrogen or oxygen, are known as N-glycans or O-glycans, respectively. Although the role of glycans in the expression, physiology, and communication of cells is well documented, the function of these glycans in tumor biology is not fully elucidated. In this context, current review summarizes biosynthesis, modifications and pathological implications of O-glycans The review also highlights illustrative examples of cancer types modulated by aberrant O-glycosylation. Related O-glycans like Thomsen-nouveau (Tn), Thomsen-Friedenreich (TF), Lewisa/x, Lewisb/y, sialyl Lewisa/x and some other O-glycans are discussed in detail. Since, the overexpression of O-glycans are attributed to the aggressiveness and metastatic behavior of cancer cells, the current review attempts to understand the relation between metastasis and O-glycans.

Identification of the native Torpedo californica nicotinic acetylcholine receptor's glycan composition after a multi-step sequential purification method using MALDI-ToF MS

The Cys-loop pentameric ligand-gated ion channels comprise a dynamic group of proteins that have been extensively studied for decades, yielding a wealth of findings at both the structural and functional levels. The nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) is no exception, as it is part of this large protein family involved in proper organismal function. Our efforts have successfully produced a highly pure nAChR in detergent complex (nAChR-DC), enabling more robust studies to be conducted on it, including beginning to experiment with high-throughput crystallization. Our homogeneous product has been identified and extensively characterized with 100% identity using Nano Lc MS/MS and MALDI ToF/ToF for each nAChR subunit. Additionally, the N-linked glycans in the Torpedo californica-nAChR (Tc-nAChR) subunits have been identified. To study this, the Tc-nAChR subunits were digested with PNGase F and the released glycans were analyzed by MALDI-ToF. The MS results showed the presence of high-mannose N-glycan in all native Tc-nAChR subunits. Specifically, the oligommanose population Man8-9GlcNac2 with peaks at m/z 1742 and 1904 ([M + Na]+ ions) were observed.

Protein O-mannosylation: one sugar, several pathways, many functions

Recent research has unveiled numerous important functions of protein glycosylation in development, homeostasis, and diseases. A type of glycosylation taking the center stage is protein O-mannosylation, a posttranslational modification conserved in a wide range of organisms, from yeast to humans. In animals, protein O-mannosylation plays a crucial role in the nervous system, whereas protein O-mannosylation defects cause severe neurological abnormalities and congenital muscular dystrophies. However, the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying protein O-mannosylation functions and biosynthesis remain not well understood. This review outlines recent studies on protein O-mannosylation while focusing on the functions in the nervous system, summarizes the current knowledge about protein O-mannosylation biosynthesis, and discusses the pathologies associated with protein O-mannosylation defects. The evolutionary perspective revealed by studies in the Drosophila model system are also highlighted. Finally, the review touches upon important knowledge gaps in the field and discusses critical questions for future research on the molecular and cellular mechanisms associated with protein O-mannosylation functions.

Glycan analysis of Lamin A/C protein at G2/M and S phases of the cell cycle

During mitosis, phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of lamins triggers the nuclear envelope disassembly/assembly. However, it hasn't been known whether lamin proteins undergo any modification other than phosphorylation during the cell cycle. Glycosylation of lamin proteins is one of the less studied post-translational modification. Glycosylation and phosphorylation compete for the same positions and interplay between two modifications generate a post-translational code in the cell. Based on this, we hypothesized that glycosylation of lamin A/C protein may be important in the regulation of the structural organization of the nuclear lamina during interphase and mitosis. We analysed the glycan units of lamin A/C protein in lung carcinoma cells synchronized at G2/M and S phases via CapLC-ESI-MS/MS. Besides, the outermost glycan units were determined using lectin blotting and gold-conjugated antibody and lectin staining. TEM studies also allowed us to observe the localization of glycosylated lamin A/C protein. With this study, we determined that lamin A/C protein shows O-glycosylation at G2/M and S phases of the cell cycle. In addition to O-GlcNAcylation and O-GalNAcylation, lamin A/C is found to be contain Gal, Fuc, Man, and Sia sugars at G2/M and S phases for the first time. Having found the glycan units of the lamin A/C protein suggests that glycosylation might have a role in the nuclear organization during the cell cycle.

Protein O-mannosylation across kingdoms and related diseases: From glycobiology to glycopathology

The post-translational glycosylation of proteins by O-linked α-mannose is conserved from bacteria to humans. Due to advances in high-throughput mass spectrometry-based approaches, a variety of glycoproteins are identified to be O-mannosylated. Various proteins with O-mannosylation are involved in biological processes, providing essential necessity for proper growth and development. In this review, we summarize the process and regulation of O-mannosylation. The multi-step O-mannosylation procedures are quite dynamic and complex, especially when considering the structural and functional inspection of the involved enzymes. The widely studied O-mannosylated proteins in human include α-Dystroglycan (α-DG), cadherins, protocadherins, and plexin, and their aberrant O-mannosylation are associated with many diseases. In addition, O-mannosylation also contributes to diverse functions in lower eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Finally, we present the relationship between O-mannosylation and gut microbiota (GM), and elucidate that O-mannosylation in microbiome is of great importance in the dynamic balance of GM. Our study provides an overview of the processes of O-mannosylation in mammalian cells and other organisms, and also associated regulated enzymes and biological functions, which could contribute to the understanding of newly discovered O-mannosylated glycoproteins.

Crystal structures of β-1,4-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase 2: structural basis for inherited muscular dystrophies

The canonical O-mannosylation pathway in humans is essential for the functional glycosylation of α-dystroglycan. Disruption of this post-translational modification pathway leads to congenital muscular dystrophies. The first committed step in the construction of a functional matriglycan structure involves the post-translational modification of α-dystroglycan. This is essential for binding extracellular matrix proteins and arenaviruses, and is catalyzed by β-1,4-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase 2 (POMGNT2). While another glycosyl transferase, β-1,4-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase 1 (POMGNT1), has been shown to be promiscuous in extending O-mannosylated sites, POMGNT2 has been shown to display significant primary amino-acid selectivity near the site of O-mannosylation. Moreover, several single point mutations in POMGNT2 have been identified in patients with assorted dystroglycanopathies such as Walker-Warburg syndrome and limb girdle muscular dystrophy. To gain insight into POMGNT2 function in humans, the enzyme was expressed as a soluble, secreted fusion protein by transient infection of HEK293 suspension cultures. Here, crystal structures of POMGNT2 (amino-acid residues 25-580) with and without UDP bound are reported. Consistent with a novel fold and a unique domain organization, no molecular-replacement model was available and phases were obtained through crystallization of a selenomethionine variant of the enzyme in the same space group. Tetragonal (space group P4212; unit-cell parameters a = b = 129.8, c = 81.6 Å, α = γ = β = 90°) crystals with UDP bound diffracted to 1.98 Å resolution and contained a single monomer in the asymmetric unit. Orthorhombic (space group P212121; unit-cell parameters a = 142.3, b = 153.9, c = 187.4 Å, α = γ = β = 90°) crystals were also obtained; they diffracted to 2.57 Å resolution and contained four monomers with differential glycosylation patterns and conformations. These structures provide the first rational basis for an explanation of the loss-of-function mutations and offer significant insights into the mechanics of this important human enzyme.

Separation and Identification of Permethylated Glycan Isomers by Reversed Phase NanoLC-NSI-MSn

HPLC has been employed for decades to enhance detection sensitivity and quantification of complex analytes within biological mixtures. Among these analytes, glycans released from glycoproteins and glycolipids have been characterized as underivatized or fluorescently tagged derivatives by HPLC coupled to various detection methods. These approaches have proven extremely useful for profiling the structural diversity of glycoprotein and glycolipid glycosylation but require the availability of glycan standards and secondary orthogonal degradation strategies to validate structural assignments. A robust method for HPLC separation of glycans as their permethylated derivatives, coupled with in-line multidimensional ion fragmentation (MSn) to assign structural features independent of standards, would significantly enhance the depth of knowledge obtainable from biological samples. Here, we report an optimized workflow for LC-MS analysis of permethylated glycans that includes sample preparation, mobile phase optimization, and MSn method development to resolve structural isomers on-the-fly. We report baseline separation and MSn of isomeric N- and O-glycan structures, aided by supplementing mobile phases with Li+, which simplifies adduct heterogeneity and facilitates cross-ring fragmentation to obtain valuable monosaccharide linkage information. Our workflow has been adapted from standard proteomics-based workflows and, therefore, provides opportunities for laboratories with expertise in proteomics to acquire glycomic data with minimal deviation from existing buffer systems, chromatography media, and instrument configurations. Furthermore, our workflow does not require a mass spectrometer with high-resolution/accurate mass capabilities. The rapidly evolving appreciation of the biological significance of glycans for human health and disease requires the implementation of high-throughput methods to identify and quantify glycans harvested from sample sets of sufficient size to achieve appropriately powered statistical significance. The LC-MSn approach we report generates glycan isomeric separations and robust structural characterization and is amenable to autosampling with associated throughput enhancements.

HNK-1 sulfotransferase modulates α-dystroglycan glycosylation by 3-O-sulfation of glucuronic acid on matriglycan

Mutations in multiple genes required for proper O-mannosylation of α-dystroglycan are causal for congenital/limb-girdle muscular dystrophies and abnormal brain development in mammals. Previously, we and others further elucidated the functional O-mannose glycan structure that is terminated by matriglycan, [(-GlcA-β3-Xyl-α3-)n]. This repeating disaccharide serves as a receptor for proteins in the extracellular matrix. Here, we demonstrate in vitro that HNK-1 sulfotransferase (HNK-1ST/carbohydrate sulfotransferase) sulfates terminal glucuronyl residues of matriglycan at the 3-hydroxyl and prevents further matriglycan polymerization by the LARGE1 glycosyltransferase. While α-dystroglycan isolated from mouse heart and kidney is susceptible to exoglycosidase digestion of matriglycan, the functional, lower molecular weight α-dystroglycan detected in brain, where HNK-1ST expression is elevated, is resistant. Removal of the sulfate cap by a sulfatase facilitated dual-glycosidase digestion. Our data strongly support a tissue specific mechanism in which HNK-1ST regulates polymer length by competing with LARGE for the 3-position on the nonreducing GlcA of matriglycan.

Folded or Degraded in Endoplasmic Reticulum

In consistent with other membrane-bound and secretory proteins, immune checkpoint proteins go through a set of modifications in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to acquire their native functional structures before they function at their destinations. There are various ER-resident chaperones and enzymes synergistically regulate and catalyze the glycosylation, folding and transporting of proteins. The whole processing is under the surveillance of ER quality control system which allows the correctly folded proteins to exit from the ER with the help of coat proteinII(COPII) coated vesicles, while retains the rest of terminally misfolded ones in the ER and then eliminates them via ER-associated degradation (ERAD) or ER-to-lysosomes-associated degradation (ERLAD). The dysfunction of the ER causes ER stress which triggers unfolded protein response (UPR) to restore ER proteostasis. Unsolvable prolonged ER stress ultimately results in cell death. This chapter reviews the process that proteins undergo in the ER, and the glycosylation, folding and degradation of immune checkpoint proteins as well as the associated potential immunotherapies to date.

Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of O-Mannose Glycans Containing Sulfated or Nonsulfated HNK-1 Epitope

The human natural killer-1 (HNK-1) epitope is a unique sulfated trisaccharide sequence presented on O- and N-glycans of various glycoproteins and on glycolipids. It is overexpressed in the nervous system and plays crucial roles in nerve regeneration, synaptic plasticity, and neuronal diseases. However, the investigation of functional roles of HNK-1 in a more complex glycan context at the molecular level remains a big challenge due to lack of access to related structurally well-defined complex glycans. Herein, we describe a highly efficient chemoenzymatic approach for the first collective synthesis of HNK-1-bearing O-mannose glycans with different branching patterns, and for their nonsulfated counterparts. The successful strategy relies on both chemical glycosylation of a trisaccharide lactone donor for the introduction of sulfated HNK-1 branch and substrate promiscuities of bacterial glycosyltransferases that can tolerate sulfated substrates for enzymatic diversification. Glycan microarray analysis with the resulting complex synthetic glycans demonstrated their recognition by two HNK-1-specific antibodies including anti-HNK-1/N-CAM (CD57) and Cat-315, which provided further evidence for the recognition epitopes of these antibodies and the essential roles of the sulfate group for HNK-1 glycan-antibody recognition.

A new patient-derived iPSC model for dystroglycanopathies validates a compound that increases glycosylation of α-dystroglycan

Dystroglycan, an extracellular matrix receptor, has essential functions in various tissues. Loss of α-dystroglycan-laminin interaction due to defective glycosylation of α-dystroglycan underlies a group of congenital muscular dystrophies often associated with brain malformations, referred to as dystroglycanopathies. The lack of isogenic human dystroglycanopathy cell models has limited our ability to test potential drugs in a human- and neural-specific context. Here, we generated induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from a severe dystroglycanopathy patient with homozygous FKRP (fukutin-related protein gene) mutation. We showed that CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene correction of FKRP restored glycosylation of α-dystroglycan in iPSC-derived cortical neurons, whereas targeted gene mutation of FKRP in wild-type cells disrupted this glycosylation. In parallel, we screened 31,954 small molecule compounds using a mouse myoblast line for increased glycosylation of α-dystroglycan. Using human FKRP-iPSC-derived neural cells for hit validation, we demonstrated that compound 4-(4-bromophenyl)-6-ethylsulfanyl-2-oxo-3,4-dihydro-1H-pyridine-5-carbonitrile (4BPPNit) significantly augmented glycosylation of α-dystroglycan, in part through upregulation of LARGE1 glycosyltransferase gene expression. Together, isogenic human iPSC-derived cells represent a valuable platform for facilitating dystroglycanopathy drug discovery and therapeutic development.

The sugar code: letters and vocabulary, writers, editors and readers and biosignificance of functional glycan-lectin pairing

Ubiquitous occurrence in Nature, abundant presence at strategically important places such as the cell surface and dynamic shifts in their profile by diverse molecular switches qualifies the glycans to serve as versatile biochemical signals. However, their exceptional structural complexity often prevents one noting how simple the rules of objective-driven assembly of glycan-encoded messages are. This review is intended to provide a tutorial for a broad readership. The principles of why carbohydrates meet all demands to be the coding section of an information transfer system, and this at unsurpassed high density, are explained. Despite appearing to be a random assortment of sugars and their substitutions, seemingly subtle structural variations in glycan chains by a sophisticated enzymatic machinery have emerged to account for their specific biological meaning. Acting as 'readers' of glycan-encoded information, carbohydrate-specific receptors (lectins) are a means to turn the glycans' potential to serve as signals into a multitude of (patho)physiologically relevant responses. Once the far-reaching significance of this type of functional pairing has become clear, the various modes of spatial presentation of glycans and of carbohydrate recognition domains in lectins can be explored and rationalized. These discoveries are continuously revealing the intricacies of mutually adaptable routes to achieve essential selectivity and specificity. Equipped with these insights, readers will gain a fundamental understanding why carbohydrates form the third alphabet of life, joining the ranks of nucleotides and amino acids, and will also become aware of the importance of cellular communication via glycan-lectin recognition.

Muscular Dystrophy with Ribitol-Phosphate Deficiency: A Novel Post-Translational Mechanism in Dystroglycanopathy

Muscular dystrophy is a group of genetic disorders characterized by progressive muscle weakness. In the early 2000s, a new classification of muscular dystrophy, dystroglycanopathy, was established. Dystroglycanopathy often associates with abnormalities in the central nervous system. Currently, at least eighteen genes have been identified that are responsible for dystroglycanopathy, and despite its genetic heterogeneity, its common biochemical feature is abnormal glycosylation of alpha-dystroglycan. Abnormal glycosylation of alpha-dystroglycan reduces its binding activities to ligand proteins, including laminins. In just the last few years, remarkable progress has been made in determining the sugar chain structures and gene functions associated with dystroglycanopathy. The normal sugar chain contains tandem structures of ribitol-phosphate, a pentose alcohol that was previously unknown in humans. The dystroglycanopathy genes fukutin, fukutin-related protein (FKRP), and isoprenoid synthase domain-containing protein (ISPD) encode essential enzymes for the synthesis of this structure: fukutin and FKRP transfer ribitol-phosphate onto sugar chains of alpha-dystroglycan, and ISPD synthesizes CDP-ribitol, a donor substrate for fukutin and FKRP. These findings resolved long-standing questions and established a disease subgroup that is ribitol-phosphate deficient, which describes a large population of dystroglycanopathy patients. Here, we review the history of dystroglycanopathy, the properties of the sugar chain structure of alpha-dystroglycan, dystroglycanopathy gene functions, and therapeutic strategies.

Protein Glycosylation and Tumor Microenvironment Alterations Driving Cancer Hallmarks

Decades of research have disclosed a plethora of alterations in protein glycosylation that decisively impact in all stages of disease and ultimately contribute to more aggressive cell phenotypes. The biosynthesis of cancer-associated glycans and its reflection in the glycoproteome is driven by microenvironmental cues and these events act synergistically toward disease evolution. Such intricate crosstalk provides the molecular foundations for the activation of relevant oncogenic pathways and leads to functional alterations driving invasion and disease dissemination. However, it also provides an important source of relevant glyco(neo)epitopes holding tremendous potential for clinical intervention. Therefore, we highlight the transversal nature of glycans throughout the currently accepted cancer hallmarks, with emphasis on the crosstalk between glycans and the tumor microenvironment stromal components. Focus is also set on the pressing need to include glycans and glycoconjugates in comprehensive panomics models envisaging molecular-based precision medicine capable of improving patient care. We foresee that this may provide the necessary rationale for more comprehensive studies and molecular-based intervention.

Multiple distinct O-Mannosylation pathways in eukaryotes

Protein O-mannosylation (O-Man), originally discovered in yeast five decades ago, is an important post-translational modification (PTM) conserved from bacteria to humans, but not found in plants or nematodes. Until recently, the homologous family of ER-located protein O-mannosyl transferases (PMT1-7 in yeast; POMT1/POMT2 in humans), were the only known enzymes involved in directing O-Man biosynthesis in eukaryotes. However, recent studies demonstrate the existence of multiple distinct O-Man glycosylation pathways indicating that the genetic and biosynthetic regulation of O-Man in eukaryotes is more complex than previously envisioned. Introduction of sensitive glycoproteomics strategies provided an expansion of O-Man glycoproteomes in eukaryotes (yeast and mammalian cell lines) leading to the discovery of O-Man glycosylation on important mammalian cell adhesion (cadherin superfamily) and signaling (plexin family) macromolecules, and to the discovery of unique nucleocytoplasmic O-Man glycosylation in yeast. It is now evident that eukaryotes have multiple distinct O-Man glycosylation pathways including: i) the classical PMT1-7 and POMT1/POMT2 pathway conserved in all eukaryotes apart from plants; ii) a yet uncharacterized nucleocytoplasmic pathway only found in yeast; iii) an ER-located pathway directed by the TMTC1-4 genes found in metazoans and protists and primarily dedicated to the cadherin superfamily; and iv) a yet uncharacterized pathway found in metazoans primarily dedicated to plexins. O-Man glycosylation is thus emerging as a much more widespread and evolutionary diverse PTM with complex genetic and biosynthetic regulation. While deficiencies in the POMT1/POMT2 O-Man pathway underlie muscular dystrophies, the TMTC1-4 pathway appear to be involved in distinct congenital disorders with neurodevelopmental phenotypes. Here, we review and discuss the recent discoveries of the new non-classical O-Man glycosylation pathways, their substrates, functions and roles in disease.

Novel Myopia Genes and Pathways Identified From Syndromic Forms of Myopia

Purpose

To test the hypothesis that genes known to cause clinical syndromes featuring myopia also harbor polymorphisms contributing to nonsyndromic refractive errors.

Methods

Clinical phenotypes and syndromes that have refractive errors as a recognized feature were identified using the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database. One hundred fifty-four unique causative genes were identified, of which 119 were specifically linked with myopia and 114 represented syndromic myopia (i.e., myopia and at least one other clinical feature). Myopia was the only refractive error listed for 98 genes and hyperopia and the only refractive error noted for 28 genes, with the remaining 28 genes linked to phenotypes with multiple forms of refractive error. Pathway analysis was carried out to find biological processes overrepresented within these sets of genes. Genetic variants located within 50 kb of the 119 myopia-related genes were evaluated for involvement in refractive error by analysis of summary statistics from genome-wide association studies (GWAS) conducted by the CREAM Consortium and 23andMe, using both single-marker and gene-based tests.

Results

Pathway analysis identified several biological processes already implicated in refractive error development through prior GWAS analyses and animal studies, including extracellular matrix remodeling, focal adhesion, and axon guidance, supporting the research hypothesis. Novel pathways also implicated in myopia development included mannosylation, glycosylation, lens development, gliogenesis, and Schwann cell differentiation. Hyperopia was found to be linked to a different pattern of biological processes, mostly related to organogenesis. Comparison with GWAS findings further confirmed that syndromic myopia genes were enriched for genetic variants that influence refractive errors in the general population. Gene-based analyses implicated 21 novel candidate myopia genes (ADAMTS18, ADAMTS2, ADAMTSL4, AGK, ALDH18A1, ASXL1, COL4A1, COL9A2, ERBB3, FBN1, GJA1, GNPTG, IFIH1, KIF11, LTBP2, OCA2, POLR3B, POMT1, PTPN11, TFAP2A, ZNF469).

Conclusions

Common genetic variants within or nearby genes that cause syndromic myopia are enriched for variants that cause nonsyndromic, common myopia. Analysis of syndromic forms of refractive errors can provide new insights into the etiology of myopia and additional potential targets for therapeutic interventions.

Chemoenzymatic Assembly of Mammalian O-Mannose Glycans

O-Mannose glycans account up to 30 % of total O-glycans in the brain. Previous synthesis and functional studies have only focused on the core M3 O-mannose glycans of α-dystroglycan, which are a causative factor for various muscular diseases. In this study, a highly efficient chemoenzymatic strategy was developed that enabled the first collective synthesis of 63 core M1 and core M2 O-mannose glycans. This chemoenzymatic strategy features the gram-scale chemical synthesis of five judiciously designed core structures, and the diversity-oriented modification of the core structures with three enzyme modules to provide 58 complex O-mannose glycans in a linear sequence that does not exceed four steps. The binding profiles of synthetic O-mannose glycans with a panel of lectins, antibodies, and brain proteins were also explored by using a printed O-mannose glycan array.

Rapid screening of sugar-nucleotide donor specificities of putative glycosyltransferases

Determining the correct enzymatic activity of putative glycosyltransferases (GTs) can be challenging as these enzymes can utilize multiple donor and acceptor substrates. Upon initial determination of the donor-sugar nucleotide(s), a GT utilizes various acceptor molecules that can then be tested. Here, we describe a quick method to screen sugar-nucleotide donor specificities of GTs utilizing a sensitive, nonradioactive, commercially available bioluminescent uridine diphosphate detection kit. This in vitro method allowed us to validate the sugar-nucleotide donor-substrate specificities of recombinantly expressed human, bovine, bacterial and protozoan GTs. Our approach, which is less time consuming than many traditional assays that utilize radiolabeled sugars and chromatographic separations, should facilitate discovery of novel GTs that participate in diverse biological processes.

Facile Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of O-Mannosyl Glycans

O Mannosylation is a vital protein modification involved in brain and muscle development whereas the biological relevance of O-mannosyl glycans has remained largely unknown owing to the lack of structurally defined glycoforms. An efficient scaffold synthesis/enzymatic extension (SSEE) strategy was developed to prepare such structures by combining gram-scale convergent chemical syntheses of three scaffolds and strictly controlled sequential enzymatic extension catalyzed by glycosyltransferases. In total, 45 O-mannosyl glycans were obtained, covering the majority of identified mammalian structures. Subsequent glycan microarray analysis revealed fine specificities of glycan-binding proteins and specific antisera.

Using Chemical Synthesis To Study and Apply Protein Glycosylation

Protein glycosylation is one of the most common post-translational modifications and can influence many properties of proteins. Abnormal protein glycosylation can lead to protein malfunction and serious disease. While appreciation of glycosylation's importance is growing in the scientific community, especially in recent years, a lack of homogeneous glycoproteins with well-defined glycan structures has made it difficult to understand the correlation between the structure of glycoproteins and their properties at a quantitative level. This has been a significant limitation on rational applications of glycosylation and on optimizing glycoprotein properties. Through the extraordinary efforts of chemists, it is now feasible to use chemical synthesis to produce collections of homogeneous glycoforms with systematic variations in amino acid sequence, glycosidic linkage, anomeric configuration, and glycan structure. Such a technical advance has greatly facilitated the study and application of protein glycosylation. This Perspective highlights some representative work in this research area, with the goal of inspiring and encouraging more scientists to pursue the glycosciences.

Discovery of an O-mannosylation pathway selectively serving cadherins and protocadherins

The cadherin (cdh) superfamily of adhesion molecules carry O-linked mannose (O-Man) glycans at highly conserved sites localized to specific β-strands of their extracellular cdh (EC) domains. These O-Man glycans do not appear to be elongated like O-Man glycans found on α-dystroglycan (α-DG), and we recently demonstrated that initiation of cdh/protocadherin (pcdh) O-Man glycosylation is not dependent on the evolutionary conserved POMT1/POMT2 enzymes that initiate O-Man glycosylation on α-DG. Here, we used a CRISPR/Cas9 genetic dissection strategy combined with sensitive and quantitative O-Man glycoproteomics to identify a homologous family of four putative protein O-mannosyltransferases encoded by the TMTC1-4 genes, which were found to be imperative for cdh and pcdh O-Man glycosylation. KO of all four TMTC genes in HEK293 cells resulted in specific loss of cdh and pcdh O-Man glycosylation, whereas combined KO of TMTC1 and TMTC3 resulted in selective loss of O-Man glycans on specific β-strands of EC domains, suggesting that each isoenzyme serves a different function. In addition, O-Man glycosylation of IPT/TIG domains of plexins and hepatocyte growth factor receptor was not affected in TMTC KO cells, suggesting the existence of yet another O-Man glycosylation machinery. Our study demonstrates that regulation of O-mannosylation in higher eukaryotes is more complex than envisioned, and the discovery of the functions of TMTCs provide insight into cobblestone lissencephaly caused by deficiency in TMTC3.

Recent advancements in understanding mammalian O-mannosylation

The post-translational glycosylation of select proteins by O-linked mannose (O-mannose or O-man) is a conserved modification from yeast to humans and has been shown to be necessary for proper development and growth. The most well studied O-mannosylated mammalian protein is α-dystroglycan (α-DG). Hypoglycosylation of α-DG results in varying severities of congenital muscular dystrophies, cancer progression and metastasis, and inhibited entry and infection of certain arenaviruses. Defects in the gene products responsible for post-translational modification of α-DG, primarily glycosyltransferases, are the basis for these diseases. The multitude of clinical phenotypes resulting from defective O-mannosylation highlights the biomedical significance of this unique modification. Elucidation of the various O-mannose biosynthetic pathways is imperative to understanding a broad range of human diseases and for the development of novel therapeutics. In this review, we will focus on recent discoveries delineating the various enzymes, structures and functions associated with O-mannose-initiated glycoproteins. Additionally, we discuss current gaps in our knowledge of mammalian O-mannosylation, discuss the evolution of this pathway, and illustrate the utility and limitations of model systems to study functions of O-mannosylation.

Mammalian O-mannosylation of cadherins and plexins is independent of protein O-mannosyltransferases 1 and 2

Protein O-mannosylation is found in yeast and metazoans, and a family of conserved orthologous protein O-mannosyltransferases is believed to initiate this important post-translational modification. We recently discovered that the cadherin superfamily carries O-linked mannose (O-Man) glycans at highly conserved residues in specific extracellular cadherin domains, and it was suggested that the function of E-cadherin was dependent on the O-Man glycans. Deficiencies in enzymes catalyzing O-Man biosynthesis, including the two human protein O-mannosyltransferases, POMT1 and POMT2, underlie a subgroup of congenital muscular dystrophies designated α-dystroglycanopathies, because deficient O-Man glycosylation of α-dystroglycan disrupts laminin interaction with α-dystroglycan and the extracellular matrix. To explore the functions of O-Man glycans on cadherins and protocadherins, we used a combinatorial gene-editing strategy in multiple cell lines to evaluate the role of the two POMTs initiating O-Man glycosylation and the major enzyme elongating O-Man glycans, the protein O-mannose β-1,2-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase, POMGnT1. Surprisingly, O-mannosylation of cadherins and protocadherins does not require POMT1 and/or POMT2 in contrast to α-dystroglycan, and moreover, the O-Man glycans on cadherins are not elongated. Thus, the classical and evolutionarily conserved POMT O-mannosylation pathway is essentially dedicated to α-dystroglycan and a few other proteins, whereas a novel O-mannosylation process in mammalian cells is predicted to serve the large cadherin superfamily and other proteins.

Introduction: General Aspects of the Chemical Biology of Glycoproteins

This chapter is meant to serve as an introduction to the remainder of the book by providing general background on the chemical biology of glycoproteins as well as a brief review of the chapters that follow. The purpose here is to introduce some basic concepts common to many forms of glycosylation for those readers who may be unfamiliar with the field. We begin with a discussion of the strategies and methods used to study protein glycosylation. During the overview, an effort is made to highlight a few relevant aspects of chemical glycobiology, including glycoprotein biosynthesis and a brief description of the synthesis and function of glycoproteins. Finally, we have a summary of the contributions from chemical biology over the years. It is our hope that, after reading this introductory chapter, the reader will have a broad view of the chemical glycobiology field as it currently stands and a deeper appreciation for some of the unique ideas that chemical biology brings to the field.

Induction of Antibodies Directed Against Branched Core O-Mannosyl Glycopeptides-Selectivity Complimentary to the ConA Lectin

Mammalian protein O-mannosylation, initiated by attachment of α-mannopyranose to Ser or Thr residues, comprise a group of post-translational modifications (PTMs) involved in muscle and brain development. Recent advances in glycoproteomics methodology and the "SimpleCell" strategy have enabled rapid identification of glycoproteins and specific glycosylation sites. Despite the enormous progress made, the biological impact of the mammalian O-mannosyl glycoproteome remains largely unknown to date. Tools are still needed to investigate the structure, role, and abundance of O-mannosyl glycans. Although O-mannosyl branching has been shown to be of relevance in integrin-dependent cell migration, and also plays a role in demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, a broader understanding of the biological roles of branched O-mannosyl glycans is lacking in part due to the paucity of detection tools. In this work, a glycopeptide vaccine construct was synthesized and used to generate antibodies against branched O-mannosyl glycans. Glycopeptide microarray screening revealed high selectivity of the induced antibodies for branched glycan core structures presented on different peptide backbones, with no cross-reactivity observed with related linear glycans. For comparison, microarray screening of the mannose-binding lectin concanavalin A (ConA), which is commonly used in glycoproteomics workflows to enrich tryptic O-mannosyl peptides, showed that the ConA lectin did not recognize branched O-mannosyl glycans. The binding preference of ConA for short linear O-mannosyl glycans was rationalized in terms of molecular structure using crystallographic data augmented by molecular modeling. The contrast between the ConA binding specificity and that of the new antibodies indicates a novel role for the antibodies in studies of protein O-mannosylation.

Eukaryotic protein glycosylation: a primer for histochemists and cell biologists

Proteins undergo co- and posttranslational modifications, and their glycosylation is the most frequent and structurally variegated type. Histochemically, the detection of glycan presence has first been performed by stains. The availability of carbohydrate-specific tools (lectins, monoclonal antibodies) has revolutionized glycophenotyping, allowing monitoring of distinct structures. The different types of protein glycosylation in Eukaryotes are described. Following this educational survey, examples where known biological function is related to the glycan structures carried by proteins are given. In particular, mucins and their glycosylation patterns are considered as instructive proof-of-principle case. The tissue and cellular location of glycoprotein biosynthesis and metabolism is reviewed, with attention to new findings in goblet cells. Finally, protein glycosylation in disease is documented, with selected examples, where aberrant glycan expression impacts on normal function to let disease pathology become manifest. The histological applications adopted in these studies are emphasized throughout the text.

Mannoside recognition and degradation by bacteria

Mannosides constitute a vast group of glycans widely distributed in nature. Produced by almost all organisms, these carbohydrates are involved in numerous cellular processes, such as cell structuration, protein maturation and signalling, mediation of protein-protein interactions and cell recognition. The ubiquitous presence of mannosides in the environment means they are a reliable source of carbon and energy for bacteria, which have developed complex strategies to harvest them. This review focuses on the various mannosides that can be found in nature and details their structure. It underlines their involvement in cellular interactions and finally describes the latest discoveries regarding the catalytic machinery and metabolic pathways that bacteria have developed to metabolize them.

Protein O-Linked Mannose β-1,4-N-Acetylglucosaminyl-transferase 2 (POMGNT2) Is a Gatekeeper Enzyme for Functional Glycosylation of α-Dystroglycan

Disruption of the O-mannosylation pathway involved in functional glycosylation of α-dystroglycan gives rise to congenital muscular dystrophies. Protein O-linked mannose β-1,4-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase 2 (POMGNT2) catalyzes the first step toward the functional matriglycan structure on α-dystroglycan that is responsible for binding extracellular matrix proteins and certain arenaviruses. Alternatively, protein O-linked mannose β-1,2-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase 1 (POMGNT1) catalyzes the first step toward other various glycan structures present on α-dystroglycan of unknown function. Here, we demonstrate that POMGNT1 is promiscuous for O-mannosylated peptides, whereas POMGNT2 displays significant primary amino acid selectivity near the site of O-mannosylation. We define a POMGNT2 acceptor motif, conserved among 59 vertebrate species, in α-dystroglycan that when engineered into a POMGNT1-only site is sufficient to convert the O-mannosylated peptide to a substrate for POMGNT2. Additionally, an acceptor glycopeptide is a less efficient substrate for POMGNT2 when two of the conserved amino acids are replaced. These findings begin to define the selectivity of POMGNT2 and suggest that this enzyme functions as a gatekeeper enzyme to prevent the vast majority of O-mannosylated sites on proteins from becoming modified with glycan structures functional for binding laminin globular domain-containing proteins.

Protein O-Mannosylation in the Murine Brain: Occurrence of Mono-O-Mannosyl Glycans and Identification of New Substrates

Protein O-mannosylation is a post-translational modification essential for correct development of mammals. In humans, deficient O-mannosylation results in severe congenital muscular dystrophies often associated with impaired brain and eye development. Although various O-mannosylated proteins have been identified in the recent years, the distribution of O-mannosyl glycans in the mammalian brain and target proteins are still not well defined. In the present study, rabbit monoclonal antibodies directed against the O-mannosylated peptide YAT(α1-Man)AV were generated. Detailed characterization of clone RKU-1-3-5 revealed that this monoclonal antibody recognizes O-linked mannose also in different peptide and protein contexts. Using this tool, we observed that mono-O-mannosyl glycans occur ubiquitously throughout the murine brain but are especially enriched at inhibitory GABAergic neurons and at the perineural nets. Using a mass spectrometry-based approach, we further identified glycoproteins from the murine brain that bear single O-mannose residues. Among the candidates identified are members of the cadherin and plexin superfamilies and the perineural net protein neurocan. In addition, we identified neurexin 3, a cell adhesion protein involved in synaptic plasticity, and inter-alpha-trypsin inhibitor 5, a protease inhibitor important in stabilizing the extracellular matrix, as new O-mannosylated glycoproteins.

O-mannosylation and N-glycosylation: two coordinated mechanisms regulating the tumour suppressor functions of E-cadherin in cancer

Dysregulation of tumor suppressor protein E-cadherin is an early molecular event in cancer. O-mannosylation profile of E-cadherin is a newly-described post-translational modification crucial for its adhesive functions in homeostasis. However, the role of O-mannosyl glycans in E-cadherin-mediated cell adhesion in cancer and their interplay with N-glycans remains largely unknown. We herein demonstrated that human gastric carcinomas exhibiting a non-functional E-cadherin display a reduced expression of O-mannosyl glycans concomitantly with increased modification with branched complex N-glycans. Accordingly, overexpression of MGAT5-mediated branched N-glycans both in gastric cancer cells and transgenic mice models led to a significant decrease of O-mannosyl glycans attached to E-cadherin that was associated with impairment of its tumour suppressive functions. Importantly, overexpression of protein O-mannosyltransferase 2 (POMT2) induced a reduced expression of branched N-glycans which led to a protective effect of E-cadherin biological functions. Overall, our results reveal a newly identified mechanism of (dys)regulation of E-cadherin that occur through the interplay between O-mannosylation and N-glycosylation pathway.

Cadherins Glycans in Cancer: Sweet Players in a Bitter Process

Cadherins are key components in tissue morphogenesis and architecture, contributing to the establishment of cohesive cell adhesion. Reduced cellular adhesiveness as a result of cadherin dysfunction is a defining feature of cancer. During tumor development and progression, major changes in the glycan repertoire of cancer cells take place, affecting the stability, trafficking, and cell-adhesion properties of cadherins. Importantly, the different glycoforms of cadherins are promising biomarkers, with potential clinical application to improve the management of patients, and constitute targets for the development of new therapies. This review discusses the most recent insights on the impact of glycan structure on the regulation of cadherin function in cancer, and provides a perspective on how cadherin glycans constitute tumor biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets.

Functional Similarities between the Protein O-Mannosyltransferases Pmt4 from Bakers' Yeast and Human POMT1

Protein O-mannosylation is an essential post-translational modification. It is initiated in the endoplasmic reticulum by a family of protein O-mannosyltransferases that are conserved from yeast (PMTs) to human (POMTs). The degree of functional conservation between yeast and human protein O-mannosyltransferases is uncharacterized. In bakers' yeast, the main in vivo activities are due to heteromeric Pmt1-Pmt2 and homomeric Pmt4 complexes. Here we describe an enzymatic assay that allowed us to monitor Pmt4 activity in vitro. We demonstrate that detergent requirements and acceptor substrates of yeast Pmt4 are different from Pmt1-Pmt2, but resemble that of human POMTs. Furthermore, we mimicked two POMT1 amino acid exchanges (G76R and V428D) that result in severe congenital muscular dystrophies in humans, in yeast Pmt4 (I112R and I435D). In vivo and in vitro analyses showed that general features such as protein stability of the Pmt4 variants were not significantly affected, however, the mutants proved largely enzymatically inactive. Our results demonstrate functional and biochemical similarities between POMT1 and its orthologue from bakers' yeast Pmt4.

Development of a multifunctional aminoxy-based fluorescent linker for glycan immobilization and analysis

Glycan arrays have become a technique of choice to screen glycan-protein interactions in a high-throughput manner with high sensitivity and low sample consumption. Here, the synthesis of a new multifunctional fluorescent linker for glycan labeling via aminoxy ligation and immobilization is described; the linker features a fluorescent naphthalene group suitable for highly sensitive high-performance liquid chromatography-based purification and an azido- or amino-modified pentanoyl moiety for the immobilization onto solid supports. Several glycoconjugates displaying small sugar epitopes via chemical or chemoenzymatic synthesis were covalently attached onto a microarray support and tested with lectins of known carbohydrate binding specificity. The glycan library was extended using glycosyltransferases (e.g. galactosyl-, sialyl- and fucosyltransferases); the resulting neoglycoconjugates, which are easily detected by mass spectrometry, mimic antennal elements of N- and O-glycans, including ABH blood group epitopes and sialylated structures. Furthermore, an example natural plant N-glycan containing core α1,3-fucose and β1,2-xylose was also successfully conjugated to the fluorescent linker, immobilized and probed with lectins as well as antihorseradish peroxidase. These experiments validate our linker as being a potentially valuable tool to study glycozyme and lectin specificities, sensitive enough to allow purification of natural glycans.

The functional O-mannose glycan on α-dystroglycan contains a phospho-ribitol primed for matriglycan addition

Multiple glycosyltransferases are essential for the proper modification of alpha-dystroglycan, as mutations in the encoding genes cause congenital/limb-girdle muscular dystrophies. Here we elucidate further the structure of an O-mannose-initiated glycan on alpha-dystroglycan that is required to generate its extracellular matrix-binding polysaccharide. This functional glycan contains a novel ribitol structure that links a phosphotrisaccharide to xylose. ISPD is a CDP-ribitol (ribose) pyrophosphorylase that generates the reduced sugar nucleotide for the insertion of ribitol in a phosphodiester linkage to the glycoprotein. TMEM5 is a UDP-xylosyl transferase that elaborates the structure. We demonstrate in a zebrafish model as well as in a human patient that defects in TMEM5 result in muscular dystrophy in combination with abnormal brain development. Thus, we propose a novel structure—a ribitol in a phosphodiester linkage—for the moiety on which TMEM5, B4GAT1, and LARGE act to generate the functional receptor for ECM proteins having LG domains.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.14473.001

Emerging roles of protein mannosylation in inflammation and infection

Proteins are frequently modified by complex carbohydrates (glycans) that play central roles in maintaining the structural and functional integrity of cells and tissues in humans and lower organisms. Mannose forms an essential building block of protein glycosylation, and its functional involvement as components of larger and diverse α-mannosidic glycoepitopes in important intra- and intercellular glycoimmunological processes is gaining recognition. With a focus on the mannose-rich asparagine (N-linked) glycosylation type, this review summarises the increasing volume of literature covering human and non-human protein mannosylation, including their structures, biosynthesis and spatiotemporal expression. The review also covers their known interactions with specialised host and microbial mannose-recognising C-type lectin receptors (mrCLRs) and antibodies (mrAbs) during inflammation and pathogen infection. Advances in molecular mapping technologies have recently revealed novel immuno-centric mannose-terminating truncated N-glycans, termed paucimannosylation, on human proteins. The cellular presentation of α-mannosidic glycoepitopes on N-glycoproteins appears tightly regulated; α-mannose determinants are relative rare glycoepitopes in physiological extracellular environments, but may be actively secreted or leaked from cells to transmit potent signals when required. Simultaneously, our understanding of the molecular basis on the recognition of mannosidic epitopes by mrCLRs including DC-SIGN, mannose receptor, mannose binding lectin and mrAb is rapidly advancing, together with the functional implications of these interactions in facilitating an effective immune response during physiological and pathophysiological conditions. Ultimately, deciphering these complex mannose-based receptor-ligand interactions at the detailed molecular level will significantly advance our understanding of immunological disorders and infectious diseases, promoting the development of future therapeutics to improve patient clinical outcomes.

What Have We Learned from Glycosyltransferase Knockouts in Mice?

There are five major classes of glycan including N- and O-glycans, glycosaminoglycans, glycosphingolipids, and glycophosphatidylinositol anchors, all expressed at the molecular frontier of each mammalian cell. Numerous biological consequences of altering the expression of mammalian glycans are understood at a mechanistic level, but many more remain to be characterized. Mouse mutants with deleted, defective, or misexpressed genes that encode activities necessary for glycosylation have led the way to identifying key functions of glycans in biology. However, with the advent of exome sequencing, humans with mutations in genes involved in glycosylation are also revealing specific requirements for glycans in mammalian development. The aim of this review is to summarize glycosylation genes that are necessary for mouse embryonic development, pathway-specific glycosylation genes whose deletion leads to postnatal morbidity, and glycosylation genes for which effects are mild, but perturbation of the organism may reveal functional consequences. General strategies for generating and interpreting the phenotype of mice with glycosylation defects are discussed in relation to human congenital disorders of glycosylation (CDG).

Glycosylation-directed quality control of protein folding

Membrane-bound and soluble proteins of the secretory pathway are commonly glycosylated in the endoplasmic reticulum. These adducts have many biological functions, including, notably, their contribution to the maturation of glycoproteins. N-linked glycans are of oligomeric structure, forming configurations that provide blueprints to precisely instruct the folding of protein substrates and the quality control systems that scrutinize it. O-linked mannoses are simpler in structure and were recently found to have distinct functions in protein quality control that do not require the complex structure of N-linked glycans. Together, recent studies reveal the breadth and sophistication of the roles of these glycan-directed modifications in protein biogenesis.

Chemoenzymatic synthesis of α-dystroglycan core M1 O-mannose glycans

The diversity-oriented chemoenzymatic synthesis of α-dystroglycan (α-DG) core M1 O-mannose glycans has been achieved via a three-step sequential one-pot multienzyme (OPME) glycosylation of a chemically prepared disaccharyl serine intermediate. The high flexibility and efficiency of this chemoenzymatic strategy was demonstrated for the synthesis of three more complex core M1 O-mannose glycans for the first time along with three previously reported core M1 structures.

Neurological aspects of human glycosylation disorders

This review presents principles of glycosylation, describes the relevant glycosylation pathways and their related disorders, and highlights some of the neurological aspects and issues that continue to challenge researchers. More than 100 rare human genetic disorders that result from deficiencies in the different glycosylation pathways are known today. Most of these disorders impact the central and/or peripheral nervous systems. Patients typically have developmental delays/intellectual disabilities, hypotonia, seizures, neuropathy, and metabolic abnormalities in multiple organ systems. Among these disorders there is great clinical diversity because all cell types differentially glycosylate proteins and lipids. The patients have hundreds of misglycosylated products, which afflict a myriad of processes, including cell signaling, cell-cell interaction, and cell migration. This vast complexity in glycan composition and function, along with the limited availability of analytic tools, has impeded the identification of key glycosylated molecules that cause pathologies. To date, few critical target proteins have been pinpointed.