Fluorogenic Probes for Multicolor Imaging in Living Cells

Bright and Versatile Azetidinecarboxamide-Based Fluorophore-Ligand Conjugates for High-Resolution Cell Imaging

Fluorophore-ligand conjugates play a pivotal role in cellular imaging, providing high target specificity. However, simultaneously achieving conjugates with high brightness and ligand-targeting diversity presents significant challenges. Traditional strategies often require complex, multistep modifications for fluorophore enhancement and ligand conjugation. Here, we present an azetidinecarboxamide strategy that addresses these challenges by integrating brightness enhancement and ligand conjugation capabilities within a single molecular framework. The azetidinecarboxamide core suppresses twisted intramolecular charge transfer (TICT), thereby enhancing fluorescence quantum yield. Its carbonyl group provides a versatile site for conjugating a wide range of targeting ligands, enabling the rapid development of diverse and tunable fluorophore-ligand conjugates. This streamlined approach reduces synthetic complexity, accelerates probe development, and is compatible with a wide variety of fluorophores, such as coumarin, naphthalimide, NBD, rhodol, rhodamine, and silicon-rhodamine, facilitating the creation of high-performance, multifunctional probes for advanced cellular imaging.

Improved Solvatochromism and Quantum Yields in Acridine through Polarity-Enhanced π-Conjugation

Fluorophores exhibiting strong solvatochromism are strongly desired for applications in cellular imaging, photodevices, and fluorescence sensing. However, achieving high quantum yields in increasingly polar environments remains a significant challenge due to the complex balance required between a high transition dipole moment and a low emission energy. In this study, we present an acridine derivative of pyrene, Ad-Py, which features a donor-π-acceptor (D-π-A) scaffold. Notably, this fluorophore demonstrated a strong solvatochromic property, exhibiting a red-shift of 113 nm, along with high quantum yields (Φf = 83.5-90.6%) from the less polar solvent n-hexane to the highly polar solvent dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). The incorporation of the pyrene moiety effectively extended the π-conjugation of Ad-Py in polar solvents and finely tuned the proportion of the charge transfer (CT) state, leading to enhanced quantum yields. Moreover, due to its sensitivity to microenvironmental changes, Ad-Py facilitated the visual measurement of SO2, achieving a detection limit of <10 ppb.

Click-Functionalized Cyanine Fluorogenic Dimers for Improved Detection of GPCRs: Application to Imaging of ApelinR in Living Cells

Fluorogenic dimers enable background-free imaging of biological targets under wash-free conditions owing to a strong fluorescence enhancement in the apolar cell microenvironment. However, it is crucial that the imaging probe interacts solely with the target receptor to avoid nonspecific interactions and ensure detection with a high signal-to-noise ratio. Herein, we describe a convenient and rapid approach for the synthesis of various functionalized cyanine dyes by click chemistry allowing the fine-tuning of the physicochemical and fluorogenic properties of the dimers. A structure-interaction relationship study was conducted for the fluorogenic dimers in the presence of bovine serum albumin (BSA) and liposomes as models of serum proteins and cell membranes. We identified d─Cy─E which combined the lowest nonspecific interactions with the optimal fluorescence turn-on properties. By conjugating d─Cy─E to a peptide ligand of the apelin GPCR, we developed Ap─d─Cy─E, the first fluorescent turn-on probe for the background-free imaging of this receptor in living cells.

Uptake of small extracellular vesicles by recipient cells is facilitated by paracrine adhesion signaling

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) play crucial roles in intercellular communication. However, the internalization of individual sEVs by recipient cells has not been directly observed. Here, we examined these mechanisms using state-of-the-art imaging techniques. Single-molecule imaging shows that tumor-derived sEVs can be classified into several subtypes. Simultaneous single-sEV particle tracking and observation of super-resolution movies of membrane invaginations in living cells reveal that all sEV subtypes are internalized via clathrin-independent endocytosis mediated by galectin-3 and lysosome-associated membrane protein-2C, while some subtypes that recruited raft markers are internalized through caveolae. Integrin β1 and talin-1 accumulate in recipient cell plasma membranes beneath all sEV subtypes. Paracrine, but not autocrine, sEV binding triggers Ca2+ mobilization induced by the activation of Src family kinases and phospholipase Cγ. Subsequent Ca2+-induced activation of calcineurin-dynamin promotes sEV internalization, leading to the recycling pathway. Thus, we clarified the detailed mechanisms of sEV internalization driven by paracrine adhesion signaling.

Xanthene-based NIR organic phototheranostics agents: design strategies and biomedical applications

Fluorescence imaging and phototherapy in the near-infrared window (NIR, 650-1700 nm) have attracted great attention for biomedical applications due to their minimal invasiveness, ultra-low photon scattering and high spatial-temporal precision. Among NIR emitting/absorbing organic dyes, xanthene derivatives with controllable molecular structures and optical properties, excellent fluorescence quantum yields, high molar absorption coefficients and remarkable chemical stability have been extensively studied and explored in the field of biological theranostics. The present study was aimed at providing a comprehensive summary of the progress in the development and design strategies of xanthene derivative fluorophores for advanced biological phototheranostics. This study elucidated several representative controllable strategies, including electronic programming strategies, extension of conjugated backbones, and strategic establishment of activatable fluorophores, which enhance the NIR fluorescence of xanthene backbones. Subsequently, the development of xanthene nanoplatforms based on NIR fluorescence for biological applications was detailed. Overall, this work outlines future efforts and directions for improving NIR xanthene derivatives to meet evolving clinical needs. It is anticipated that this contribution could provide a viable reference for the strategic design of organic NIR fluorophores, thereby enhancing their potential clinical practice in future.

Lipid-Directed Covalent Labeling of Plasma Membranes for Long-Term Imaging, Barcoding and Manipulation of Cells

Fluorescent probes for cell plasma membranes (PM) generally exploit a noncovalent labeling mechanism, which constitutes a fundamental limitation in multiple bioimaging applications. Here, we report a concept of lipid-directed covalent labeling of PM, which exploits transient binding to the lipid membrane surface generating a high local dye concentration, thus favoring covalent ligation to random proximal membrane proteins. This concept yielded fluorescent probes for PM called MemGraft, which are built of a dye (cyanine Cy3 or Cy5) bearing a low-affinity membrane anchor and a reactive group: an activated ester or a maleimide. In contrast to specially designed control dyes and commercial Cy3-based labels of amino or thiol groups, MemGraft probes stain efficiently PM, revealing the crucial role of the membrane anchor combined with optimal reactivity of the activated ester or the maleimide. MemGraft probes overcome existing limitations of noncovalent probes, which makes them compatible with cell fixation, permeabilization, trypsinization, and the presence of serum. The latter allows long-term cell tracking and video imaging of cell PM dynamics without the signs of phototoxicity. The covalent strategy also enables staining and long-term tracking of cocultured cells labeled in different colors without exchange of probes. Moreover, the combination of MemGraft-Cy3 and MemGraft-Cy5 probes at different ratios enabled long-term cell barcoding in at least 5 color codes, important for tracking and visualizing multiple populations of cells. Ultimately, we found that the MemGraft strategy enables efficient biotinylation of the cell surface, opening the path to cell surface engineering and cell manipulation.

Spontaneously Blinkogenic Probe for Wash-Free Single-Molecule Localization-Based Super-Resolution Imaging in Living Cells

Single-molecule localization super-resolution fluorescence imaging relies on the fluorescence ON/OFF switching of fluorescent probes to break the diffraction limit. However, the unreacted or nonspecifically bound probes cause non-targeted ON/OFF switching, resulting in substantial fluorescence background that significantly reduces localization precision and accuracy. Here, we report a blinkogenic probe HM-DS655-Halo that remains blinking OFF until it binds to HaloTag, thereby triggering its self-blinking activity and enabling its application in direct SMLM imaging in living cells without wash-out steps. We employed the ratio of the duty cycle before and after self-blinking activation, termed as the parameter "RDC" to characterize blinkogenicity. The covalent binding to HaloTag induces HM-DS655-Halo to transition from a fluorescent OFF state to a fluorescence blinking state. This transition also leads to a change in the RDC value, which is calculated to be 12, ensuring super blinkogenicity to effectively suppress background signals in living cells. HM-DS655-Halo was successfully applied in dynamic SMLM imaging of diverse intracellular sub-structures with minimal background noise, including mitochondrial fission and contact, cell migration, and pseudopod growth.

Wash-free fluorescent tools based on organic molecules: Design principles and biomedical applications

Fluorescence-assisted tools based on organic molecules have been extensively applied to interrogate complex biological processes in a non-invasive manner with good sensitivity, high resolution, and rich contrast. However, the signal-to-noise ratio is an essential factor to be reckoned with during collecting images for high fidelity. In view of this, the wash-free strategy is proven as a promising and important approach to improve the signal-to-noise ratio, thus a thorough introduction is presented in the current review about wash-free fluorescent tools based on organic molecules. Firstly, generalization and summarization of the principles for designing wash-free molecular fluorescent tools (WFTs) are made. Subsequently, to make the thought of molecule design more legible, a wash-free strategy is highlighted in recent studies from four diverse but tightly binding aspects: (1) special chemical structures, (2) molecular interactions, (3) bio-orthogonal reactions, (4) abiotic reactions. Meanwhile, biomedical applications including bioimaging, biodetection, and therapy, are ready to be accompanied by. Finally, the prospects for WFTs are elaborated and discussed. This review is a timely conclusion about wash-free strategy in the fluorescence-guided biomedical applications, which may bring WFTs to the forefront and accelerate their extensive applications in biology and medicine.

Modular Design and Scaffold-Synthesis of Multi-Functional Fluorophores for Targeted Cellular Imaging and Pyroptosis

Fluorophores are essential tools for optical imaging and biomedical research. Their synthetic modification to incorporate new functions, however, remains a challenging task. Conventional strategies rely on linear synthesis in which a parent framework is gradually extended. We here designed and synthesized a versatile library of multi-functional fluorophores via a scaffold-based Ugi four-component reaction (U-4CR). The adaptability of the scaffold is achieved through modification of starting materials. This allows to use a small range of starting materials for the creation of fluorogenic probes that can detect reactive-oxygen species and where the localization into subcellular organelles or membranes can be controlled. We present reaction yields ranging from 60 % to 90 % and discovered that some compounds can even function as imaging and therapeutic agents via Fenton chemistry inducing pyroptosis in living cancer cells. Our study underlines the potential of scaffold-based synthesis for versatile creation of functional fluorophores and their applications.

Imaging malaria parasites across scales and time

The idea that disease is caused at the cellular level is so fundamental to us that we might forget the critical role microscopy played in generating and developing this insight. Visually identifying diseased or infected cells lays the foundation for any effort to curb human pathology. Since the discovery of the Plasmodium-infected red blood cells, which cause malaria, microscopy has undergone an impressive development now literally resolving individual molecules. This review explores the expansive field of light microscopy, focusing on its application to malaria research. Imaging technologies have transformed our understanding of biological systems, yet navigating the complex and ever-growing landscape of techniques can be daunting. This review offers a guide for researchers, especially those working on malaria, by providing historical context as well as practical advice on selecting the right imaging approach. The review advocates an integrated methodology that prioritises the research question while considering key factors like sample preparation, fluorophore choice, imaging modality, and data analysis. In addition to presenting seminal studies and innovative applications of microscopy, the review highlights a broad range of topics, from traditional techniques like white light microscopy to advanced methods such as superresolution microscopy and time-lapse imaging. It addresses the emerging challenges of microscopy, including phototoxicity and trade-offs in resolution and speed, and offers insights into future technologies that might impact malaria research. This review offers a mix of historical perspective, technological progress, and practical guidance that appeal to novice and advanced microscopists alike. It aims to inspire malaria researchers to explore imaging techniques that could enrich their studies, thus advancing the field through enhanced visual exploration of the parasite across scales and time.

In vivo multiplex imaging of dynamic neurochemical networks with designed far-red dopamine sensors

Neurochemical signals like dopamine (DA) play a crucial role in a variety of brain functions through intricate interactions with other neuromodulators and intracellular signaling pathways. However, studying these complex networks has been hindered by the challenge of detecting multiple neurochemicals in vivo simultaneously. To overcome this limitation, we developed a single-protein chemigenetic DA sensor, HaloDA1.0, which combines a cpHaloTag-chemical dye approach with the G protein-coupled receptor activation-based (GRAB) strategy, providing high sensitivity for DA, sub-second response kinetics, and an extensive spectral range from far-red to near-infrared. When used together with existing green and red fluorescent neuromodulator sensors, Ca2+ indicators, cAMP sensors, and optogenetic tools, HaloDA1.0 provides high versatility for multiplex imaging in cultured neurons, brain slices, and behaving animals, facilitating in-depth studies of dynamic neurochemical networks.

Native Cryo-Correlative Light and Synchrotron X-ray Fluorescence Imaging of Proteins and Essential Metals in Subcellular Neuronal Compartments

Essential metals such as iron, copper, and zinc are required for a wide variety of biological processes. For example, they act as cofactors in many proteins, conferring enzymatic activity or structural stability. Interactions between metals and proteins are often difficult to characterize due to the low concentration of metals in biological tissues and the sometimes labile nature of the chemical bonds involved. To better understand the cellular functions of essential metals, we correlate protein localization, using fluorescence light microscopy (FLM), and metal distribution with synchrotron X-ray fluorescence (SXRF), a high-sensitivity and high-spatial-resolution technique for metal imaging. Both chemical imaging modalities are implemented under cryogenic conditions to preserve native cell structure and chemical element distribution. As a proof of concept, we applied cryo-FLM and cryo-SXRF correlative imaging to cultured primary hippocampal neurons. Neurons were labeled under live conditions with fluorescent F-actin and tubulin dyes, then samples were flash-frozen and observed in a frozen hydrated state. This methodology, cryo-FLM combined to cryo-SXRF, revealed the distribution of iron, copper and zinc relative to F-actin and tubulin in the growth cones, dendrites, axons, and axonal en passant boutons of developing neurons.

Development of mKate3/HaloTag7 (JFX650) and CFP/YFP Dual-Fluorescence (or Förster) Resonance Energy Transfer Pairs for Visualizing Dual-Molecular Activity

Although several imaging strategies for dual fluorescence (or Förster) resonance energy transfer (FRET) biosensors have been reported, their implementation is challenging because of the limited performance of fluorescent proteins and the spectral overlap of FRET biosensors. These processes often require additional data calibration to eliminate artifacts. Many CFP/YFP FRET biosensors have been developed. In this study, we introduced the mKate3/HT7(JFX650) FRET pair, which effectively formed two pairs of FRET pairs for dual-FRET imaging when combined with the CFP/YFP FRET pair. The FRET donor mKate3 exhibited higher brightness than its predecessor mKate. The FRET acceptor, HT7(JFX650), is a HaloTag7 protein covalently conjugated with a far-red JFX650-THL ligand. The pair comprising mKate3 and HT7(JFX650) represents an excellent FRET dyad, exhibiting a high FRET efficiency ratio. To use the FRET pair for dual FRET biosensor imaging, we constructed PKA and K+ biosensors based on the mKate3/HT7(JFX650) FRET pair. These biosensors can be used along with CFP/YFP biosensors to simultaneously detect the responses of intracellular PKA/Src, PKA/Ca2+, and K+/Ca2+ under different stimuli. The findings revealed that dual FRET biosensors, which are based on the combination of CFP/YFP and mKate3/HT7 (JFX650), exhibit adequate compatibility and can be used to visualize multiple molecular activities in a live cell.

Photoactivatable Xanthone (PaX) Dyes Enable Quantitative, Dual Color, and Live-Cell MINFLUX Nanoscopy

The single-molecule localization concept MINFLUX has triggered a reevaluation of the features of fluorophores for attaining nanometer-scale resolution. MINFLUX nanoscopy benefits from temporally controlled fluorescence ("on"/"off") photoswitching. Combined with an irreversible switching behavior, the localization process is expected to turn highly efficient and quantitative data analysis simple. The potential in the recently reported photoactivable xanthone (PaX) dyes is recognized to extend the list of molecular switches used for MINFLUX with 561 nm excitation beyond the fluorescent protein mMaple. The MINFLUX localization success rates of PaX560, PaX+560, and mMaple are quantitatively compared by analyzing the effective labeling efficiency of endogenously tagged nuclear pore complexes. The PaX dyes prove to be superior to mMaple and on par with the best reversible molecular switches routinely used in single-molecule localization microscopy. Moreover, the rationally designed PaX595 is introduced for complementing PaX560 in dual color 561 nm MINFLUX imaging based on spectral classification and the deterministic, irreversible, and additive-independent nature of PaX photoactivation is showcased in fast live-cell MINFLUX imaging. The PaX dyes meet the demands of MINFLUX for a robust readout of each label position and fill the void of reliable fluorophores dedicated to 561 nm MINFLUX imaging.

Astrocytic uptake of posttranslationally modified amyloid-β leads to endolysosomal system disruption and induction of pro-inflammatory signaling

The disruption of astrocytic catabolic processes contributes to the impairment of amyloid-β (Aβ) clearance, neuroinflammatory signaling, and the loss of synaptic contacts in late-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD). While it is known that the posttranslational modifications of Aβ have significant implications on biophysical properties of the peptides, their consequences for clearance impairment are not well understood. It was previously shown that N-terminally pyroglutamylated Aβ3(pE)-42, a significant constituent of amyloid plaques, is efficiently taken up by astrocytes, leading to the release of pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor α and synapse loss. Here we report that Aβ3(pE)-42, but not Aβ1-42, gradually accumulates within the astrocytic endolysosomal system, disrupting this catabolic pathway and inducing the formation of heteromorphous vacuoles. This accumulation alters lysosomal kinetics, lysosome-dependent calcium signaling, and upregulates the lysosomal stress response. These changes correlate with the upregulation of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and increased activity of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB). Treatment with a lysosomal protease inhibitor, E-64, rescues GFAP upregulation, NF-κB activation, and synapse loss, indicating that abnormal lysosomal protease activity is upstream of pro-inflammatory signaling and related synapse loss. Collectively, our data suggest that Aβ3(pE)-42-induced disruption of the astrocytic endolysosomal system leads to cytoplasmic leakage of lysosomal proteases, promoting pro-inflammatory signaling and synapse loss, hallmarks of AD-pathology.

Multicolor Tuning of Perylene Diimides Dyes for Targeted Organelle Imaging In Vivo

The adjustment of the emission wavelengths and cell permeability of the perylene diimides (PDI) for multicolor cell imaging is a great challenge. Herein, based on a bay-region substituent engineering strategy, multicolor perylene diimides (MCPDI) were rationally designed and synthesized by introducing azetidine substituents on the bay region of PDIs. With the fine-tuned electron-donating ability of the azetidine substituents, these MCPDI showed high brightness, orange, red, and near infrared (NIR) fluorescence along with Stokes shifts increasing from 35 to 110 nm. Interestingly, azetidine substituents distorted to the plane of the MCPDI dyes, and the twist angle of monosubstituted MCPDI was larger than that of disubstituted MCPDI, which might efficiently decrease their π-π stacking. Moreover, all of these MCPDI dyes were cell-permeable and selectively stained various organelles for multicolor imaging of multiple organelles in living cells. Two-color imaging of lipid droplets (LDs) and other organelles stained with MCPDI dyes was performed to reveal the interaction between the LDs and other organelles in living cells. Furthermore, a NIR-emitting MCPDI dye with a mitochondria-targeted characteristic was successfully applied for tumor-specific imaging. The facile synthesis, excellent stability, high brightness, tunable fluorescence emission, and Stokes shifts make these MCPDI promising fluorescent probes for biological applications.

Photo-uncaging Triggers on Self-Blinking to Control Single-Molecule Fluorescence Kinetics for Super-resolution Imaging

Super-resolution imaging, especially a single-molecule localization approach, has raised a fluorophore engineering revolution chasing sparse single-molecule dark-bright blinking transforms. Yet, it is a challenge to structurally devise fluorophores manipulating the single-molecule blinking kinetics. In this pursuit, we have developed a triggering strategy by innovatively integrating the photoactivatable nitroso-caging strategy into self-blinking sulfonamide to form a nitroso-caged sulfonamide rhodamine (NOSR). Our fluorophore demonstrated controllable self-blinking events upon phototriggered caging unit release. This exceptional blink kinetics improved the super-resolution imaging integrity on microtubules compared to self-blinking analogues. With the aid of paramount single-molecule fluorescence kinetics, we successfully reconstructed the ring structure of nuclear pores and the axial morphology of mitochondrial outer membranes. We foresee that our synthetic approach of photoactivation and self-blinking would facilitate rhodamine devising for super-resolution imaging.

Design of Bright Chemogenetic Reporters Based on the Combined Engineering of Fluorogenic Molecular Rotors and of the HaloTag Protein

The combination of fluorogenic probes (fluorogens) and self-labeling protein tags represent a promising tool for imaging biological processes with high specificity but it requires the adequation between the fluorogen and its target to ensure a good activation of its fluorescence. In this work, we report a strategy to develop molecular rotors that specifically target HaloTag with a strong enhancement of their fluorescence. The divergent design facilitates the diversification of the structures to tune the photophysical and cellular properties. Four bright fluorogens with emissions ranging from green to red were identified and applied in wash-free live cell imaging experiments with good contrast and selectivity. A HaloTag mutant adapted from previous literature reports was also tested and shown to further improve the brightness and reaction rate of the most promising fluorogen of the series both in vitro and in cells. This work opens new possibilities to develop bright chemogenetic reporters with diverse photophysical and biological properties by exploring a potentially large chemical space of simple dipolar fluorophores in combination with protein engineering.

High-Fidelity Assay Based on Turn-Off Fluorescence to Detect the Perturbations of Cellular Proteostasis

The persistence of neurodegenerative diseases has necessitated the development of new strategies to monitor protein homeostasis (proteostasis). Previous efforts in our laboratory have focused on the development of fluorogenic strategies to observe the onset and progression of proteostatic stress. These works utilized solvatochromic and viscosity sensitive fluorophores to sense protein folded states, enabling stressor screening with an increase in the emission intensity upon aggregation. In this work, we present a novel, high-fidelity assay to detect perturbations of cellular proteostasis, where the fluorescence intensity decreases with the onset of proteostatic stress. Utilizing a fluorogenic, hydroxymethyl silicon-rhodamine probe to differentiate between protein folded states, we establish the validity of this technology in living cells by demonstrating a two-fold difference in fluorescence intensity between unstressed and stressed conditions.

Fluorogenic Rhodamine Probes with Pyrrole Substitution Enables STED and Lifetime Imaging of Lysosomes in Live Cells

Fluorogenic dyes with high brightness, large turn-on ratios, excellent photostability, favorable specificity, low cytotoxicity, and high membrane permeability are essential for high-resolution fluorescence imaging in live cells. In this study, we endowed these desirable properties to a rhodamine derivative by simply replacing the N, N-diethyl group with a pyrrole substituent. The resulting dye, Rh-NH, exhibited doubled Stokes shifts (54 nm) and a red-shift of more than 50 nm in fluorescence spectra compared to Rhodamine B. Rh-NH preferentially exists in a non-emissive but highly permeable spirolactone form. Upon binding to lysosomes, the collective effects of low pH, low polarity, and high viscosity endow Rh-NH with significant fluorescence turn-on, making it a suitable candidate for wash-free, high-contrast lysosome tracking. Consequently, Rh-NH enabled us to successfully explore stimulated emission depletion (STED) super-resolution imaging of lysosome dynamics, as well as fluorescence lifetime imaging of lysosomes in live cells.

Chemical Approaches to Optimize the Properties of Organic Fluorophores for Imaging and Sensing

Organic fluorophores are indispensable tools in cells, tissue and in vivo imaging, and have enabled much progress in the wide range of biological and biomedical fields. However, many available dyes suffer from insufficient performances, such as short absorption and emission wavelength, low brightness, poor stability, small Stokes shift, and unsuitable permeability, restricting their application in advanced imaging technology and complex imaging. Over the past two decades, many efforts have been made to improve these performances of fluorophores. Starting with the luminescence principle of fluorophores, this review clarifies the mechanisms of the insufficient performance for traditional fluorophores to a certain extent, systematically summarizes the modified approaches of optimizing properties, highlights the typical applications of the improved fluorophores in imaging and sensing, and indicates existing problems and challenges in this area. This progress not only proves the significance of improving fluorophores properties, but also provide a theoretical guidance for the development of high-performance fluorophores.

Design and Application of Fluorescent Probes to Detect Cellular Physical Microenvironments

The microenvironment is indispensable for functionality of various biomacromolecules, subcellular compartments, living cells, and organisms. In particular, physical properties within the biological microenvironment could exert profound effects on both the cellular physiology and pathology, with parameters including the polarity, viscosity, pH, and other relevant factors. There is a significant demand to directly visualize and quantitatively measure the fluctuation in the cellular microenvironment with spatiotemporal resolution. To satisfy this need, analytical methods based on fluorescence probes offer great opportunities due to the facile, sensitive, and dynamic detection that these molecules could enable in varying biological settings from in vitro samples to live animal models. Herein, we focus on various types of small molecule fluorescent probes for the detection and measurement of physical parameters of the microenvironment, including pH, polarity, viscosity, mechanical force, temperature, and electron potential. For each parameter, we primarily describe the chemical mechanisms underlying how physical properties are correlated with changes of various fluorescent signals. This review provides both an overview and a perspective for the development of small molecule fluorescent probes to visualize the dynamic changes in the cellular environment, to expand the knowledge for biological process, and to enrich diagnostic tools for human diseases.

A Bright, Photostable, and Far-Red Dye That Enables Multicolor, Time-Lapse, and Super-Resolution Imaging of Acidic Organelles

Lysosomes have long been known for their acidic lumens and efficient degradation of cellular byproducts. In recent years, it has become clear that their function is far more sophisticated, involving multiple cell signaling pathways and interactions with other organelles. Unfortunately, their acidic interior, fast dynamics, and small size make lysosomes difficult to image with fluorescence microscopy. Here we report a far-red small molecule, HMSiR680-Me, that fluoresces only under acidic conditions, causing selective labeling of acidic organelles in live cells. HMSiR680-Me can be used alongside other far-red dyes in multicolor imaging experiments and is superior to existing lysosome probes in terms of photostability and maintaining cell health and lysosome motility. We demonstrate that HMSiR680-Me is compatible with overnight time-lapse experiments as well as time-lapse super-resolution microscopy with a frame rate of 1.5 fps for at least 1000 frames. HMSiR680-Me can also be used alongside silicon rhodamine dyes in a multiplexed super-resolution microscopy experiment to visualize interactions between mitochondria and lysosomes with only a single excitation laser and simultaneous depletion. We envision this dye permitting a more detailed study of the role of lysosomes in dynamic cellular processes and disease.

No-wash fluorogenic labeling of proteins for reversible photoswitching in live cells

Photoswitchable fluorescent molecules (PSFMs) are positioned as valuable tools for biomolecule localization tracking and super-resolution imaging technologies due to their unique ability to reversibly control fluorescence intensity upon light irradiation. Despite the high demand for PSFMs that are suitable for live-cell imaging, no general method has been reported that enables reversible fluorescence control on proteins of interest in living cells. Herein, we have established a platform to realize reversible fluorescence switching in living cells by adapting a protein labeling system. We have developed a new PSFM, named HTL-Trp-BODIPY-FF, which exhibits strong fluorogenicity upon recognition of Halo-tag protein and reversible fluorescence photoswitching in living cells. This is the first example of a PSFM that can be applicable to a general-purpose Halo-tag protein labeling system for no-wash live-cell imaging.

Organic fluorescent probes for live-cell super-resolution imaging

The development of super-resolution technology has made it possible to investigate the ultrastructure of intracellular organelles by fluorescence microscopy, which has greatly facilitated the development of life sciences and biomedicine. To realize super-resolution imaging of living cells, both advanced imaging systems and excellent fluorescent probes are required. Traditional fluorescent probes have good availability, but that is not the case for probes for live-cell super-resolution imaging. In this review, we first introduce the principles of various super-resolution technologies and their probe requirements, then summarize the existing designs and delivery strategies of super-resolution probes for live-cell imaging, and finally provide a brief conclusion and overview of the future.

Fluorogenic and Cell-Permeable Rhodamine Dyes for High-Contrast Live-Cell Protein Labeling in Bioimaging and Biosensing

The advancement of fluorescence microscopy techniques has opened up new opportunities for visualizing proteins and unraveling their functions in living biological systems. Small-molecule organic dyes, which possess exceptional photophysical properties, small size, and high photostability, serve as powerful fluorescent reporters in protein imaging. However, achieving high-contrast live-cell labeling of target proteins with conventional organic dyes remains a considerable challenge in bioimaging and biosensing due to their inadequate cell permeability and high background signal. Over the past decade, a novel generation of fluorogenic and cell-permeable dyes has been developed, which have substantially improved live-cell protein labeling by fine-tuning the reversible equilibrium between a cell-permeable, nonfluorescent spirocyclic state (unbound) and a fluorescent zwitterion (protein-bound) of rhodamines. In this review, we present the mechanism and design strategies of these fluorogenic and cell-permeable rhodamines, as well as their applications in bioimaging and biosensing.

Optimized Red-Absorbing Dyes for Imaging and Sensing

Rhodamine dyes are excellent scaffolds for developing a broad range of fluorescent probes. A key property of rhodamines is their equilibrium between a colorless lactone and fluorescent zwitterion. Tuning the lactone-zwitterion equilibrium constant (KL-Z) can optimize dye properties for specific biological applications. Here, we use known and novel organic chemistry to prepare a comprehensive collection of rhodamine dyes to elucidate the structure-activity relationships that govern KL-Z. We discovered that the auxochrome substituent strongly affects the lactone-zwitterion equilibrium, providing a roadmap for the rational design of improved rhodamine dyes. Electron-donating auxochromes, such as julolidine, work in tandem with fluorinated pendant phenyl rings to yield bright, red-shifted fluorophores for live-cell single-particle tracking (SPT) and multicolor imaging. The N-aryl auxochrome combined with fluorination yields red-shifted Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) quencher dyes useful for creating a new semisynthetic indicator to sense cAMP using fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM). Together, this work expands the synthetic methods available for rhodamine synthesis, generates new reagents for advanced fluorescence imaging experiments, and describes structure-activity relationships that will guide the design of future probes.

A robust yet simple method to generate fluorescent amyloid nanofibers

Covalent tagging of fluorophores is central to the mechanistic understanding of important biological processes including protein-protein interaction and protein aggregation. Hence, studies on fluorophore-tagged peptides help in elucidating the molecular mechanism of amyloidogenesis, its cellular internalization, and crosstalk potential. Despite the many advantages the covalently tagged proteins offer, difficulties such as expensive and tedious synthesis and purification protocols have become a matter of concern. Importantly, covalently tagged fluorophores could introduce structural constraints, which may influence the conformation of the monomeric and aggregated forms of proteins. Here, we describe a robust-yet-simple method to make fluorescent-amyloid nanofibers through a coassembly-reaction route that does not alter the aggregation kinetics and the characteristic β-sheet-conformers of resultant nanofibers. Fluorescent amyloid nanofibers derived from insulin, lysozyme, Aβ1-42, and metabolites were successfully fabricated in our study. Importantly, the incorporated fluorophores exhibited remarkable stability, remaining intact without leaching even after undergoing serial dilutions and prolonged storage periods. This method enables monitoring of cellular internalization of the fluorescent-amyloid-nanofibers and the detection of FRET-signals during interfibrillar interactions. This simple and affordable protocol may significantly help amyloid researchers working on both in vitro and animal models.

Chaperone-mediated autophagy in neuronal dendrites utilizes activity-dependent lysosomal exocytosis for protein disposal

The complex morphology of neurons poses a challenge for proteostasis because the majority of lysosomal degradation machinery is present in the cell soma. In recent years, however, mature lysosomes were identified in dendrites, and a fraction of those appear to fuse with the plasma membrane and release their content to the extracellular space. Here, we report that dendritic lysosomes are heterogeneous in their composition and that only those containing lysosome-associated membrane protein (LAMP) 2A and 2B fuse with the membrane and exhibit activity-dependent motility. Exocytotic lysosomes dock in close proximity to GluN2B-containing N-methyl-D-aspartate-receptors (NMDAR) via an association of LAMP2B to the membrane-associated guanylate kinase family member SAP102/Dlg3. NMDAR-activation decreases lysosome motility and promotes membrane fusion. We find that chaperone-mediated autophagy is a supplier of content that is released to the extracellular space via lysosome exocytosis. This mechanism enables local disposal of aggregation-prone proteins like TDP-43 and huntingtin.

Novel Method for the Synthesis of Merocyanines: New Photophysical Possibilities for a Known Class of Fluorophores

A new, transformative method for the preparation of rhodols and other merocyanines from readily available tetrafluorohydroxybenzaldehyde and aminophenols has been developed. It is now possible to prepare merocyanines bearing three fluorine atoms and additional conjugated rings, and the whole one-pot process occurs under neutral, mild conditions. Three heretofore unknown merocyanine-based architectures were prepared using this strategy from aminonaphthols and 4-hydroxycoumarins. The ability to change the structure of original rhodol chromophore into π-expanded merocyanines translates to a comprehensive method for the modulation of photophysical properties, such as shifting the absorption and emission bands across almost the entire visible spectrum, reaching a huge Stokes shift i. e. 4800 cm-1 , brightness approximately 80.000 M-1  cm-1 , two-photon absorption cross-section above 150 GM and switching-on/off solvatofluorochromism. A detailed investigation allowed to rationalize the different spectroscopic behavior of rhodols and new merocyanines, addressing solvatochromism and two-photon absorption.

A Bright, Photostable Dye that Enables Multicolor, Time Lapse, and Super-Resolution Imaging of Acidic Organelles

Lysosomes have long been known for their acidic lumen and efficient degradation of cellular byproducts. In recent years it has become clear that their function is far more sophisticated, involving multiple cell signaling pathways and interactions with other organelles. Unfortunately, their acidic interior, fast dynamics, and small size makes lysosomes difficult to image with fluorescence microscopy. Here we report a far-red small molecule, HMSiR680-Me, that fluoresces only under acidic conditions, causing selective labeling of acidic organelles in live cells. HMSiR680-Me can be used alongside other far-red dyes in multicolor imaging experiments and is superior to existing lysosome probes in terms of photostability and maintaining cell health and lysosome motility. We demonstrate that HMSiR680-Me is compatible with overnight time lapse experiments, as well as time lapse super-resolution microscopy with a fast frame rate for at least 1000 frames. HMSiR680-Me can also be used alongside silicon rhodamine dyes in a multiplexed super-resolution microscopy experiment to visualize interactions between the inner mitochondrial membrane and lysosomes with only a single excitation laser and simultaneous depletion. We envision this dye permitting more detailed study of the role of lysosomes in dynamic cellular processes and disease.

Fast-exchanging spirocyclic rhodamine probes for aptamer-based super-resolution RNA imaging

Live-cell RNA imaging with high spatial and temporal resolution remains a major challenge. Here we report the development of RhoBAST:SpyRho, a fluorescent light-up aptamer (FLAP) system ideally suited for visualizing RNAs in live or fixed cells with various advanced fluorescence microscopy modalities. Overcoming problems associated with low cell permeability, brightness, fluorogenicity, and signal-to-background ratio of previous fluorophores, we design a novel probe, SpyRho (Spirocyclic Rhodamine), which tightly binds to the RhoBAST aptamer. High brightness and fluorogenicity is achieved by shifting the equilibrium between spirolactam and quinoid. With its high affinity and fast ligand exchange, RhoBAST:SpyRho is a superb system for both super-resolution SMLM and STED imaging. Its excellent performance in SMLM and the first reported super-resolved STED images of specifically labeled RNA in live mammalian cells represent significant advances over other FLAPs. The versatility of RhoBAST:SpyRho is further demonstrated by imaging endogenous chromosomal loci and proteins.

A Photoswitchable Solvatochromic Dye for Probing Membrane Ordering by RESOLFT Super-resolution Microscopy

A switchable solvatochromic fluorescent dyad can be used to map ordering of lipids in vesicle membranes at a resolution better than the diffraction limit. Combining a Nile Red fluorophore with a photochromic spironaphthoxazine quencher allows the fluorescence to be controlled using visible light, via photoswitching and FRET quenching. Synthetic lipid vesicles of varying composition were imaged with an average 2.5-fold resolution enhancement, compared to the confocal images. Ratiometric detection was used to probe the membrane polarity, and domains of different lipid ordering were distinguished within the same membrane.

THQ-Xanthene: An Emerging Strategy to Create Next-Generation NIR-I/II Fluorophores

Near-infrared fluorescence imaging is vital for exploring the biological world. The short emissions (<650 nm) and small Stokes shifts (<30 nm) of current xanthene dyes obstruct their biological applications since a long time. Recently, a potent and universal THQ structural modification technique that shifts emission to the NIR-I/II range and enables a substantial Stokes shift (>100 nm) for THQ-modified xanthene dyes is established. Thus, a timely discussion of THQ-xanthene and its applications is extensive. Hence, the advent, working principles, development trajectory, and biological applications of THQ-xanthene dyes, especially in the fields of fluorescence probe-based sensing and imaging, cancer theranostics, and super-resolution imaging, are introduced. It is envisioned that the THQ modification tactic is a simple yet exceptional approach to upgrade the performance of conventional xanthene dyes. THQ-xanthene will advance the strides of xanthene-based potentials in early fluorescent diagnosis of diseases, cancer theranostics, and imaging-guided surgery.

Genetic Targeting of Solvatochromic Dyes for Probing Nanoscale Environments of Proteins in Organelles

A variety of protein tags are available for genetically encoded protein labeling, which allow their precise localization and tracking inside the cells. A new dimension in protein imaging can be offered by combining protein tags with polarity-sensitive fluorescent probes, which provide information about local nanoscale environments of target proteins within the subcellular compartments (organelles). Here, we designed three fluorescent probes based on solvatochromic nile red dye, conjugated to a HaloTag reactive targeting group through polyethylene glycol linkers of varying lengths. The probe with medium linker length, NR12-Halo, was found to label specifically a large variety of proteins localized in defined cell compartments, such as plasma membranes (outer and inner leaflets), endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, cytosol, microtubules, actin, and chromatin. Owing to its polarity-sensitive fluorophore, the probe clearly distinguished the proteins localized within apolar lipid membranes from other proteins. Moreover, it revealed dramatic changes in the environment during the life cycle of proteins from biosynthesis to their expected localization and, finally, to recycling inside lysosomes. Heterogeneity in the local polarity of some membrane proteins also suggested a formation of low-polar protein aggregates, for example, within cell-cell contacts. The approach also showed that mechanical stress (cell shrinking by osmotic shock) induced a general polarity decrease in membrane proteins, probably due to the condensation of biomolecules. Finally, the nanoenvironment of some membrane proteins was affected by a polyunsaturated fatty acid diet, which provided the bridge between organization of lipids and proteins. The developed solvatochromic HaloTag probe constitutes a promising tool for probing nanoscale environments of proteins and their interactions within subcellular structures.

Light-Deactivated Fluorescent Probes (FLASH-Off) for Multiplexed Imaging

Highly multiplexed, cyclic fluorescence imaging has advanced our understanding of the biology, evolution, and complexity of human diseases. Currently available cyclic methods still have considerable limitations including the need for long quenching times and extensive wash steps. Here, we report a new series of fluorochromes that can be efficiently inactivated by a single light pulse (∼405 nm) by means of a photo-immolating triazene linker. Upon UV-light irradiation, the rhodamines are cleaved off from the antibody conjugates and undergo a fast intramolecular spirocyclization that inherently switches off their fluorescence emission without the need to wash or add exogenous chemicals. We show that these switch-off probes are fast, highly controllable, biocompatible, and allow spatiotemporal quenching control of live and fixed samples.

Xanthene-based functional dyes: towards new molecules operating in the near-infrared region

Xanthene-based functional dyes have diverse applications in life science and materials science. A current challenge is to develop new dyes with suitable physicochemical properties, including near-infrared (NIR) operation, for advanced biological applications such as medical diagnostics and molecular imaging. In this review, we first present an overview of xanthene-based functional dyes and then focus on synthetic strategies for modulating the absorption and fluorescence of dyes that operate in the NIR wavelength region with bright emission and good photostability. We also introduce our work on aminobenzopyranoxanthenes (ABPXs) and bridged tetra-aryl-p-quinodimethanes (BTAQs) as new xanthene-based far-red (FR)/NIR absorbing/emitting molecules whose absorption/fluorescence wavelengths change in response to external stimuli.

A general highly efficient synthesis of biocompatible rhodamine dyes and probes for live-cell multicolor nanoscopy

The development of live-cell fluorescence nanoscopy is powered by the availability of suitable fluorescent probes. Rhodamines are among the best fluorophores for labeling intracellular structures. Isomeric tuning is a powerful method for optimizing the biocompatibility of rhodamine-containing probes without affecting their spectral properties. An efficient synthesis pathway for 4-carboxyrhodamines is still lacking. We present a facile protecting-group-free 4-carboxyrhodamines' synthesis based on the nucleophilic addition of lithium dicarboxybenzenide to the corresponding xanthone. This approach drastically reduces the number of synthesis steps, expands the achievable structural diversity, increases overall yields and permits gram-scale synthesis of the dyes. We synthesize a wide range of symmetrical and unsymmetrical 4-carboxyrhodamines covering the whole visible spectrum and target them to multiple structures in living cells - microtubules, DNA, actin, mitochondria, lysosomes, Halo-tagged and SNAP-tagged proteins. The enhanced permeability fluorescent probes operate at submicromolar concentrations, allowing high-contrast STED and confocal microscopy of living cells and tissues.

Recruiting Rate Determines the Blinking Propensity of Rhodamine Fluorophores for Super-Resolution Imaging

Live-cell single-molecule localization microscopy has advanced with the development of self-blinking rhodamines. A pK_cycling of <6 is recognized as the criterion for self-blinking, yet a few rhodamines matching the standard fail for super-resolution reconstruction. To resolve this controversy, we constructed two classic rhodamines (pK_cycling < 6) and four sulfonamide rhodamines with three exhibited exceptional larger pK_cycling characteristics (6.91-7.34). A kinetic study uncovered slow equilibrium rates, and limited switch numbers resulted in the reconstruction failure of some rhodamines. From the kinetic disparity, a recruiting rate was first abstracted to reveal the natural switching frequency of spirocycling equilibrium. The new parameter independent from applying a laser satisfactorily explained the imaging failure, efficacious for determining the propensity of self-blinking from a kinetic perspective. Following the prediction from this parameter, the sulfonamide rhodamines enabled live-cell super-resolution imaging of various organelles through Halo-tag technology. It is determined that the recruiting rate would be a practical indicator of self-blinking and imaging performance.

De Novo Designed Self-Assembling Rhodamine Probe for Real-Time, Long-Term and Quantitative Live-Cell Nanoscopy

Super-resolution imaging provides a powerful approach to image dynamic biomolecule events at nanoscale resolution. An ingenious method involving tuning intramolecular spirocyclization in rhodamine offers an appealing strategy to design cell-permeable fluorogenic probes for super-resolution imaging. Nevertheless, precise control of rhodamine spirocyclization presents a significant challenge. Through detailed study of the structure-activity relationship, we identified that multiple key factors control rhodamime spirocyclization. The findings provide opportunities to create fluorogenic probes with tailored properties. On the basis of our findings, we constructed self-assembling rhodamine probes for no-wash live-cell confocal and super-resolution imaging. The designed self-assembling probe Rho-2CF3 specifically labeled its target proteins and displayed high ring-opening ability, fast labeling kinetics (<1 min), and large turn-on fold (>80 folds), which is very difficult to be realized by the existing methods. Using the probe, we achieved high-contrast super-resolution imaging of nuclei and mitochondria with a spatial resolution of up to 42 nm. The probe also showed excellent photostability and proved ideal for real-time and long-term tracking of mitochondrial fission and fusion events with high spatiotemporal resolution. Furthermore, Rho-2CF3 could resolve the ultrastructure of mitochondrial cristae and quantify their morphological changes under drug treatment at nanoscale. Our strategy thus demonstrates its usefulness in designing self-assembling probes for super-resolution imaging.

Photoactivatable Large Stokes Shift Fluorophores for Multicolor Nanoscopy

We designed caging-group-free photoactivatable live-cell permeant dyes with red fluorescence emission and ∼100 nm Stokes shifts based on a 1-vinyl-10-silaxanthone imine core structure. The proposed fluorophores undergo byproduct-free one- and two-photon activation, are suitable for multicolor fluorescence microscopy in fixed and living cells, and are compatible with super-resolution techniques such as STED (stimulated emission depletion) and PALM (photoactivated localization microscopy). Use of photoactivatable labels for strain-promoted tetrazine ligation and self-labeling protein tags (HaloTag, SNAP-tag), and duplexing of an imaging channel with another large Stokes shift dye have been demonstrated.

Long-Wavelength Photoconvertible Dimeric BODIPYs for Super-Resolution Single-Molecule Localization Imaging in Near-Infrared Emission

Sulfoxide-bridged dimeric BODIPYs were developed as a new class of long-wavelength photoconvertible fluorophores. Upon visible-light irradiation, a sulfoxide moiety was released to generate the corresponding α,α-directly linked dimeric BODIPYs. The extrusion of SO from sulfoxides was mainly through an intramolecular fashion involving reactive triplet states. By this photoconversion, not only were more than 100 nm red shifts of absorption and emission maxima (up to 648/714 nm) achieved but also stable products with bright fluorescence were produced with high efficiency. The combination of photoactivation and red-shifted excitation/emission offered optimal contrast and eliminated the interference from biological autofluorescence. More importantly, the in situ products of these visible-light-induced reactions demonstrated ideal single-molecule fluorescence properties in the near-infrared region. Therefore, this new photoconversion could be a powerful photoactivation method achieving super-resolution single-molecule localization imaging in a living cell without using UV illumination and cell-toxic additives.

Fluorescence microscopy imaging of a neurotransmitter receptor and its cell membrane lipid milieu

Hampered by the diffraction phenomenon, as expressed in 1873 by Abbe, applications of optical microscopy to image biological structures were for a long time limited to resolutions above the ∼200 nm barrier and restricted to the observation of stained specimens. The introduction of fluorescence was a game changer, and since its inception it became the gold standard technique in biological microscopy. The plasma membrane is a tenuous envelope of 4 nm-10 nm in thickness surrounding the cell. Because of its highly versatile spectroscopic properties and availability of suitable instrumentation, fluorescence techniques epitomize the current approach to study this delicate structure and its molecular constituents. The wide spectral range covered by fluorescence, intimately linked to the availability of appropriate intrinsic and extrinsic probes, provides the ability to dissect membrane constituents at the molecular scale in the spatial domain. In addition, the time resolution capabilities of fluorescence methods provide complementary high precision for studying the behavior of membrane molecules in the time domain. This review illustrates the value of various fluorescence techniques to extract information on the topography and motion of plasma membrane receptors. To this end I resort to a paradigmatic membrane-bound neurotransmitter receptor, the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR). The structural and dynamic picture emerging from studies of this prototypic pentameric ligand-gated ion channel can be extrapolated not only to other members of this superfamily of ion channels but to other membrane-bound proteins. I also briefly discuss the various emerging techniques in the field of biomembrane labeling with new organic chemistry strategies oriented to applications in fluorescence nanoscopy, the form of fluorescence microscopy that is expanding the depth and scope of interrogation of membrane-associated phenomena.

Correlative nano-imaging of metals and proteins in primary neurons by synchrotron X-ray fluorescence and STED super resolution microscopy: Experimental validation

BACKGROUND

It is becoming increasingly clear that biological metals such as iron, copper or zinc are involved in synaptic functions, and in particular in the mechanisms of synaptogenesis and subsequent plasticity. Understanding the role of metals on synaptic functions is a difficult challenge due to the very low concentration of these elements in neurons and to the submicrometer size of synaptic compartments.

NEW METHOD

To address this challenge we have developed a correlative nano-imaging approach combining metal and protein detection. First, stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy, a super resolution optical microscopy technique, is applied to locate fluorescently labeled proteins. Then, synchrotron radiation induced X-ray fluorescence (SXRF) is performed on the same regions of interest, e.g. synaptic compartments.

RESULTS

We present here the principle scheme that allows this correlative nano-imaging and its experimental validation. We applied this correlative nano-imaging to the study of the physiological distribution of metals in synaptic compartments of primary rat hippocampal neurons. We thus compared the nanometric distribution of metals with that of synaptic proteins, such as PSD95 or cytoskeleton proteins.

COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHOD(S)

Compared to correlative imaging approaches currently used to characterize synaptic structures, such as electron microscopy correlated with optical fluorescence, our approach allows for ultra-sensitive detection of trace metals using highly focused synchrotron radiation beams.

CONCLUSION

We provide proof-of-principle for correlative imaging of metals and proteins at the synaptic scale and discuss the present limitations and future developments in this area.

Local Shearing Force Measurement during Frictional Sliding Using Fluorogenic Mechanophores

When two macroscopic objects touch, the real contact typically consists of multiple surface asperities that are deformed under the pressure that holds the objects together. Application of a shear force makes the objects slide along each other, breaking the initial contacts. To investigate how the microscopic shear force at the asperity level evolves during the transition from static to dynamic friction, we apply a fluorogenic mechanophore to visualize and quantify the local interfacial shear force. When a contact is broken, the shear force is released and the molecules return to their dark state, allowing us to dynamically observe the evolution of the shear force at the sliding contacts. We find that the macroscopic coefficient of friction describes the microscopic friction well, and that slip propagates from the edge toward the center of the macroscopic contact area before sliding occurs. This allows for a local understanding of how surfaces start to slide.

Cucurbit[7]uril Macrocyclic Sensors for Optical Fingerprinting: Predicting Protein Structural Changes to Identifying Disease-Specific Amyloid Assemblies

In a three-dimensional (3D) representation, each protein molecule displays a specific pattern of chemical and topological features, which are altered during its misfolding and aggregation pathway. Generating a recognizable fingerprint from such features could provide an enticing approach not only to identify these biomolecules but also to gain clues regarding their folding state and the occurrence of pathologically lethal misfolded aggregates. We report here a universal strategy to generate a fluorescent fingerprint from biomolecules by employing the pan-selective molecular recognition feature of a cucurbit[7]uril (CB[7]) macrocyclic receptor. We implemented a direct sensing strategy by covalently tethering CB[7] with a library of fluorescent reporters. When CB[7] recognizes the chemical and geometrical features of a biomolecule, it brings the tethered fluorophore into the vicinity, concomitantly reporting the nature of its binding microenvironment through a change in their optical signature. The photophysical properties of the fluorophores allow a multitude of probing modes, while their structural features provide additional binding diversity, generating a distinct fluorescence fingerprint from the biomolecule. We first used this strategy to rapidly discriminate a diverse range of protein analytes. The macrocyclic sensor was then applied to probe conformational changes in the protein structure and identify the formation of oligomeric and fibrillar species from misfolded proteins. Notably, the sensor system allowed us to differentiate between different self-assembled forms of the disease-specific amyloid-β (Aβ) aggregates and segregated them from other generic amyloid structures with a 100% identification accuracy. Ultimately, this sensor system predicted clinically relevant changes by fingerprinting serum samples from a cohort of pregnant women.

A general design of caging-group-free photoactivatable fluorophores for live-cell nanoscopy

The controlled switching of fluorophores between non-fluorescent and fluorescent states is central to every super-resolution fluorescence microscopy (nanoscopy) technique, and the exploration of radically new switching mechanisms remains critical to boosting the performance of established, as well as emerging super-resolution methods. Photoactivatable dyes offer substantial improvements to many of these techniques, but often rely on photolabile protecting groups that limit their applications. Here we describe a general method to transform 3,6-diaminoxanthones into caging-group-free photoactivatable fluorophores. These photoactivatable xanthones (PaX) assemble rapidly and cleanly into highly fluorescent, photo- and chemically stable pyronine dyes upon irradiation with light. The strategy is extendable to carbon- and silicon-bridged xanthone analogues, yielding a family of photoactivatable labels spanning much of the visible spectrum. Our results demonstrate the versatility and utility of PaX dyes in fixed and live-cell labelling for conventional microscopy, as well as the coordinate-stochastic and deterministic nanoscopies STED, PALM and MINFLUX.

The design of photoactivatable fluorophores—which are required for some super-resolution fluorescence microscopy methods—usually relies on light-sensitive protecting groups imparting lipophilicity and generating reactive by-products. Now, it has been shown that by exploiting a unique intramolecular photocyclization, bright and highly photostable fluorophores can be rapidly generated in situ from appropriately substituted 1-alkenyl-3,6-diaminoxanthone precursors.