A Quasi-Quantum Well Sensitized Solar Cell with Accelerated Charge Separation and Collection

Exploring the Potential of Quantum Dot-Sensitized Solar Cells: Innovation and Insights

Photovoltaic technologies have garnered significant attention towards generating renewable and clean energy from solar power. Quantum-dot-sensitized solar cells represent a promising third-generation photovoltaic technology that offers alternatives to conventional silicon-based solar cells due to their unique properties, their favourable optoelectronic properties for photovoltaic applications including simplified manufacturing, lower processing temperatures, enhanced flexibility, semi-transparent design, and a theoretical efficiency up to 44 %. The unique characteristic of tailoring the size and composition of quantum dots makes them valuable absorber materials capable of efficiently harnessing a broader range of the solar spectrum. The potential of quantum dot-sensitized solar cells to revolutionize the field of photovoltaic technology is a cause for optimism. However, the major limitation of the overall power conversion efficiency lies in their inability to absorb ultraviolet and near-infrared. Therefore, a photovoltaic technology that can effectively harness the entire solar spectrum becomes imperative. This review discusses the synthesis and light conversion mechanisms of these solar cells. Additionally, it offers an overview of the various advancements made in quantum dot-sensitized solar cells for enhancement in the efficiency of energy conversion. It focuses on the light-absorbing materials used, their efficiency, and the advantages and drawbacks of quantum dot solar cell technology.

Bandgap Tunable Ternary Cd x Sb2-y S3-δ Nanocrystals for Solar Cell Applications

We report the synthesis and photovoltaic performance of a new nonstoichiometric ternary metal sulfide alloyed semiconductor-Cd _x Sb_2-y S_3-δ nanocrystals prepared by the two-stage sequential ionic layer adsorption reaction technique. The synthesized Cd _x Sb_2-y S_3-δ nanocrystals retain the orthorhombic structure of the host Sb₂S₃ with Cd substituting a fraction (x = 0-0.15) of the cationic element Sb. The Cd _x Sb_2-y S_3-δ lattice expands relative to the host, Sb₂S_3, with its lattice constant a increasing linearly with Cd content x. Optical and external quantum efficiency (EQE) spectra revealed that the bandgap E _g of Cd _x Sb_2-y S_3-δ decreased from 1.99 to 1.69 eV (i.e., 625-737 nm) as x increased from 0 to 0.15. Liquid-junction Cd _x Sb_2-y S_3-δ quantum dot-sensitized solar cells were fabricated using the polyiodide electrolyte. The best cell yielded a power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 3.72% with the photovoltaic parameters of J _sc = 15.97 mA/cm², V _oc = 0.50 V, and FF = 46.6% under 1 sun. The PCE further increased to 4.86%, a respectable value for a new solar material, under a reduced light intensity of 10% sun. The PCE (4.86%) and J _sc (15.97 mA/cm²) are significantly larger than that (PCE = 1.8%, J _sc = 8.55 mA/cm²) of the Sb₂S₃ host. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy showed that the ZnSe passivation coating increased the electron lifetime by three times. The EQE spectrum of Cd _x Sb_2-y S_3-δ has a maximal EQE of 82% at λ = 350 nm and covers the spectral range of 300-750 nm, which is significantly broader than that (300-625 nm) of the Sb₂S₃ host. The EQE-integrated current density yields a J _ph of 11.76 mA/cm². The tunable bandgap and a respectable PCE near 5% suggest that Cd _x Sb_2-y S_3-δ could be a potential candidate for a solar material.

Material and Interface Engineering for High-Performance Perovskite Solar Cells: A Personal Journey and Perspective

Hybrid organic-inorganic perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have become a shining star in the photovoltaic field due to their spectacular increase in power conversion efficiency (PCE) from 3.8 % to over 23 % in just few years, opening up the potential in addressing the important future energy and environment issues. The excellent photovoltaic performance can be attributed to the unique properties of the organometal halide perovskite materials, including high absorption coefficient, tunable bandgap, high defect tolerance, and excellent charge transport characteristics. The authors entered this field when pursuing research on dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) by leveraging nanorods arrays for vectorial transport of the extracted electrons. Soon after, we and others realized that while the organometal halide perovskite materials have excellent intrinsic properties for solar cells, interface engineering is at least equally important in the development of high-performance PSCs, which includes surface defect passivation, band alignment, and heterojunction formation. Herein, we will address this topic by presenting the historical development and recent progress on the interface engineering of PSCs primarily of our own group. This review is mainly focused on the material and interface design of the conventional n-i-p, inverted p-i-n and carbon electrode-based structure devices from our own experience and perspective. Finally, the challenges and prospects of this area for future development will also be discussed.

Quantum dot-sensitized solar cells

A comprehensive overview of the development of quantum dot-sensitized solar cells (QDSCs) is presented.

Charge recombination control for high efficiency CdS/CdSe quantum dot co-sensitized solar cells with multi-ZnS layers

ZnS as an inorganic passivation agent has been proven to be effective in suppressing charge recombination and enhancing power conversion efficiency (PCE) in quantum dot-sensitized solar cells (QDSCs).

High current density cation-exchanged SnO2–CdSe/ZnSe and SnO2–CdSe/SnSe quantum-dot photoelectrochemical cells

The 9.74 mA cm⁻² current density of SnO₂–CdSe photoanode is enhanced to 19.82 and 28.40 mA cm⁻² on SnO₂–CdSe/ZnSe and SnO₂–CdSe/SnSe surface modifications, respectively, through a process of cation-exchange.

Lead-free organic–inorganic hybrid perovskite heterojunction composites for photocatalytic applications

Heterojunction structured MASnI₃/TiO₂ photocatalysts (MA represents CH₃NH₃⁺) are prepared via a facile wet-chemical method and characterized by various techniques.

High Efficiency CdS/CdSe Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells with Two ZnSe Layers

CdS/CdSe quantum dot sensitized solar cells (QDSCs) have been intensively investigated; however, most of the reported power conversion efficiency (PCE) is still lower than 7% due to serious charge recombination and a low loading amount of QDs. Therefore, suppressing charge recombination and enhancing light absorption are required to improve the performance of QDSCs. The present study demonstrated successful design and fabrication of QDSCs with a high efficiency of 7.24% based on CdS/CdSe QDs with two ZnSe layers inserted at the interfaces between QDs and TiO₂ and electrolyte. The effects of two ZnSe layers on the performance of the QDSCs were systematically investigated. The results indicated that the inner ZnSe buffer layer located between QDs and TiO₂ serves as a seed layer to enhance the subsequent deposition of CdS/CdSe QDs, which leads to higher loading amount and covering ratio of QDs on the TiO₂ photoanode. The outer ZnSe layer located between QDs and electrolyte behaves as an effective passivation layer, which not only reduces the surface charge recombination, but also enhances the light harvesting.

Efficiency Enhancement of Quantum Dot Sensitized TiO2/ZnO Nanorod Arrays Solar Cells by Plasmonic Ag Nanoparticles

A high efficiency quantum dot sensitized solar cell (QDSC) based on Ag nanoparticles (NPs) decorated TiO₂/ZnO nanorod arrays (NAs) photoelectrode has been constructed. The incorporation of Ag NPs to TiO₂/ZnO NAs photoelectrode not only increases light harvesting efficiency and facilitates exciton dissociation but also decreases surface charge recombination and prolongs electron lifetime, which collectively contribute to improving the J_sc of the CdS/CdSe QDs cosensitized solar cells. The direct contact of Ag NPs with TiO₂ NPs is undergoing Fermi level alignment; thus, the apparent Fermi level is supposed to trigger an upward shift of more negative potential, which results in an increase the V_oc of the QDSCs. As a result, the power conversion efficiency of the QDSCs with Ag NPs decorated TiO₂/ZnO NAs photoelectrode reached 5.92%, which is about 22% enhancement of the efficiency for the solar cells without Ag NPs (4.80%).

A structure of CdS/CuxS quantum dots sensitized solar cells

This work introduces a type of CdS/Cu_xS quantum dots (QDs) as sensitizers in quantum dot sensitized solar cells by in-situ cationic exchange reaction method where CdS photoanode is directly immersed in CuCl₂ methanol solution to replace Cd²⁺ by Cu²⁺. The p-type Cu_xS layer on the surface of the CdS QDs can be considered as hole transport material, which not only enhances the light harvesting of photoanode but also boosts the charge separation after photo-excitation. Therefore, both the electron collection efficiency and power conversion efficiency of the solar cell are improved from 80% to 92% and from 1.21% to 2.78%, respectively.

Ultrathin efficient perovskite solar cells employing a periodic structure of a composite hole conductor for elevated plasmonic light harvesting and hole collection

We developed a molecule/polymer composite hole transporting material (HTM) with a periodic microstructure for morphology replication of a corrugated Au electrode, which in combination plays a dual role in the optical and electronic enhancement of high performance perovskite solar cells (PSCs). The electro-optics revealed that perovskite couldn't readily extinct the red light even though the thickness increased to 370 nm, but we found that the quasi periodic microstructure composite (PMC) HTM in combination with the conformal Au electrode could promote the absorption through the enhanced cavity effects, leading to comparable absorption even using much thinner perovskite (240 nm). We identified that the cavity was the combination of Fabry-Pérot interferometer and surface plasmonic resonance, with light harvesting enhancement through surface plasmon polariton or waveguide modes that propagate in the plane of the perovskite layer. On the other hand, the PMC HTM increased hole conductivity by one order of magnitude with respect to standard spiro-OMeTAD HTM due to molecular packing and self-assembly, embodying traceable hole mobility and density elevation up to 3 times, and thus the hysteresis was greatly avoided. Owing to dual optical and electronic enhancement, the PMC PSC afforded high efficiency PSC using as thin as 240 nm perovskite layer, delivering a V(oc) of 1.05 V, J(sc) of 22.9 mA cm(-2), FF of 0.736, and efficiency amounting to 17.7% PCE, the highest efficiency with ultrathin perovskite layer.

Hierarchical nanostructures of metal oxides for enhancing charge separation and transport in photoelectrochemical solar energy conversion systems

Photoelectrochemical solar energy conversion systems, including photoelectrochemical water splitting and photoelectrochemical solar cells (dye-sensitized solar cells, DSSCs), are under intensive development aiming at efficiently harvesting and utilizing solar energy. Metal oxides carved into hierarchical nanostructures are thought to be promising for improving photoelectrochemical performance by enhancing charge separation and transport. Herein, we review the recent progress in the research on the design and applications of metal oxide hierarchical nanostructures in water splitting and DSSC systems with a view to understanding how they improve the device performance in terms of enhanced charge separation and transport properties. This review will end with a conclusion on metal oxide hierarchical nanostructures together with potential future research directions thereof.

Improvement in the photovoltaic properties of hybrid solar cells by incorporating a QD-composite in the hole transport layer

A hybrid solar cell (HSC) based on a ZnSe and CdSe QDs-composite with improved power conversion efficiency has been demonstrated.

CuSbS2: a promising semiconductor photo-absorber material for quantum dot sensitized solar cells

A novel promising ternary CuSbS₂ absorber material for quantum dot sensitized solar cells.

ZnO Hierarchical Nanostructure Photoanode in a CdS Quantum Dot-Sensitized Solar Cell

A hierarchical array of ZnO nanocones covered with ZnO nanospikes was hydrothermally fabricated and employed as the photoanode in a CdS quantum dot-sensitized solar cell (QDSSC). This QDSSC outperformed the QDSSC based on a simple ZnO nanocone photoanode in all the four principal photovoltaic parameters. Using the hierarchical photoanode dramatically increased the short circuit current density and also slightly raised the open circuit voltage and the fill factor. As a result, the conversion efficiency of the QDSSC based on the hierarchical photoanode was more than twice that of the QDSSC based on the simple ZnO nanocone photoanode. This improvement is attributable to both the enlarged specific area of the photoanode and the reduction in the recombination of the photoexcited electrons.

Defect Engineering and Phase Junction Architecture of Wide-Bandgap ZnS for Conflicting Visible Light Activity in Photocatalytic H₂ Evolution

ZnS is among the superior photocatalysts for H2 evolution, whereas the wide bandgap restricts its performance to only UV region. Herein, defect engineering and phase junction architecture from a controllable phase transformation enable ZnS to achieve the conflicting visible-light-driven activities for H2 evolution. On the basis of first-principle density functional theory calculations, electron spin resonance and photoluminescence results, etc., it is initially proposed that the regulated sulfur vacancies in wurtzite phase of ZnS play the key role of photosensitization units for charge generation in visible light and active sites for effective electron utilization. The symbiotic sphalerite-wurtzite phase junctions that dominate the charge-transfer kinetics for photoexciton separation are the indispensable configuration in the present systems. Neither ZnS samples without phase junction nor those without enough sulfur vacancies conduct visible-light photocatalytic H2 evolution, while the one with optimized phase junctions and maximum sulfur vacancies shows considerable photocatalytic activity. This work will not only contribute to the realization of visible light photocatalysis for wide-bandgap semiconductors but also broaden the vision on the design of highly efficient transition metal sulfide photocatalysts.

Low-Cost Copper Nanostructures Impart High Efficiencies to Quantum Dot Solar Cells

Quantum dot solar cells (QDSCs) were fabricated using low-cost Cu nanostructures and a carbon fabric as a counter electrode for the first time. Cu nanoparticles (NPs) and nanoneedles (NNs) with a face-centered cubic structure were synthesized by a hydrothermal method and electrophoretically deposited over a CdS QD sensitized titania (TiO2) electrode. Compared to Cu NPs, which increase the light absorption of a TiO2/CdS photoanode via scattering effects only in the visible region, Cu NNs are more effective for efficient far-field light scattering; they enhance the light absorption of the TiO2/CdS assembly beyond the visible to near-infrared (NIR) regions as well. The highest fluorescence quenching, lowest excited electron lifetime, and a large surface potential (deduced from Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM)) observed for the TiO2/CdS/Cu NN electrode compared to TiO2/CdS and TiO2/CdS/Cu NP electrodes confirm that Cu NNs also facilitate charge transport. KPFM studies also revealed a larger shift of the apparent Fermi level to more negative potentials in the TiO2/CdS/Cu NN electrode, compared to the other two electrodes (versus NHE), which results in a higher open-circuit voltage for the Cu NN based electrode. The best performing QDSC based on the TiO2/CdS/Cu NN electrode delivers a stellar power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 4.36%, greater by 56.8% and 32.1% than the PCEs produced by the cells based on TiO2/CdS and TiO2/CdS/Cu NPs, respectively. A maximum external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 58% obtained for the cell with the TiO2/CdS/Cu NN electrode and a finite EQE in the NIR region which the other two cells do not deliver are clear indicators of the enormous promise this cheap, earth-abundant Cu nanostructure holds for amplifying the solar cell response in both the visible and near-infrared regions through scattering enhancements.

High-performance graphene-based hole conductor-free perovskite solar cells: Schottky junction enhanced hole extraction and electron blocking

Multilayered graphene and single-layered graphene are assembled onto perovskite films in the form of Schottky junctions and ohmic contacts, respectively, for the production of a graphene-based hole transporting material-free perovskite solar cell. Multilayered graphene extracts charge selectively and efficiently, delivering a higher efficiency of 11.5% than single-layered graphene (6.7%).

Boosting power conversion efficiencies of quantum-dot-sensitized solar cells beyond 8% by recombination control

At present, quantum-dot-sensitized solar cells (QDSCs) still exhibit moderate power conversion efficiency (with record efficiency of 6-7%), limited primarily by charge recombination. Therefore, suppressing recombination processes is a mandatory requirement to boost the performance of QDSCs. Herein, we demonstrate the ability of a novel sequential inorganic ZnS/SiO2 double layer treatment onto the QD-sensitized photoanode for strongly inhibiting interfacial recombination processes in QDSCs while providing improved cell stability. Theoretical modeling and impedance spectroscopy reveal that the combined ZnS/SiO2 treatment reduces interfacial recombination and increases charge collection efficiency when compared with conventional ZnS treatment alone. In line with those results, subpicosecond THz spectroscopy demonstrates that while QD to TiO2 electron-transfer rates and yields are insensitive to inorganic photoanode overcoating, back recombination at the oxide surface is strongly suppressed by subsequent inorganic treatments. By exploiting this approach, CdSe(x)Te(1-x) QDSCs exhibit a certified record efficiency of 8.21% (8.55% for a champion cell), an improvement of 20% over the previous record high efficiency of 6.8%, together with an additional beneficial effect of improved cell stability.

Facile synthesis of composition-tuned ZnO/Zn x Cd1-x Se nanowires for photovoltaic applications

ZnO/Zn x Cd1-x Se coaxial nanowires (NWs) have been successfully synthesized by combining chemical vapor deposition with a facile alternant physical deposition method. The shell composition x can be precisely tuned in the whole region (0 ≤ x ≤ 1) by adjusting growth time ratio of ZnSe to CdSe. As a result, the effective bandgaps of coaxial nanowires were conveniently modified from 1.85 eV to 2.58 eV, almost covering the entire visible spectrum. It was also found that annealing treatment was in favor of forming the mixed crystal and improving crystal quality. An optimal temperature of 350°C was obtained according to our experimental results. Additionally, time resolved photo-luminescence spectra revealed the longest carrier lifetime in ZnO/CdSe coaxial nanowires. As a result, the ZnO/CdSe nanowire cell acquired the maximal conversion efficiency of 2.01%. This work shall pave a way towards facile synthesis of ternary alloys for photovoltaic applications.

Hybrid halide perovskite solar cell precursors: colloidal chemistry and coordination engineering behind device processing for high efficiency

The precursor of solution-processed perovskite thin films is one of the most central components for high-efficiency perovskite solar cells. We first present the crucial colloidal chemistry visualization of the perovskite precursor solution based on analytical spectra and reveal that perovskite precursor solutions for solar cells are generally colloidal dispersions in a mother solution, with a colloidal size up to the mesoscale, rather than real solutions. The colloid is made of a soft coordination complex in the form of a lead polyhalide framework between organic and inorganic components and can be structurally tuned by the coordination degree, thereby primarily determining the basic film coverage and morphology of deposited thin films. By utilizing coordination engineering, particularly through employing additional methylammonium halide over the stoichiometric ratio for tuning the coordination degree and mode in the initial colloidal solution, along with a thermal leaching for the selective release of excess methylammonium halides, we achieved full and even coverage, the preferential orientation, and high purity of planar perovskite thin films. We have also identified that excess organic component can reduce the colloidal size of and tune the morphology of the coordination framework in relation to final perovskite grains and partial chlorine substitution can accelerate the crystalline nucleation process of perovskite. This work demonstrates the important fundamental chemistry of perovskite precursors and provides genuine guidelines for accurately controlling the high quality of hybrid perovskite thin films without any impurity, thereby delivering efficient planar perovskite solar cells with a power conversion efficiency as high as 17% without distinct hysteresis owing to the high quality of perovskite thin films.

Band engineering in core/shell ZnTe/CdSe for photovoltage and efficiency enhancement in exciplex quantum dot sensitized solar cells

Even though previously reported CdTe/CdSe type-II core/shell QD sensitizers possess intrinsic superior optoelectronic properties (such as wide absorption range, fast charge separation, and slow charge recombination) in serving as light absorbers, the efficiency of the resultant solar cell is still limited by the relatively low photovoltage. To further enhance photovoltage and cell efficiency accordingly, ZnTe/CdSe type-II core/shell QDs with much larger conduction band (CB) offset in comparison with that of CdTe/CdSe (1.22 eV vs 0.27 eV) are adopted as sensitizers in the construction of quantum dot sensitized solar cells (QDSCs). The augment of band offset produces an increase of the charge accumulation across the QD/TiO2 interface under illumination and induces stronger dipole effects, therefore bringing forward an upward shift of the TiO2 CB edge after sensitization and resulting in enhancement of the photovoltage of the resultant cell devices. The variation of relative chemical capacitance, Cμ, between ZnTe/CdSe and reference CdTe/CdSe cells extracted from impedance spectroscopy (IS) characterization under dark and illumination conditions clearly demonstrates that, under light irradiation conditions, the sensitization of ZnTe/CdSe QDs upshifts the CB edge of TiO2 by the level of ∼ 50 mV related to that in the reference cell and results in the enhancement of V(oc) of the corresponding cell devices. In addition, charge extraction measurements have also confirmed the photovoltage enhancement in the ZnTe/CdSe cell related to reference CdTe/CdSe cell. Furthermore, transient grating (TG) measurements have revealed a faster electron injection rate for the ZnTe/CdSe-based QDSCs in comparison with the CdSe cells. The resultant ZnTe/CdSe QD-based QDSCs exhibit a champion power conversion efficiency of 7.17% and a certified efficiency of 6.82% under AM 1.5 G full one sun illumination, which is, as far as we know, one of the highest efficiencies for liquid-junction QDSCs.

Enhanced performance of PbS-sensitized solar cells via controlled successive ionic-layer adsorption and reaction

The performance of PbS-sensitized solar cells is significantly improved by controlling successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction.

New insight into copper sulfide electrocatalysts for quantum dot-sensitized solar cells: composition-dependent electrocatalytic activity and stability

Despite recent significant strides in understanding various processes in quantum dot-sensitized solar cells (QDSSCs), little is known about the intrinsic electrocatalytic properties of copper sulfides that are the most commonly employed electrocatalysts for the counter electrode of QDSSCs. Given that the physical properties of copper sulfides are governed by their stoichiometry, the electrocatalytic activity of copper sulfides toward polysulfide reduction may also be dictated by their compositions. Using a new, simple approach to prepare robust copper sulfide films based on chemical bath deposition (CBD), we were able to delicately control the compositions of copper sulfides, which allowed us to perform a systematic investigation to gain new insight into copper sulfide-based electrocatalysts. The electrocatalytic activity is indeed dependent on the compositions of copper sulfides: Cu-deficient films (CuS and Cu1.12S) are superior to Cu-rich films (Cu1.75S and Cu1.8S) in their electrocatalytic activity. In addition, the stability of the Cu-deficient electrocatalysts is substantially better than that of the Cu-rich counterparts.

Comparative studies on rigid π linker-based organic dyes: structure-property relationships and photovoltaic performance

A series of six structurally correlated donor-π bridge-acceptor organic dyes were designed, synthesized, and applied as sensitizers in dye-sensitized solar cells. Using the most widely studied donor (triarylamine) and cyclopenta[1,2-b:5,4-b']dithiophene or cyclopenta[1,2-b:5,4-b']dithiophene[2',1':4,5]thieno[2,3-d]thiophene as π spacers, their structure-property relationships were investigated in depth by photophysical techniques and theoretical calculations. It was found that the photovoltaic performance of these dyes largely depends on their electronic structures, which requires synergistic interaction between donors and acceptors. Increasing the electron richness of the donor or the elongation of π-conjugated bridges does not necessarily lead to higher performance. Rather, it is essential to rationally design the dyes by balancing their light-harvesting capability with achieving suitable energy levels to guarantee unimpeded charge separation and transport.

Phase conversion from hexagonal CuS(y)Se(1-y) to cubic Cu(2-x)S(y)Se(1-y): composition variation, morphology evolution, optical tuning, and solar cell applications

In this work, we report a simple and low-temperature approach for the controllable synthesis of ternary Cu-S-Se alloys featuring tunable crystal structures, compositions, morphologies, and optical properties. Hexagonal CuS(y)Se(1-y) nanoplates and face centered cubic (fcc) Cu(2-x)S(y)Se(1-y) single-crystal-like stacked nanoplate assemblies are synthesized, and their phase conversion mechanism is well investigated. It is found that both copper content and chalcogen composition (S/Se atomic ratio) of the Cu-S-Se alloys are tunable during the phase conversion process. Formation of the unique single-crystal-like stacked nanoplate assemblies is resulted from oriented stacking coupled with the Ostwald ripening effect. Remarkably, optical tuning for continuous red shifts of both the band-gap absorption and the near-infrared localized surface plasmon resonance are achieved. Furthermore, the novel Cu-S-Se alloys are utilized for the first time as highly efficient counter electrodes (CEs) in quantum dot sensitized solar cells (QDSSCs), showing outstanding electrocatalytic activity for polysulfide electrolyte regeneration and yielding a 135% enhancement in power conversion efficiency (PCE) as compared to the noble metal Pt counter electrode.

Engineering the interfaces of ITO@Cu2S nanowire arrays toward efficient and stable counter electrodes for quantum-dot-sensitized solar cells

Among the issues that restrict the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of quantum-dot-sensitized solar cells (QDSSCs), insufficient catalytic activity and stability of counter electrodes (CEs) are critical but challenging ones. The state-of-the-art Cu/Cu2S CEs still suffer from mechanical instability and uncertainty due to the reaction of copper and electrolyte. Herein, ITO@Cu2S core-shell nanowire arrays were developed to fabricate CEs for QDSSCs, which have no such issues in Cu/Cu2S CEs. These nanowire arrays exhibited small charge transfer resistance and sheet resistance, and provided more active catalytic sites and easy accessibility for electrolyte due to the three-dimensional structure upon use as CEs. More interestingly, it was found that the interface of ITO/Cu2S significantly affected the performance of ITO@Cu2S nanowire array CEs. By varying synthetic methods, a series of ITO@Cu2S nanowire arrays were prepared to investigate the influence of ITO/Cu2S interface on their performance. The results showed that ITO@Cu2S nanowire array CEs with a continuous Cu2S nanocrystal shell fabricated via an improved cation exchange route exhibited excellent and thickness-dependent performance. The PCE of corresponding QDSSCs increased by 11.6 and 16.5% compared to that with the discrete Cu2S nanocrystal and the classic Cu/Cu2S CE, respectively, indicating its promising potential as a new type of CE for QDSSCs.

Surface engineering of ZnO nanostructures for semiconductor-sensitized solar cells

Semiconductor-sensitized solar cells (SSCs) are emerging as promising devices for achieving efficient and low-cost solar-energy conversion. The recent progress in the development of ZnO-nanostructure-based SSCs is reviewed here, and the key issues for their efficiency improvement, such as enhancing light harvesting and increasing carrier generation, separation, and collection, are highlighted from aspects of surface-engineering techniques. The impact of other factors such as electrolyte and counter electrodes on the photovoltaic performance is also addressed. The current challenges and perspectives for the further advance of ZnO-based SSCs are discussed.

Solution-processed, barrier-confined, and 1D nanostructure supported quasi-quantum well with large photoluminescence enhancement

Planar substrate supported semiconductor quantum well (QW) structures are not amenable to manipulation in miniature devices, while free-standing QW nanostructures, e.g., ultrathin nanosheets and nanoribbons, suffer from mechanical and environmental instability. Therefore, it is tempting to fashion high-quality QW structures on anisotropic and mechanically robust supporting nanostructures such as nanowires and nanoplates. Herein, we report a solution quasi-heteroepitaxial route for growing a barrier-confined quasi-QW structure (ZnSe/CdSe/ZnSe) on the supporting arms of ZnO nanotetrapods, which have a 1D nanowire structure, through the combination of ion exchange and successive deposition assembly. This resulted in highly crystalline and highly oriented quasi-QWs along the whole axial direction of the arms of the nanotetrapod because a transition buffer layer (Zn(x)Cd(1-x)Se) was formed and in turn reduced the lattice mismatch and surface defects. Significantly, such a barrier-confined QW emits excitonic light ∼17 times stronger than the heterojunction (HJ)-type structure (ZnSe/CdSe, HJ) at the single-particle level. Time-resolved photoluminescence from ensemble QWs exhibits a lifetime of 10 ns, contrasting sharply with ∼300 ps for the control HJ sample. Single-particle PL and Raman spectra suggest that the barrier layer of QW has completely removed the surface trap states on the HJ and restored or upgraded the photoelectric properties of the semiconductor layer. Therefore, this deliberate heteroepitaxial growth protocol on the supporting nanotetrapod has realized a several micrometer long QW structure with high mechanical robustness and high photoelectric quality. We envision that such QWs integrated on 1D nanostructures will largely improve the performance of solar cells and bioprobes, among others.

Metal selenides as a new class of electrocatalysts for quantum dot-sensitized solar cells: a tale of Cu(1.8)Se and PbSe

The development of a Pt-free, highly active electrocatalyst for a counter electrode (CE) is vital to the construction of highly efficient quantum dot-sensitized solar cells (QDSSCs). As an alternative to Pt, the use of various metal sulfides, such as Cu2S, CoS, and PbS, has been successfully demonstrated; however, the studies on the utilization of non-sulfide materials have been scarcely reported. In this regard, we examined eight different types of binary metal selenides as new candidate materials, and found that the electrocatalytic activity of Cu1.8Se and PbSe toward polysulfide reduction was superior to that of Pt. In depth investigation into these two materials further revealed that, while the electrocatalytic activity of both metal selenides surpasses that of Pt, the long-term utilization of the PbSe CE is hindered by the formation of PbO on the surface of PbSe, which is attributed to the instability of PbSe under air. Unlike PbSe, Cu1.8Se was found to be chemically stable with a polysulfide electrolyte and was even better than Cu2S, a commonly used CE material for QDSSCs. Using the Cu1.8Se CE, we obtained a power conversion efficiency of 5.0% for CdS/CdSe-sensitized solar cells, which was an efficiency almost twice that obtained from Pt CE. This work provides a new application for metal selenides, which have been traditionally utilized as sensitizers for QDSSCs.

ITO@Cu2S tunnel junction nanowire arrays as efficient counter electrode for quantum-dot-sensitized solar cells

Quantum-dot-sensitized solar cell (QDSSC) has been considered as an alternative to new generation photovoltaics, but it still presents very low power conversion efficiency. Besides the continuous effort on improving photoanodes and electrolytes, the focused investigation on charge transfer at interfaces and the rational design for counter electrodes (CEs) are recently receiving much attention. Herein, core-shell nanowire arrays with tin-doped indium oxide (ITO) nanowire core and Cu2S nanocrystal shell (ITO@Cu2S) were dedicatedly designed and fabricated as new efficient CEs for QDSSCs in order to improve charge collection and transport and to avoid the intrinsic issue of copper dissolution in popular and most efficient Cu/Cu2S CEs. The high-quality tunnel junctions formed between n-type ITO nanowires and p-type Cu2S nanocrystals led to the considerable decrease in sheet resistance and charge transfer resistance and thus facilitated the electron transport during the operation of QDSSCs. The three-dimensional structure of nanowire arrays provided high surface area for more active catalytic sites and easy accessibility for an electrolyte. As a result, the power conversion efficiency of QDSSCs with the designed ITO@Cu2S CEs increased by 84.5 and 33.5% compared to that with planar Au and Cu2S CEs, respectively.