1
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Liu Y, Liu S, Tian Y, Wang X. Dual/Triple Template-Induced Evolved Emulsion for Controllable Construction of Anisotropic Carbon Nanoparticles from Concave to Convex. Adv Mater 2023; 35:e2210963. [PMID: 36591699 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202210963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Revised: 12/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Anisotropic mesoporous carbon (AMC) nanoparticles with asymmetric external morphologies, topological internal structure, and superior performance of carbon species are attracting great attention because of their seductive features differentiating them from symmetric nanoparticles. However, a bewildering challenge but crucial desire remains to endow them with flexibly tunable morphology and pore structure. Herein, a dual/triple-templating evolved emulsion strategy for tunable fabrication of AMC nanoparticles with distinctive defined structure by interface-energy-induced self-assembly is first reported based on a brand-new mechanism. It describes the possible formation process of the concave-cavity structure and allows for manipulation of the longitudinal and lateral sizes systematically by adjusting emulsion polarity and sodium oleate dosage, respectively. Interestingly, the internal pore structure can be rearranged into radial channels and the external morphology can realize structural transformation from concave to convex by innovatively introducing the third template n-hexanol, which is unprecedented at nanoscale. Remarkably, due to the excellent properties of carbon species and unique structural characteristics, AMC nanoparticles not only demonstrate good biocompatibility but also exhibit splendid performance in improving the dissolution and release rates of insoluble drug and enhancing the enzyme catalytic efficiency. Generally, this approach provides new inspiration and insights for expanding exquisite anisotropic nanomaterials for many potential applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujie Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Shilong Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Yong Tian
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Xiufang Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
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2
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Abstract
Biological cells such as bacterial, fungal, and mammalian cells always exploit sophisticated chemistries and exquisite micro- and nano-structures to execute life activities, providing numerous templates for engineering bioactive and biomorphic materials, devices, and systems. To transform biological cells into functional biocomposites, polymer-directed cell surface engineering and intracellular functionalization have been developed over the past two decades. Polymeric materials can be easily adopted by various cells through polymer grafting or in situ hydrogelation and can successfully bridge cells with other functional materials as interfacial layers, thus achieving the manufacture of advanced biocomposites through bioaugmentation of living cells and transformation of cells into templated materials. This review article summarizes the recent progress in the design and construction of cell-based biocomposites by polymer-directed strategies. Furthermore, the applications of cell-based biocomposites in broad fields such as cell research, biomedicine, and bioenergy are discussed. Last, we provide personal perspectives on challenges and future trends in this interdisciplinary area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenshuo Wang
- Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266101, China
- Shandong Energy Institute, Qingdao, 266101, China
| | - Shutao Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfacial Science, CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China.
- School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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3
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Guo J, Amini S, Lei Q, Ping Y, Agola JO, Wang L, Zhou L, Cao J, Franco S, Noureddine A, Miserez A, Zhu W, Brinker CJ. Robust and Long-Term Cellular Protein and Enzymatic Activity Preservation in Biomineralized Mammalian Cells. ACS Nano 2022; 16:2164-2175. [PMID: 35143166 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.1c08103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Preservation of evolved biological structure and function in robust engineering materials is of interest for storage of biological samples before diagnosis and development of vaccines, sensors, and enzymatic reactors and has the potential to avoid cryopreservation and its associated cold-chain issues. Here, we demonstrate that "freezing cells in amorphous silica" is a powerful technique for long-term preservation of whole mammalian cell proteomic structure and function at room temperature. Biomimetic silicification employs the crowded protein microenvironment of mammalian cells as a catalytic framework to proximally transform monomeric silicic acid into silicates forming a nanoscopic silica shell over all biomolecular interfaces. Silicification followed by dehydration preserves and passivates proteomic information within a nanoscale thin silica coating that exhibits size selective permeability (<3.6 nm), preventing protein leaching and protease degradation of cellular contents, while providing access of small molecular constituents for cellular enzymatic reaction. Exposure of dehydrated silicified cells to mild etchant or prolonged hydrolysis removes the silica, completely rerevealing biomolecular components and restoring their accessibility and functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimin Guo
- Center for Micro-Engineered Materials and the Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
- Department of Internal Medicine, Molecular Medicine, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Shahrouz Amini
- Center for Biomimetic Sensor Science, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), 50 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637553, Singapore
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Qi Lei
- MOE International Joint Research Laboratory on Synthetic Biology and Medicines, School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuan Ping
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, People's Republic of China
| | - Jacob Ongudi Agola
- Center for Micro-Engineered Materials and the Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Lu Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Liang Zhou
- MOE International Joint Research Laboratory on Synthetic Biology and Medicines, School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiangfan Cao
- MOE International Joint Research Laboratory on Synthetic Biology and Medicines, School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Stefan Franco
- Department of Internal Medicine, Molecular Medicine, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Achraf Noureddine
- Center for Micro-Engineered Materials and the Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Ali Miserez
- Center for Biomimetic Sensor Science, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), 50 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637553, Singapore
| | - Wei Zhu
- MOE International Joint Research Laboratory on Synthetic Biology and Medicines, School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - C Jeffrey Brinker
- Center for Micro-Engineered Materials and the Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
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Xie L, Liu J, Bao X, Chen J, Zheng X, He Y, Zhang W, Zeng J, Wang Y, Kong B. Interfacial Assembly of Nanowire Arrays toward Carbonaceous Mesoporous Nanorods and Superstructures. Small 2022; 18:e2104477. [PMID: 34738718 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202104477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Synthesis of anisotropic carbonaceous nano- and micro-materials with well-ordered mesoporous structures has attracted increasing attention for a broad scope of applications. Although hard-templating method has been widely employed, overcoming the viscous forces to prepare anisotropic mesoporous materials is particularly challenging via the universal soft-templating method, especially from sustainable biomass as a carbon resource. Herein, the synthesis of biomass-derived nanowire-arrays based mesoporous nanorods and teeth-like superstructures is reported, through a simple and straightforward polyelectrolyte assisted soft-templating hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) approach. A surface energy induced interfacial assembly mechanism with the synergetic interactions between micelles, nanowire, nanorods, and polyelectrolyte is proposed. The polyelectrolyte acts not only as a stabilizer to decrease the surface energy of cylindrical micelles, nanowires and nanorods, but also as a structure-directing agent to regulate the oriented attachment and anisotropic assembly of micelles, nanowires, and nanorods. After a calcination treatment, the carbon nanorod and teeth-like superstructure are successfully coupled with Ru to directly produce supported catalysts for the hydrogen evolution reaction, exhibiting much better performance than the isotropic nanospheres based catalyst. This HTC approach will open up new avenues for the synthesis of anisotropic materials with various morphologies and dimensions, expanding the palette of materials selection for many applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Xie
- Advanced Materials and Catalysis Group, Institute of Catalysis, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310028, P. R. China
- Department of Chemistry, Shanghai Key Lab of Molecular Catalysis and Innovative Materials, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, P. R. China
| | - Jinrong Liu
- Advanced Materials and Catalysis Group, Institute of Catalysis, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310028, P. R. China
| | - Xiaobing Bao
- Advanced Materials and Catalysis Group, Institute of Catalysis, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310028, P. R. China
| | - Jiadong Chen
- Advanced Materials and Catalysis Group, Institute of Catalysis, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310028, P. R. China
| | - Xiaozhong Zheng
- Advanced Materials and Catalysis Group, Institute of Catalysis, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310028, P. R. China
| | - Yanjun He
- Department of Chemistry, Shanghai Key Lab of Molecular Catalysis and Innovative Materials, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, P. R. China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Shanghai Key Lab of Molecular Catalysis and Innovative Materials, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, P. R. China
| | - Jie Zeng
- Department of Chemistry, Shanghai Key Lab of Molecular Catalysis and Innovative Materials, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, P. R. China
| | - Yong Wang
- Advanced Materials and Catalysis Group, Institute of Catalysis, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310028, P. R. China
| | - Biao Kong
- Department of Chemistry, Shanghai Key Lab of Molecular Catalysis and Innovative Materials, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, P. R. China
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Wang W, Gan Q, Zhang Y, Lu X, Wang H, Zhang Y, Hu H, Chen L, Shi L, Wang S, Zheng Z. Polymer-Assisted Metallization of Mammalian Cells. Adv Mater 2021; 33:e2102348. [PMID: 34279053 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202102348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Developing biotemplating techniques to translate microorganisms and cultured mammalian cells into metallic biocomposites is of great interest for biosensors, electronics, and energy. The metallization of viruses and microbial cells is successfully demonstrated via a genetic engineering strategy or electroless deposition. However, it is difficult to transform mammalian cells into metallic biocomposites because of the complicated genes and the delicate morphological features. Herein, "polymer-assisted cell metallization" (PACM) is reported as a general method for the transformation of mammalian cells into metallic biocomposites. PACM includes a first step of in situ polymerization of functional polymer on the surface and in the interior of the mammalian cells, and a subsequent electroless deposition of metal to convert the polymer-functionalized cells into metallic biocomposites, which retain the micro- and nanostructures of the mammalian cells. This new biotemplating method is compatible with different cell types and metals to yield a wide variety of metallic biocomposites with controlled structures and properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenshuo Wang
- Laboratory for Advanced Interfacial Materials and Devices, Institute of Textiles and Clothing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Qi Gan
- Laboratory for Advanced Interfacial Materials and Devices, Institute of Textiles and Clothing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Yuqi Zhang
- Laboratory for Advanced Interfacial Materials and Devices, Institute of Textiles and Clothing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Xi Lu
- Laboratory for Advanced Interfacial Materials and Devices, Institute of Textiles and Clothing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Huixin Wang
- Laboratory for Advanced Interfacial Materials and Devices, Institute of Textiles and Clothing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Yaokang Zhang
- Laboratory for Advanced Interfacial Materials and Devices, Institute of Textiles and Clothing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Hong Hu
- Laboratory for Advanced Interfacial Materials and Devices, Institute of Textiles and Clothing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Lina Chen
- Laboratory for Advanced Interfacial Materials and Devices, Institute of Textiles and Clothing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Lianxin Shi
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfacial Science, CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, P. R. China
| | - Shutao Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfacial Science, CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, P. R. China
- School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, P. R. China
| | - Zijian Zheng
- Laboratory for Advanced Interfacial Materials and Devices, Institute of Textiles and Clothing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China
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Abstract
In nature, biosilicification directs the formation of elaborate amorphous silica exoskeletons that provide diatoms mechanically strong, chemically inert, non-decomposable silica armor conferring chemical and thermal stability as well as resistance to microbial attack, without changing the optical transparency or adversely effecting nutrient and waste exchange required for growth. These extraordinary silica/cell biocomposites have inspired decades of biomimetic research aimed at replication of diatoms' hierarchically organized exoskeletons, immobilization of cells or living organisms within silica matrices and coatings to protect them against harmful external stresses, genetic re-programming of cellular functions by virtue of physico-chemical confinement within silica, cellular integration into devices, and endowment of cells with non-native, abiotic properties through facile silica functionalization. In this Perspective, we focus our discussions on the development and concomitant challenges of bioinspired cell silicification ranging from "cells encapsulated within 3D silica matrices" and "cells encapsulated within 2D silica shells" to extra- and intracellular silica replication, wherein all biomolecular interfaces are encased within nanoscopic layers of amorphous silica. We highlight notable examples of advances in the science and technology of biosilicification and consider challenges to advancing the field, where we propose cellular "mineralization" with arbitrary nanoparticle exoskeletons as a generalizable means to impart limitless abiotic properties and functions to cells, and, based on the interchangeability of water and silicic acid and analogies between amorphous ice and amorphous silica, we consider "freezing" cells within amorphous silica as an alternative to cryo-preservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Lei
- MOE International Joint Research Laboratory on Synthetic Biology and Medicines, School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, P. R. China
| | - Jimin Guo
- Center for Micro-Engineered Materials, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, Molecular Medicine, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Fanhui Kong
- MOE International Joint Research Laboratory on Synthetic Biology and Medicines, School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, P. R. China
| | - Jiangfan Cao
- MOE International Joint Research Laboratory on Synthetic Biology and Medicines, School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, P. R. China
| | - Lu Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Wei Zhu
- MOE International Joint Research Laboratory on Synthetic Biology and Medicines, School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, P. R. China
| | - C Jeffrey Brinker
- Center for Micro-Engineered Materials, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
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7
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Céspedes PF, Beckers D, Dustin ML, Sezgin E. Model membrane systems to reconstitute immune cell signaling. FEBS J 2020; 288:1070-1090. [DOI: 10.1111/febs.15488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pablo F. Céspedes
- Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology Nuffield Department of Orthopedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences University of Oxford UK
| | - Daniel Beckers
- MRC Human Immunology Unit MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine University of Oxford UK
| | - Michael L. Dustin
- Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology Nuffield Department of Orthopedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences University of Oxford UK
| | - Erdinc Sezgin
- MRC Human Immunology Unit MRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine University of Oxford UK
- Science for Life Laboratory Department of Women's and Children's Health Karolinska Institutet Stockholm Sweden
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8
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Guo J, Agola JO, Serda R, Franco S, Lei Q, Wang L, Minster J, Croissant JG, Butler KS, Zhu W, Brinker CJ. Biomimetic Rebuilding of Multifunctional Red Blood Cells: Modular Design Using Functional Components. ACS Nano 2020; 14:7847-7859. [PMID: 32391687 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.9b08714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The design and synthesis of artificial materials that mimic the structures, mechanical properties, and ultimately functionalities of biological cells remains a current holy grail of materials science. Here, based on a silica cell bioreplication approach, we report the design and construction of synthetic rebuilt red blood cells (RRBCs) that fully mimic the broad properties of native RBCs: size, biconcave shape, deformability, oxygen-carrying capacity, and long circulation time. Four successive nanoscale processing steps (RBC bioreplication, layer-by-layer polymer deposition, and precision silica etching, followed by RBC ghost membrane vesicle fusion) are employed for RRBC construction. A panel of physicochemical analyses including zeta-potential measurement, fluorescence microscopy, and antibody-mediated agglutination assay proved the recapitulation of RBC shape, size, and membrane structure. Flow-based deformation studies carried out in a microfluidic blood capillary model confirmed the ability of RRBCs to deform and pass through small slits and reconstitute themselves in a manner comparable to native RBCs. Circulation studies of RRBCs conducted ex ovo in a chick embryo and in vivo in a mouse model demonstrated the requirement of both deformability and native cell membrane surface to achieve long-term circulation. To confer additional non-native functionalities to RRBCs, we developed modular procedures with which to load functional cargos such as hemoglobin, drugs, magnetic nanoparticles, and ATP biosensors within the RRBC interior to enable various functions, including oxygen delivery, therapeutic drug delivery, magnetic manipulation, and toxin biosensing and detection. Taken together, RRBCs represent a class of long-circulating RBC-inspired artificial hybrid materials with a broad range of potential applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimin Guo
- Center for Micro-Engineered Materials, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
- Department of Internal Medicine, Molecular Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Jacob Ongudi Agola
- Center for Micro-Engineered Materials, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Rita Serda
- Department of Internal Medicine, Molecular Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Stefan Franco
- Department of Internal Medicine, Molecular Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Qi Lei
- School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, P.R. China
| | - Lu Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Joshua Minster
- Center for Micro-Engineered Materials, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Jonas G Croissant
- Center for Micro-Engineered Materials, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - Kimberly S Butler
- Nanobiology Department, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| | - Wei Zhu
- School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, P.R. China
| | - C Jeffrey Brinker
- Center for Micro-Engineered Materials, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
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Zhao C, Tian S, Liu Q, Xiu K, Lei I, Wang Z, Ma PX. Biodegradable nanofibrous temperature-responsive gelling microspheres for heart regeneration. Adv Funct Mater 2020. [PMID: 33071711 DOI: 10.1002/adfm.201909539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Myocardial infarction (heart attack) is the number one killer of heart patients. Existing treatments for heart attack do not address the underlying problem of cardiomyocyte (CM) loss and cannot regenerate the myocardium. Introducing exogenous cardiac cells is required for heart regeneration due to the lack of resident progenitor cells and very limited proliferative potential of adult CMs. Poor retention of transplanted cells is the critical bottleneck of heart regeneration. Here, we report the invention of a poly(l-lactic acid)-b-poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(N-Isopropylacrylamide) copolymer and its self-assembly into nanofibrous gelling microspheres (NF-GMS). The NF-GMS undergo thermally responsive transition to form not only a 3D hydrogel after injection in vivo, but also exhibit architectural and structural characteristics mimicking the native extracellular matrix (ECM) of nanofibrous proteins and gelling proteoglycans or polysaccharides. By integrating the ECM-mimicking features, injectable form, and the capability of maintaining 3D geometry after injection, the transplantation of hESC-derived CMs carried by NF-GMS led to a striking 10-fold graft size increase over direct CM injection in an infarcted rat model, which is the highest reported engraftment to date. Furthermore, NF-GMS carried CM transplantation dramatically reduced infarct size, enhanced integration of transplanted CMs, stimulated vascularization in the infarct zone, and led to a substantial recovery of cardiac function. The NF-GMS may also serve as advanced injectable and integrative biomaterials for cell/biomolecule delivery in a variety of biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Zhao
- Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Shuo Tian
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Frankel Cardiovascular Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Qihai Liu
- Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Kemao Xiu
- Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Ienglam Lei
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Frankel Cardiovascular Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Zhong Wang
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Frankel Cardiovascular Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Peter X Ma
- Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
- Macromolecular Science and Engineering Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
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10
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Ou W, Nam KS, Park DH, Hwang J, Ku SK, Yong CS, Kim JO, Byeon JH. Artificial Nanoscale Erythrocytes from Clinically Relevant Compounds for Enhancing Cancer Immunotherapy. Nanomicro Lett 2020; 12:90. [PMID: 34138119 PMCID: PMC7770689 DOI: 10.1007/s40820-020-00428-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Because of enhanced efficacy and lower side effects, cancer immunotherapies have recently been extensively investigated in clinical trials to overcome the limitations of conventional cancer monotherapies. Although engineering attempts have been made to build nanosystems even including stimulus nanomaterials for the efficient delivery of antigens, adjuvants, or anticancer drugs to improve immunogenic cancer cell death, this requires huge R&D efforts and investment for clinically relevant findings to be approved for translation of the nanosystems. To this end, in this study, an air-liquid two-phase electrospray was developed for stable bubble pressing under a balance between mechanical and electrical parameters of the spray to continuously produce biomimetic nanosystems consisting of only clinically relevant compounds [paclitaxel-loaded fake blood cell Eudragit particle (Eu-FBCP/PTX)] to provide a conceptual leap for the timely development of translatable chemo-immunotherapeutic nanosystems. This was pursued as the efficacy of systems for delivering anticancer agents that has been mainly influenced by nanosystem shape because of its relevance to transporting behavior to organs, blood circulation, and cell-membrane interactions. The resulting Eu-FBCP/PTX nanosystems exhibiting phagocytic and micropinocytic uptake behaviors can confer better efficacy in chemo-immunotherapeutics in the absence and presence of anti-PD-L1 antibodies than similar sized PTX-loaded spherical Eu particles (Eu-s/PTX).
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenquan Ou
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, 38541, Republic of Korea
| | - Kang Sik Nam
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Dae Hoon Park
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Jungho Hwang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea.
| | - Sae Kwang Ku
- College of Korean Medicine, Daegu Haany University, Gyeongsan, 38610, Republic of Korea
| | - Chul Soon Yong
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, 38541, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Oh Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, 38541, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jeong Hoon Byeon
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, 38541, Republic of Korea.
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11
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Meyer KC, Labriola NR, Darling EM, Kaehr B. Shape-Preserved Transformation of Biological Cells into Synthetic Hydrogel Microparticles. Adv Biosyst 2019; 3:e1800285. [PMID: 32627427 PMCID: PMC7747388 DOI: 10.1002/adbi.201800285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Revised: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis of materials that can mimic the mechanical, and ultimately functional, properties of biological cells can broadly impact the development of biomimetic materials, as well as engineered tissues and therapeutics. Yet, it is challenging to synthesize, for example, microparticles that share both the anisotropic shapes and the elastic properties of living cells. Here, a cell-directed route to replicate cellular structures into synthetic hydrogels such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) is described. First, the internal and external surfaces of chemically fixed cells are replicated in a conformal layer of silica using a sol-gel process. The template is subsequently removed to render shape-preserved, mesoporous silica replicas. Infiltration and cross-linking of PEG precursors and dissolution of the silica result in a soft hydrogel replica of the cellular template as demonstrated using erythrocytes, HeLa, and neuronal cultured cells. The elastic modulus can be tuned over an order of magnitude (≈10-100 kPa) though with a high degree of variability. Furthermore, synthesis without removing the biotemplate results in stimuli-responsive particles that swell/deswell in response to environmental cues. Overall, this work provides a foundation to develop soft particles with nearly limitless architectural complexity derived from dynamic biological templates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin C Meyer
- Advanced Materials Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, 87108, USA
| | - Nicholas R Labriola
- Center for Biomedical Engineering and Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Physiology, and Biotechnology, Brown University, Providence, RI, 02912, USA
| | - Eric M Darling
- Center for Biomedical Engineering and Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Physiology, and Biotechnology, Brown University, Providence, RI, 02912, USA
| | - Bryan Kaehr
- Advanced Materials Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, 87108, USA
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12
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Olden BR, Perez CR, Wilson AL, Cardle II, Lin YS, Kaehr B, Gustafson JA, Jensen MC, Pun SH. Cell-Templated Silica Microparticles with Supported Lipid Bilayers as Artificial Antigen-Presenting Cells for T Cell Activation. Adv Healthc Mater 2019; 8:e1801188. [PMID: 30549244 PMCID: PMC6394850 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201801188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2018] [Revised: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Biomaterial properties that modulate T cell activation, growth, and differentiation are of significant interest in the field of cellular immunotherapy manufacturing. In this work, a new platform technology that allows for the modulation of various activation particle design parameters important for polyclonal T cell activation is presented. Artificial antigen presenting cells (aAPCs) are successfully created using supported lipid bilayers on various cell-templated silica microparticles with defined membrane fluidity and stimulating antibody density. This panel of aAPCs is used to probe the importance of activation particle shape, size, membrane fluidity, and stimulation antibody density on T cell outgrowth and differentiation. All aAPC formulations are able to stimulate T cell growth, and preferentially promote CD8+ T cell growth over CD4+ T cell growth when compared to commercially available pendant antibody-conjugated particles. T cells cultured with HeLa- and red blood cell-templated aAPCs have a less-differentiated and less-exhausted phenotype than those cultured with spherical aAPCs with matched membrane coatings when cultured for 14 days. These results support continued exploration of silica-supported lipid bilayers as an aAPC platform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brynn R. Olden
- Department of Bioengineering and Molecular Engineering and Sciences Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA,
| | - Caleb R. Perez
- Department of Bioengineering and Molecular Engineering and Sciences Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA,
| | - Ashley L. Wilson
- Ben Towne Center for Childhood Cancer Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Ian I. Cardle
- Department of Bioengineering and Molecular Engineering and Sciences Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA,
- Ben Towne Center for Childhood Cancer Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Yu-Shen Lin
- Department of Bioengineering and Molecular Engineering and Sciences Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA,
| | - Bryan Kaehr
- Advanced Materials Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM 87185, USA
| | - Joshua A. Gustafson
- Ben Towne Center for Childhood Cancer Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Michael C. Jensen
- Ben Towne Center for Childhood Cancer Research, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Suzie H. Pun
- Department of Bioengineering and Molecular Engineering and Sciences Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA,
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13
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Yu B, Cong H, Peng Q, Gu C, Tang Q, Xu X, Tian C, Zhai F. Current status and future developments in preparation and application of nonspherical polymer particles. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2018; 256:126-151. [PMID: 29705026 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2018.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2017] [Revised: 03/30/2018] [Accepted: 04/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Nonspherical polymer particles (NPPs) are nano/micro-particulates of macromolecules that are anisotropic in shape, and can be designed anisotropic in chemistry. Due to shape and surface anisotropies, NPPs bear many unique structures and fascinating properties which are distinctly different from those of spherical polymer particles (SPPs). In recent years, the research on NPPs has surprisingly blossomed in recent years, and many practical materials based on NPPs with potential applications in photonic device, material science and biomedical engineering have been generated. In this review, we give a systematic, balanced and comprehensive summary of the main aspects of NPPs related to their preparation and application, and propose perspectives for the future developments of NPPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Yu
- Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China; Laboratory for New Fiber Materials and Modern Textile, Growing Base for State Key Laboratory, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Hailin Cong
- Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China; Laboratory for New Fiber Materials and Modern Textile, Growing Base for State Key Laboratory, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China.
| | - Qiaohong Peng
- Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Chuantao Gu
- Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Qi Tang
- Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Xiaodan Xu
- Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Chao Tian
- Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Feng Zhai
- Institute of Biomedical Materials and Engineering, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
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14
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Zhang Z, Ju E, Bing W, Wang Z, Ren J, Qu X. Chemically individual armoured bioreporter bacteria used for the in vivo sensing of ultra-trace toxic metal ions. Chem Commun (Camb) 2017; 53:8415-8418. [DOI: 10.1039/c7cc03794e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
A chemically engineered mesoporous silica armour is developed for simultaneously improving bioreporter bacterial vitality and shielding infectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijun Zhang
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology and State Key Laboratory of Rare Earth Resource Utilization
- Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Changchun
- China
| | - Enguo Ju
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology and State Key Laboratory of Rare Earth Resource Utilization
- Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Changchun
- China
| | - Wei Bing
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology and State Key Laboratory of Rare Earth Resource Utilization
- Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Changchun
- China
| | - Zhenzhen Wang
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology and State Key Laboratory of Rare Earth Resource Utilization
- Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Changchun
- China
| | - Jinsong Ren
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology and State Key Laboratory of Rare Earth Resource Utilization
- Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Changchun
- China
| | - Xiaogang Qu
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology and State Key Laboratory of Rare Earth Resource Utilization
- Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Changchun
- China
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15
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Abstract
In recent years, due to its unparalleled advantages, the biomimetic and bioinspired synthesis of nanomaterials/nanostructures has drawn increasing interest and attention. Generally, biomimetic synthesis can be conducted either by mimicking the functions of natural materials/structures or by mimicking the biological processes that organisms employ to produce substances or materials. Biomimetic synthesis is therefore divided here into "functional biomimetic synthesis" and "process biomimetic synthesis". Process biomimetic synthesis is the focus of this review. First, the above two terms are defined and their relationship is discussed. Next different levels of biological processes that can be used for process biomimetic synthesis are compiled. Then the current progress of process biomimetic synthesis is systematically summarized and reviewed from the following five perspectives: i) elementary biomimetic system via biomass templates, ii) high-level biomimetic system via soft/hard-combined films, iii) intelligent biomimetic systems via liquid membranes, iv) living-organism biomimetic systems, and v) macromolecular bioinspired systems. Moreover, for these five biomimetic systems, the synthesis procedures, basic principles, and relationships are discussed, and the challenges that are encountered and directions for further development are considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangtao Zan
- Department of Chemistry, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, P. R. China
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, P. R. China
| | - Qingsheng Wu
- Department of Chemistry, State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, P. R. China
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, P. R. China
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16
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Chen J, Li S, Du J, Wang B, Meng S, Liu J, Yu M. Optically active multi-helical erythrocyte-like Ln(OH)CO 3 (Ln = La, Ce, Pr and Sm). Phys Chem Chem Phys 2016; 18:20261-5. [DOI: 10.1039/c6cp02302a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Hierarchical erythrocyte-like Ln(OH)CO3 with nanosized chiral structure-induced circular dichroism responses, assigned to valence to conduction band transitions and coupling effects between the left-handed-assembled Ln(OH)CO3 nanorods in the multi-helical RBC-like architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Chen
- Key Laboratory of Aerospace Advanced Materials and Performance of Ministry of Education
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Beihang University
- Beijing
- China
| | - Songmei Li
- Key Laboratory of Aerospace Advanced Materials and Performance of Ministry of Education
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Beihang University
- Beijing
- China
| | - Juan Du
- Key Laboratory of Aerospace Advanced Materials and Performance of Ministry of Education
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Beihang University
- Beijing
- China
| | - Bo Wang
- Key Laboratory of Aerospace Advanced Materials and Performance of Ministry of Education
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Beihang University
- Beijing
- China
| | - Shiming Meng
- Key Laboratory of Aerospace Advanced Materials and Performance of Ministry of Education
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Beihang University
- Beijing
- China
| | - Jianhua Liu
- Key Laboratory of Aerospace Advanced Materials and Performance of Ministry of Education
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Beihang University
- Beijing
- China
| | - Mei Yu
- Key Laboratory of Aerospace Advanced Materials and Performance of Ministry of Education
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Beihang University
- Beijing
- China
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17
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Tian L, Zhao P, Li X, Wang S, Ali Z, Zhang B, Zhang H, Zhang Q. Large-Scale Fabrication of Polymer Microcavities with Adjustable Openings and Surface Roughness Regulated by the Polarity of both Seed Surface and Monomers. Macromol Rapid Commun 2015; 37:47-52. [DOI: 10.1002/marc.201500449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2015] [Revised: 09/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lei Tian
- The Key Laboratory of Space Applied Physics and Chemistry; School of Science; Northwestern Polytechnical University; Xi'an 710072 China
| | - Panpan Zhao
- The Key Laboratory of Space Applied Physics and Chemistry; School of Science; Northwestern Polytechnical University; Xi'an 710072 China
| | - Xiangjie Li
- The Key Laboratory of Space Applied Physics and Chemistry; School of Science; Northwestern Polytechnical University; Xi'an 710072 China
| | - Shenqiang Wang
- The Key Laboratory of Space Applied Physics and Chemistry; School of Science; Northwestern Polytechnical University; Xi'an 710072 China
| | - Zafar Ali
- The Key Laboratory of Space Applied Physics and Chemistry; School of Science; Northwestern Polytechnical University; Xi'an 710072 China
| | - Baoliang Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of Space Applied Physics and Chemistry; School of Science; Northwestern Polytechnical University; Xi'an 710072 China
| | - Hepeng Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of Space Applied Physics and Chemistry; School of Science; Northwestern Polytechnical University; Xi'an 710072 China
| | - Qiuyu Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of Space Applied Physics and Chemistry; School of Science; Northwestern Polytechnical University; Xi'an 710072 China
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18
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Lou YR, Kanninen L, Kaehr B, Townson JL, Niklander J, Harjumäki R, Jeffrey Brinker C, Yliperttula M. Silica bioreplication preserves three-dimensional spheroid structures of human pluripotent stem cells and HepG2 cells. Sci Rep 2015; 5:13635. [PMID: 26323570 PMCID: PMC4555166 DOI: 10.1038/srep13635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2015] [Accepted: 07/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) cell cultures produce more in vivo-like multicellular structures such as spheroids that cannot be obtained in two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures. Thus, they are increasingly employed as models for cancer and drug research, as well as tissue engineering. It has proven challenging to stabilize spheroid architectures for detailed morphological examination. Here we overcome this issue using a silica bioreplication (SBR) process employed on spheroids formed from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) and hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells cultured in the nanofibrillar cellulose (NFC) hydrogel. The cells in the spheroids are more round and tightly interacting with each other than those in 2D cultures, and they develop microvilli-like structures on the cell membranes as seen in 2D cultures. Furthermore, SBR preserves extracellular matrix-like materials and cellular proteins. These findings provide the first evidence of intact hPSC spheroid architectures and similar fine structures to 2D-cultured cells, providing a pathway to enable our understanding of morphogenesis in 3D cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Ru Lou
- Centre for Drug Research, Division of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, the University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
| | - Liisa Kanninen
- Centre for Drug Research, Division of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, the University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
| | - Bryan Kaehr
- Advanced Materials Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, USA.,Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, the University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, USA
| | - Jason L Townson
- Division of Molecular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, the University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, USA.,Center for Micro-Engineered Materials, the University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, USA
| | - Johanna Niklander
- Centre for Drug Research, Division of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, the University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
| | - Riina Harjumäki
- Centre for Drug Research, Division of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, the University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
| | - C Jeffrey Brinker
- Advanced Materials Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, USA.,Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, the University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, USA
| | - Marjo Yliperttula
- Centre for Drug Research, Division of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, the University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
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