Review of methods for the reduction of dietary content and toxicity of acrylamide

Detoxification of Acrylamide by Potentially Probiotic Strains of Lactic Acid Bacteria and Yeast

Some potentially probiotic strains of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeast that inhabit the digestive tract of humans are known to detoxify xenobiotics, including acrylamide (AA). The objective of the subsequent research was to evaluate the AA-detoxification capability of LAB and yeast isolated from various sources. Namely, the effect of AA was tested on the growth of LAB and yeast strains, as well in the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Subsequently, the AA-binding ability of LAB and yeast was investigated in various environments, including the pH, incubation temperature, cell density, and with inanimate cells. The ability of selected LAB and yeast to reduce the genotoxicity of AA was tested on Caco-2 and Hep-G2 cell lines. The results showed that all tested strains exhibited strong resistance to AA at concentrations of 5, 10, and 50 µg/mL. Also, AA was detected in the intracellular and membrane extracts of tested strains. The most effective binding strain was Pediococcus acidilactici 16 at pH = 5, cell density = 109 CFU/mL, and incubation temperature = 37 °C (87.6% of AA removed). Additionally, all tested strains reduced the genotoxicity of AA, with the greatest reduction observed at the highest concentration of 50 µg/mL. The phenomena of detoxification by potentially probiotic strains could reduce the toxic and harmful effects of AA exposure to humans every day.

Acrylamide detection and reduction in meat products using organic acids, fruit extracts, and probiotics

Grilled foods are an important source of acrylamide, which has neurotoxic, genotoxic, and carcinogenic properties. The current study aims to evaluate the level of acrylamide in beef, chicken, and fish products, especially those requiring high cooking temperatures, using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Reduction of acrylamide by organic acids i.e., (citric acid, malic acid, tartaric acid, and lactic acid) and fruit extracts of lemon, apple, and grape has also been investigated. The results revealed that the highest mean acrylamide concentration was found in chicken products (grilled chicken) which recorded 8.32 μg/100 g, followed by beef products (beef grilled) with a concentration of 7.91 μg/100 g, and fish products (pan-fried fish burgers) which recorded 6.77 μg/100 g). Furthermore, the mixture of organic acid has the highest effect on reducing the level of acrylamide in a chemical model system. Moreover, the fruit extract mixture was more effective in reducing the percentage of acrylamide in the grilled chicken than organic acids mixture. Finally, the addition of fruit extract improved the sensory properties of grilled chickens. In sum, this study offers novel and promising natural strategies to decrease acrylamide in meat products toward further future application in meat industry to deliver safe food to consumers.

Obesity Induces DNA Damage in Mammary Epithelial Cells Exacerbated by Acrylamide Treatment through CYP2E1-Mediated Oxidative Stress

Obesity and environmental toxins are risk factors for breast cancer; however, there is limited knowledge on how these risk factors interact to promote breast cancer. Acrylamide, a probable carcinogen and obesogen, is a by-product in foods prevalent in the obesity-inducing Western diet. Acrylamide is metabolized by cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) to the genotoxic epoxide, glycidamide, and is associated with an increased risk for breast cancer. To investigate how acrylamide and obesity interact to increase breast cancer risk, female mice were fed a low-fat (LFD) or high-fat diet (HFD) and control water or water supplemented with acrylamide at levels similar to the average daily exposure in humans. While HFD significantly enhanced weight gain in mice, the addition of acrylamide did not significantly alter body weights compared to respective controls. Mammary epithelial cells from obese, acrylamide-treated mice had increased DNA strand breaks and oxidative DNA damage compared to all other groups. In vitro, glycidamide-treated COMMA-D cells showed significantly increased DNA strand breaks, while acrylamide-treated cells demonstrated significantly higher levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species. The knockdown of CYP2E1 rescued the acrylamide-induced oxidative stress. These studies suggest that long-term acrylamide exposure through foods common in the Western diet may enhance DNA damage and the CYP2E1-induced generation of oxidative stress in mammary epithelial cells, potentially enhancing obesity-induced breast cancer risk.

Acrylamide formation in air-fryer roasted legumes as affected by legume species and roasting degree: the correlation of acrylamide with asparagine and free sugars

Acrylamide is a well-recognized hazardous compound with known carcinogenic, genotoxic, neurotoxic, and reproductive toxic effects. This research aimed to investigate how different legume species and roasting durations influence acrylamide formation during air-fryer roasting. The study also examined the relationship between acrylamide formation and the levels of free asparagine and free sugars in different bean species. Asparagine content varies substantially across different bean species. Sucrose was the predominant sugar across all bean species, with smaller amounts of galactose and glucose. Air-fryer-roasted Wandu kong (garden pea) showed the highest acrylamide formation, followed by Ultari kong (kidney bean) and Heoktae (black soybean), in that order. Beans roasted for longer periods in an air fryer contained significantly higher levels of acrylamide. This study revealed a strong positive correlation between acrylamide formation and the level of free asparagine in the beans, highlighting the risks associated with certain legume species and air-fryer roasting durations.

Utilization of Peptidoglycans from Lactic Acid Bacterial Cell Walls for the Mitigation of Acrylamide and 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural

Acrylamide (AA) and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), which are potentially carcinogenic to humans, are often produced during the hot processing of foods. This study first used a molecular docking model to simulate the binding behavior of four lactic acid bacteria peptidoglycans (PGNs) to AA/HMF, and the binding rate of LAB-based PGNs to AA/HMF was evaluated in vitro. In silico results show that interaction energy is the driving force responsible for the adsorption of LAB-derived PGNs to AA/HMF. In vitro results showed that the PGN of B. lactis B1-04 bound the most AA (28.7%) and HMF (48.0%), followed by L. acidophilus NCFM, B. breve CICC 6079, and L. plantarum CICC 22135. Moreover, an AA/HMF-bound layer on the cell surface of B. lactis B1-04 was observed via AFM and SEM due to adsorption. XPS analysis indicated the removal rate of AA/HMF by selected strains was positively correlated with the proportion of C-O, C=O, and N-H groups of PGNs. The atoms O1, O2, O3, O4, N1, N2, N3, H1, and H2 are involved in the adsorption of LAB-based PGNs to AA/HMF. Thus, the PGNs derived from these four Lactobacillus strains can be regarded as natural adsorbents for the binding of AA/HMF.

Identifying high-risk factors and mitigation strategies for acrylamide formation in air-fried lotus root chips: Impact of cooking parameters, including temperature, time, presoaking, and seasoning

This study was conducted to identify high-risk factors and mitigation strategies for acrylamide formation in air-fried lotus root chips by studying the impact of various cooking parameters, including temperature, time, presoaking, and pre-seasoning treatments. The temperature and time had a surprisingly high impact on acrylamide formation. The chips prepared at high temperatures with longer cooking times contained an extremely high acrylamide content, reaching 12,786 ng/g (e.g., 170°C/19 min). A particularly concerning discovery was that the chips with extremely high acrylamide content (up to 17 times higher than the EU benchmark level for potato chips) did not appear overcooked or taste burnt. Higher cooking temperatures required shorter cooking times to properly cook lotus root chips for consumption. A high temperature with a short cooking time (170°C/13 min) greatly benefited acrylamide reduction compared to low temperature with a long cooking time (150°C/19 min). Presoaking in a 0.1% acetic acid solution and pre-seasoning with 1% salt reduced acrylamide levels by 61% and 47%, respectively. However, presoaking in water, vinegar solution, and citric acid solution did not significantly decrease the acrylamide content in the chips. Furthermore, some seasonings significantly increased acrylamide levels (up to 7.4 times higher). For the first time, these findings underscore the high risks associated with air-frying lotus root chips without considering these factors. This study also provides proper air-frying parameters and pretreatment strategies for minimizing acrylamide formation in air-fried lotus chips.

Acrylamide in potato chips in Iran, health risk assessment and mitigation

This study aimed to determine the acrylamide content in potato chips sold in Kermanshah, Iran and assess the potential health concerns associated with acrylamide exposure. HPLC-DAD was used to analyse 120 samples across 40 brands. The possible non-carcinogenic risk index for adults was below 1 for all 40 brands (100%), but for children it was only below 1 for 9 brands (22.5%) and above 1 for 31 brands (77.5%). Regarding the possible carcinogenic risk index, for adults only 1 out of 40 brands rated > 10-4, whereas for children all brands rated > 10-4. This shows that children's exposure to acrylamide through potato chips consumption in Kermanshah can be considered a risk on cancer and exposure of adults requires attention and monitoring. The best way to reduce acrylamide in potato chips and associated health risks is to improve the production process, especially temperature and time.

Dual functional roles of nutritional additives in nutritional fortification and safety of thermally processed food: Potential, limitations, and perspectives

The Maillard reaction (MR) has been established to be a paramount contributor to the characteristic sensory property of thermally processed food products. Meanwhile, MR also gives rise to myriads of harmful byproducts (HMPs) (e.g., advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and acrylamide). Nutritional additives have attracted increasing attention in recent years owing to their potential to simultaneously improve nutritional quality and attenuate HMP formation. In this manuscript, a brief overview of various nutritional additives (vitamins, minerals, fatty acids, amino acids, dietary fibers, and miscellaneous micronutrients) in heat-processed food is provided, followed by a summary of the formation mechanisms of AGEs and acrylamide highlighting the potential crosstalk between them. The main body of the manuscript is on the capability of nutritional additives to modulate AGE and acrylamide formation besides their traditional roles as nutritional enhancers. Finally, limitations/concerns associated with their use to attenuate dietary exposure to HMPs and future perspectives are discussed. Literature data support that through careful control of the addition levels, certain nutritional additives possess promising potential for simultaneous improvement of nutritional value and reduction of AGE and acrylamide content via multiple action mechanisms. Nonetheless, there are some major concerns that may limit their wide applications for achieving such dual functions, including influence on sensory properties of food products, potential overestimation of nutrition enhancement, and introduction of hazardous alternative reaction products or derivatives. These could be overcome through comprehensive assay of dose-response relationships and systematic evaluation of the diverse combinations from the same and/or different categories of nutritional additives to establish synergistic mixtures.

Effective mitigation in the amount of acrylamide through enzymatic approaches

Acrylamide (AA), as a food-borne toxicant, is created at some stages of thermal processing in the starchy food through Maillard reaction, fatty food via acrolein route, and proteinous food using free amino acids pathway. Maillard reaction obviously takes place in thermal-based products, being responsible for specific sensory attributes; AA formation, thereby, is unavoidable during the thermal processing. Additionally, AA can naturally occur in soil and water supply. In order to reduce the levels of acrylamide in cooked foods, mitigation techniques can be separated into three different types. Firstly, starting materials low in acrylamide precursors can be used to reduce the acrylamide in the final product. Secondly, process conditions may be modified in order to decrease the amount of acrylamide formation. Thirdly, post-process intervention could be used to reduce acrylamide. Conventional or emerging mitigation techniques might negatively influence the pleasant features of heated foods. The current study summarizes the effect of enzymatic reaction induced by asparaginase, glucose oxidase, acrylamidase, phytase, amylase, and protease to possibly inhibit AA formation or progressively hydrolyze formed AA. Not only enzyme-assisted AA reduction could dramatically maintain bio-active compounds, but also no damaging impact has been reported on the sensorial and rheological properties of the final heated products. The enzyme engineering can be applied to ameliorate enzyme functionality through altering the amino acid sequence like site-specific mutagenesis and directed evolution, chemical modifications by covalent conjugation of L-asparaginase onto soluble/insoluble biocompatible polymers and immobilization. Moreover, it would be possible to improve the enzyme's physical, chemical, and thermal stability, recyclability and prevent enzyme overuse by applying engineered ones. In spite of enzymes' cost-effective and eco-friendly, promoting their large-scale usages for AA reduction in food application and AA bioremediation in wastewater and soil resources.

The role of additives on acrylamide formation in food products: a systematic review

Acrylamide (AA) is a toxic substance formed in many carbohydrate-rich food products, whose formation can be reduced by adding some additives. Furthermore, the type of food consumed determines the AA intake. According to the compiled information, the first route causing AA formation is the Maillard reaction. Some interventions, such as reducing AA precursors in raw materials, (i.e., asparagine), reducing sugars, or decreasing temperature and processing time can be applied to limit AA formation in food products. The L-asparaginase is more widely used in potato products. Also, coatings loaded with proteins, enzymes, and phenolic compounds are new techniques for reducing AA content. Enzymes have a reducing effect on AA formation by acting on asparagine; proteins by competing with amino acids to participate in Maillard, and phenolic compounds through their radical scavenging activity. On the other hand, some synthetic and natural additives increase the formation of AA. Due to the high exposure to AA and its toxic effects, it is essential to recognize suitable food additives to reduce the health risks for consumers. In this sense, this study focuses on different additives that are proven to be effective in the reduction or formation of AA in food products.

Formation and mitigation of acrylamide in oven baked vegetable fries

Investigation into oven baked sweet potato and carrot fries at various temperatures and times demonstrated the in situ formation of acrylamide in an exponential manner. High levels of acrylamide were found in these food items: up to 327 µg/kg for sweet potato baked at 190 °C for 14 min, and 99 µg/kg for carrot baked at 190 °C for 13 min. Risk assessment via Margin of Exposures estimation showed that consumption of these fries might pose adverse health effects to consumers from toddlers to adults, especially when the fries were prepared at high temperatures above 175 °C and for a long time. Raw ingredient blanching and immersion in acetic acid prior to preparation have been proven to greatly reduce acrylamide formation, up to 99%. It is recommendable to apply these techniques either at industrial or domestic cooking scales to ensure minimal health risk from dietary exposure to acrylamide.

Metabolic perturbations and health impact from exposure to a combination of multiple harmful Maillard reaction products on Sprague-Dawley rats

The present study aimed to investigate the metabolic perturbations and health impact of the co-accumulation of Maillard reaction products (MRPs), including acrylamide, harmane, and N^ε-(carboxymethyl)lysine (CML), via serum biochemical and histopathological examinations as well as metabolomic analysis. Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with acrylamide (2 mg per kg body weight [bw]), harmane (1 mg per kg bw), CML (2 mg per kg bw), and combinations of these MRPs. Harmane did not cause adverse effects on the health of rats, whereas acrylamide and CML resulted in significantly (P < 0.05) decreased insulin sensitivity (HOMA-IR > 1), increased oxidative stress levels, and pathological injuries to the pancreas, liver, and gastrocnemius. Owing to the antioxidant and anti-diabetic activities of harmane, the effects of the combination of the MRPs on oxidative stress levels, blood glucose metabolism, and pathological injuries to the pancreas and gastrocnemius were relieved. However, new health problems, including pathological injury of the kidneys and increased cancer risk, were observed. Metabolomic analysis revealed that this may be related to the effects of MRPs on the arginine biosynthesis pathway, which resulted in the abnormal metabolism of fumaric acid and the tricarboxylic acid cycle. These results indicated that the mechanisms of the combined effect of MRPs and their effects on health cannot be predicted from the effects of individual MRPs.

Formation and Identification of Six Amino Acid - Acrylamide Adducts and Their Cytotoxicity Toward Gastrointestinal Cell Lines

Acrylamide (AA) is a food contaminant, and amino acids are suggested to mitigate its toxicity by forming adducts. The emergence of acrylamide adducts may cause underestimation of acrylamide exposure level as well as trigger new safety problems. Based on the acrylamide elimination capability of four amino acids, this study chemically synthesized six amino acid-acrylamide adducts. Their structures were analyzed, followed by content determination in 10 commercially baking foods. The Michael adduct formed by one molecule of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and acrylamide was most abundant in foods among six adducts. Furthermore, it markedly decreased the cytotoxicity of acrylamide in Caco-2 cells and GES-1 cells. This finding suggests that amino acids can be used to reduce acrylamide level in processed foods and mitigate its hazardous effects after intake.

Distribution of polyphenolic compounds, antioxidant potential, and free amino acids in Ziziphus fruits extract; a study for determining the influence of wider geography

Ziziphus fruits have attracted much attention within the field of medicine due to their high potential against central nervous system disorders. Abundance of secondary metabolites and their composition is key to the pharmaceutical potential and commercial qualities of plants. The in vitro antioxidant activities of Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.) and Ziziphus oxyphylla Edgew fruit extract were analyzed using 2,2‐diphenil‐1‐pycrilhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′‐azino‐bis (3‐ethylbenzothiazoline)‐6‐sulfonic acid (ABTS) free radical scavenging assay methods. Phenolic profiles were explored using high‐performance liquid chromatography‐diode array detector (HPLC‐DAD). The result revealed high concentration of polyphenols and their antioxidant potential. In Z. nummularia, the total phenolic content (TPC) (80.270 ± 0.422 μg/ml), DPPH (62.03 ± 0.98 μg/ml), ABTS (66.32 ± 0.73 μg/ml), and TFC (90.683 ± 0.274 μg/ml) were recorded. However, in Z. oxyphylla, DPPH and ABTS values were 60.66 ± 0.56 μg/ml and 61.55 ± 0.77 μg/ml, respectively, indicative of the impacts of climate and soil nutrients. The overall screening of phytochemicals revealed that both the Ziziphus species contain diverse bioactive compounds, including spinacetine‐3‐O‐(2 feruloyl glucopyranosyl)‐glucopyranoside, kaempferol‐3‐O‐glucoside‐7‐O‐glucoside, and caffeic acid; p‐hydroxybenzoyl hexose, p‐coumaric acid, salicylic acid, and ellagic acid pentoxide. Additionally, the highest concentrated amino acid noted was of Lue 0.19 g/100 g with 596.00 retention time (RT), followed by Thr>Ale>Isl>Phya>Val in Z. nummularia. Similarly, the highest concentration of Lue amino acid was recorded as 0.18/100 g with 564.52 RT followed by Pr>Thr>Ale>Lue>Isl>Phya>Val in all genotypes of Z. oxyphylla. Reporting of polyphenols rich and stable species along with identification of favorable regions of cultivation for amino acid, polyphenols, and higher antioxidant potential may lead the way for the identification of elite clones of the species as well as may result in new drug discovery.

Acrylamide content in starch based commercial foods by using high performance liquid chromatography and its association with browning index

The harmful effects of acrylamide (AA) are a major health concern for human beings. To find out the levels of AA content in commercial food products, 43 samples representing 3 important product categories (French fries, bakery biscuits, and branded biscuits) were procured from the local market in Allahabad, India. An assay of AA was done using HPLC-DAD. The LOD and LOQ for AA were 3.733 and 11.045 ng/μl, respectively. The AA recovery from ten standard solutions was 100.6 percent, indicating good extraction efficiency. Level of AA ranged between 144.35 and 781.17 μg/kg, 126.33-664.90 μg/kg, and 825.96-1143.15 μg/kg, in branded biscuits, bakery biscuits, and French fries, respectively. A strong and positive correlation of AA was found with HMF, a* value, BI and negatively with ΔE (P ≤ 0.01). It is concluded that a high browning index is significantly associated with AA content and can be used as a screening food to reduce the intake of AA in the diet.

The Physico-Chemical and Sensory Characteristics of Coloured-Flesh Potato Chips: Influence of Cultivar, Slice Thickness and Frying Temperature

Coloured potato chips, due to a higher concentration of bioactive compounds, may be healthier compared to traditional chips. This study examined the effect of cultivar and different slice thicknesses and frying temperatures on the physico-chemical and sensory characteristics of coloured potato chips. Potatoes chips were prepared from three coloured potato cultivars. Frying experiments were conducted at 160 and 180 °C using potato slices with thicknesses of 1.00 and 2.00 mm. The quality of the raw potatoes tubers and chips were estimated. A principal component analysis was applied to describe the differences in the physico-chemical characteristics between the potato chip samples processed with different conditions. The results showed that, significantly (p < 0.05), the highest amounts of total phenolic content, total anthocyanins, dry matter and starch were accumulated in raw tubers of potato cv. Blaue Anneliese. The highest amount of total phenolic content and anthocyanins was found in 1 mm chips of cv. Blaue Anneliese fried at 160 °C. An increased frying temperature significantly (p < 0.05) decreased the content of these compounds. The amount of fat in the chips was higher when they were fried at 160 °C than at 180 °C. Chips processed from potatoes cvs. Blaue Anneliese and Rosemarie showed a typical colour as a raw material. The hardness of the chips significantly (p < 0.05) increased with an increase in slice thickness. The flavour, odour and colour of the 1 mm chips of cv. Blaue Anneliese fried at 180 °C gained the highest rating.

Dietary Acrylamide Intake Alters Gut Microbiota in Mice and Increases Its Susceptibility to Salmonella Typhimurium Infection

Acrylamide (AA) has been extensively examined for its potential toxicological effects on humans and animals, but its impacts on gut microbiota and effects on hosts’ susceptibility to enteric infection remain elusive. The present study was designed to evaluate the effect of AA on gut microbiota of mice and susceptibility of mice to S. Typhimurium infection. After four weeks’ intervention, mice fed with AA exhibited significantly decreased body weight. Meanwhile, 16S rRNA gene sequencing showed reduced relative abundance of Firmicutes and increased abundance of Bacteroidetes in AA-treated mice prior to infection. In addition, we observed high relative abundance of Burkholderiales and Erysipelotrichales, more specifically the genus Sutterella and Allobaculum, respectively, in AA-treated mice before infection. Subsequently, the mice were orally infected with S. Typhimurium. The histological changes, systemic dissemination of S. Typhimurium, and inflammatory responses were examined. Compared to mice fed with normal diet, mice fed AA exhibited higher level of bacterial counts in liver, spleen, and ileum, which was consistent with exacerbated tissue damage determined by histological analyses. In addition, higher expression of pro-inflammaroty cytokines, p-IκBα, and p-P65 and lower mRNA expressions of mucin2, occludin, zo-1, claudin-1, and E-cadherin were detected in AA-treated mice. These findings provide novel insights into the potential health impact of AA consumption and the detailed mechanism for its effect on S. Typhimurium infection merit further exploration.

Low Acrylamide Flatbreads from Colored Corn and Other Flours

Dietary acrylamide formed during baking and frying of plant-based foods such as bread and other cereal products, coffee, fried potatoes, and olives is reported to induce genotoxic, carcinogenic, neurotoxic, and antifertility properties in vivo, suggesting the need to keep the acrylamide content low with respect to widely consumed heat-processed food including flatbreads. Due to the fact that pigmented corn flours contain biologically active and health-promoting phenolic and anthocyanin compounds, the objective of this study was to potentially define beneficial properties of flatbread by evaluating the acrylamide content determined by high-performance liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (HPLC/MS) with a detection limit of 1.8 µg/kg and proximate composition by standard methods of six experimental flatbreads made from two white, two blue, one red, and one yellow corn flours obtained by milling commercial seeds. Acrylamide content was also determined in experimental flatbreads made from combinations in quinoa flour, wheat flour, and peanut meal with added broccoli or beet vegetables and of commercial flatbreads including tortillas and wraps. Proximate analysis of flatbreads showed significant differences in protein and fat but not in carbohydrate, mineral, and water content. The acrylamide content of 16 evaluated flatbreads ranged from 0 to 49.1 µg/kg, suggesting that these flatbreads have the potential to serve as low-acrylamide functional foods. The dietary significance of the results is discussed.

An eco-friendly solvent-free reaction based on peptide probes: design an extraction-free method for analysis of acrylamide under microliter volume

Acrylamide is a group 2A carcinogen and potential endocrine disruptor that can enter the ecosystem by various routes and has recently become a dangerous pollutant. This widely used chemical can enter the human body via air inhalation, food or water consumption, or skin contact. In this study, we developed a peptide probe for the detection of acrylamide by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) after its micro-tagging with a peptide. Direct detection of acrylamide by MALDI-TOF MS is not feasible due to its poor ionization in the MALDI interface, which hinders its analysis by the technique. After microwave irradiation for 2 min, the formed acrylamide-peptide derivative was detected easily by MALDI-TOF MS without the need for extraction procedures. The procedure does not involve organic solvents and a water-soluble peptide that allows detection of acrylamide in small sample volumes with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.05 ng/μL. The relative standard deviation (RSD) and relative error (RE) of the measurements were < 6.7% for intra- and inter-day assays. Gel-washing solutions from a polyacrylamide gel experiment were used as a model to study the efficiency of the developed method. Finally, we used the proposed method for the detection of free acrylamide in small volumes of lung epithelial cells (a model to test the air inhalation of acrylamide under a tiny volume of sample) and human urine. The developed method will enable rapid acrylamide detection in environmental and biological samples via a green approach based on microwave-assisted derivatization in water alongside the use of a less toxic derivatization reagent, reusable target plate, and miniaturization protocols.

Effect of New Frying Technology on Starchy Food Quality

Frying is commonly used by consumers, restaurants, and industries around the globe to cook and process foods. Compared to other food processing methods, frying has several potential advantages, including reduced processing times and the creation of foods with desirable sensory attributes. Frying is often used to prepare starchy foods. After ingestion, the starch and fat in these foods are hydrolyzed by enzymes in the human digestive tract, thereby providing an important source of energy (glucose and fatty acids) for the human body. Conversely, overconsumption of fried starchy foods can promote overweight, obesity, and other chronic diseases. Moreover, frying can generate toxic reaction products that can damage people's health. Consequently, there is interest in developing alternative frying technologies that reduce the levels of nutritionally undesirable components in fried foods, such as vacuum, microwave, air, and radiant frying methods. In this review, we focus on the principles and applications of these innovative frying technologies, and highlight their potential advantages and shortcomings. Further development of these technologies should lead to the creation of healthier fried foods that can help combat the rise in diet-related chronic diseases.

Extrusion Process as an Alternative to Improve Pulses Products Consumption. A Review

The development of new food products obtained by extrusion processing has increased in recent years. Extrusion is used by the food industry to produce a wide variety of food products, such as ready-to-eat foods (e.g., snacks), among others. Pulses have also gained popularity as novel food ingredients in the formulation of a variety of food and food products, due to their high content of macro and micronutrients, and bioactive compounds that improve the nutritional and functional properties of the final food products. In this review, the impact of extrusion variables on proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, phenolics and antinutritional compounds in pulses and pulse-based formulations are highlighted. Particularly, the impact of the specific mechanical energy. Also, the preservation, increase and/or reduction in those functional compounds, as a consequence of different extrusion processing conditions, are discussed.

Characteristics of French Fries and Potato Chips in Aspect of Acrylamide Content—Methods of Reducing the Toxic Compound Content in Ready Potato Snacks

The reduction of toxic acrylamide content in potato snacks, i.e., French fries and potato chips, is necessary due to the adverse effects of this compound on the human body. Therefore, in the presented review paper, a detailed characterization of French fries and chips in terms of AA content and their organoleptic quality is included. Detailed information was also collected on the raw material and technological factors that affect the formation of acrylamide content, including methods and techniques affecting the reduction of the amount of this compound in potato snacks. The obligation to control the level of acrylamide in various food products (including fried potato snacks with a higher content of this compound), introduced in 2018, has mobilized manufacturers to seek solutions, while scientists conduct further intensive research on the possibility of reducing the level of AA or even eliminating its presence from products. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct such activities, especially, because potato French fries and potato chips are willingly consumed by younger and younger consumers.

Effects of soaking treatment on the acrylamide and inulin contents of Jerusalem artichoke tea and its antioxidant activity

There are several studies that show that large amounts of acrylamide are detected in Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.) tea. This study examined acrylamide, inulin content and antioxidant properties of Jerusalem artichoke tea brewed in different conditions. Uniformly sliced Jerusalem artichokes were soaked in different salt and acidic solutions for 60 min at 20 °C and extracted with hot or cold water. The acrylamide content was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The Inulin content and antioxidant activity were analyzed by spectrophotometer. Soaking significantly reduced acrylamide levels (p < 0.05) with the largest decrease observed for acetic acid, whereas the effects of all soaking treatments on inulin content were similar. Teas brewed using small-particle-size samples and hot water exhibited the highest acrylamide/inulin levels and antioxidant activity. Consequently, The most suitable treatment for Jerusalem Artichoke tea preparation was 1-h soaking in 1% acetic acid at 20 °C.

Dietary Exposure to Acrylamide and Associated Health Risks for the Korean Population

The aim of the study was to estimate the dietary exposure to acrylamide (AA) from the consumption of various processed food and to assess the associated health risks in different age groups in Korea. Potato crisps and French fries presented the highest mean levels of AA (546 and 372 μg/kg, respectively) followed by coffee (353 μg/kg) and tea products (245 μg/kg). The mean AA dietary exposure values for toddlers (≤2 years), children (3-6 years), children (7-12 years), adolescents (13-19 years), adults (20-64 years), and seniors (≥65 years) were estimated to be 0.15, 0.13, 0.06, 0.06, 0.08, and 0.06 μg/kg body weight (BW)/day, respectively. Based on the benchmark dose lower confidence limit (BMDL10) of 0.18 and 0.31 mg/kg BW/day, the calculated mean and 95th percentile values for the margin of exposure were below 10,000 for the all age groups suggesting possible health concern for Koreans. Biscuits, crisps, and coffee were the primary foods contributing to dietary AA exposure among these in the Korean populations. In children, considering the health risk of AA dietary exposure, especially from biscuits and crisps, there is a need to further control and modify dietary habits to ensure lower AA exposure.

Use of asparaginase for acrylamide mitigation in coffee and its influence on the content of caffeine, chlorogenic acid, and caffeic acid

A factorial design with a duplicate in the central point was used to investigate the effect of treating arabica coffee beans with asparaginase. The investigated factors were enzymatic load (1000 and 5000 ASNU/Kg), water percentage (30 and 90%), and hydrolysis time (1 and 3 h). The acrylamide content was determined by UPLC-MS/MS, and the caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid and caffeine concentrations were determined by HPLC-DAD. The statistical analysis was carried out in the R platform using RStudio graphical interface. The results indicated the importance of coffee bean pretreatment with steam, and that the enzyme load reduced the acrylamide content to 65 mg/kg in coffee beans. The predicted reduction was obtained with hydrolysis time of 2 h, water content of 90%, and asparaginase load of 5000 ASNU/kg. The asparaginase treatment did not influence the major bioactive compounds in coffee.

Is Acrylamide as Harmful as We Think? A New Look at the Impact of Acrylamide on the Viability of Beneficial Intestinal Bacteria of the Genus Lactobacillus

The impact of acrylamide (AA) on microorganisms is still not clearly understood as AA has not induced mutations in bacteria, but its epoxide analog has been reported to be mutagenic in Salmonella strains. The aim of the study was to evaluate whether AA could influence the growth and viability of beneficial intestinal bacteria. The impact of AA at concentrations of 0–100 µg/mL on lactic acid bacteria (LAB) was examined. Bacterial growth was evaluated by the culture method, while the percentage of alive, injured, and dead bacteria was assessed by flow cytometry after 24 h and 48 h of incubation. We demonstrated that acrylamide could influence the viability of the LAB, but its impact depended on both the AA concentration and the bacterial species. The viability of probiotic strain Lactobacillus acidophilus LA-5 increased while that of Lactobacillus plantarum decreased; Lactobacillus brevis was less sensitive. Moreover, AA influenced the morphology of L. plantarum, probably by blocking cell separation during division. We concluded that acrylamide present in food could modulate the viability of LAB and, therefore, could influence their activity in food products or, after colonization, in the human intestine.

Identification of Acrylamide Adducts Generated during Storage of Canned Milk Coffee

Since coffee is a significant contributor to the consumption of acrylamide, its reduction is required. Acrylamide is produced during the roasting of coffee beans, but the roasting process is an essential step in determining the taste of coffee. Acrylamide content in coffee has been suggested to decrease by reacting with proteins and/or other substances during storage, but details are unknown. Investigation of acrylamide adducts may contribute to a strategy for acrylamide reduction in coffee. In this study, a stable isotope labeling technique, combined with high-resolution mass spectrometry, allows the identification of acrylamide adducts (3-hydroxypyridine-acrylamide and pyridine-acrylamide) in canned milk coffee. Other acrylamide adducts derived from milk coffee proteins, Lys-acrylic acid and CysSO₂-acrylic acid, were identified. During a 4-month storage period, the formation of these four adducts was found to reduce the total content of acrylamide by 75.3% in canned milk coffee. Therefore, endogenous proteins can be used in acrylamide reduction.

Computer Simulation with a Temperature-Step Frying Approach to Mitigate Acrylamide Formation in French Fries

A heat and mass-transfer model coupled with reaction kinetics was developed to simulate frying. Obtaining an accurate mathematical model of the Maillard reaction and the heat and mass transfer is crucial for predicting the transient acrylamide formation, temperature, and water content in French fries. The objective of this study was to mitigate the formation of acrylamide in a potato strip by adopting a temperature step frying approach (TSFA). A considerable increase in the water content and a decrease in the temperature and acrylamide formation were observed in a potato strip fried with the TSFA compared with a potato strip fried without the TSFA process. The acrylamide content in a potato strip when fried using the TSFA decreased considerably to 57% of that in a potato strip fried without using the TSFA. Simulation of the acrylamide distribution in a potato strip revealed that the crust contains the highest amount of acrylamide. The proposed model can be successfully used to obtain high-quality products, mitigate acrylamide formation, and save energy.

Effects of Chickpea Protein on Carbohydrate Reactivity in Acrylamide Formation in Low Humidity Model Systems

Asparagine and reducing sugars are the principal precursors of acrylamide in foods. Their main sources in pastries are flour and hen egg yolks. One method of reducing acrylamide content in food may be to add a chickpea protein preparation. The aim of the study was to determine the effects of the chickpea protein preparation on the thermodynamic properties of carbohydrates and the amount of acrylamide formed in low humidity model systems. In the studied systems, the type and amount of acrylamide precursors and humidity were designed to reflect the parameters typical of shortcrust cookies. In the study, the highest amounts of acrylamide were formed in the reaction between asparagine and fructose and the lowest in the reaction between asparagine and sucrose. Furthermore, the addition of chickpea protein to the analyzed carbohydrate–asparagine model systems reduced the content of acrylamide formed during baking at 180 °C regardless of the type of carbohydrate. The greatest acrylamide reduction (41%) was found in the model system containing fructose.

Comparative Study of Four Analytical Methods for the Routine Determination of Acrylamide in Black Ripe Olives

Reducing acrylamide in foods is an important scientific and regulatory goal. Black ripe olives contain significant levels of acrylamide. However, unlike cereal and potato products, there are no standardized methods or certified reference materials for olives and no harmonization between laboratories performing routine analyses. The industry has observed inconsistencies between laboratories using different analytical methods. To narrow the cause of this variability, acrylamide was extracted from olives using a single protocol and analyzed with the most commonly used routine methods: liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection (LC-UV) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) without bromination and LC-UV and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) following bromination. This design specifically evaluated the effects of sample derivatization and detector on acrylamide measurements, which has not been documented for any food. Accuracy, precision, sensitivity, linearity, and reproducibility were assessed, and 10 commercial olive samples were analyzed. LC-MS/MS demonstrated the best overall performance. Although derivatization decreased precision and reproducibility, all detection methods had comparable accuracy and calculated acrylamide values. The results suggest that harmonization of extraction protocols across laboratories is the most important area of future study. This study provides the framework for a standardized method for acrylamide analysis in olives. Reliable measurements are essential for aiding the decision making of the industry and regulatory agencies.

Identification of a 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural-Lysine Schiff Base and Its Cytotoxicity in Three Cell Lines

5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) can undergo the Maillard reaction with amino acids. However, the safety of the products remains unknown. In this study, a HMF-lysine Schiff base named (E)-N⁶-((5'-(hydroxymethyl)furan-2'-yl)methylene)lysine (HML) was identified and detected for the first time in baked foods. HML formation significantly decreased the cytotoxicity (IC₅₀) of HMF against GES-1 cells (81.81 versus 5.02 mM and 73.76 versus 2.94 mM for HML versus HMF at 24 and 48 h, respectively), EA.hy926 cells (86.05 versus 4.85 mM and 77.22 versus 0.71 mM, respectively), and Caco-2 cells (155.77 versus 36.84 mM and 112.70 versus 18.51 mM, respectively). Exposure of Caco-2 cells to HMF at 10.0 mM triggered cell apoptosis of 14.02% (versus 8.54% in the control), whereas exposure to HML at 10-15 mM hardly increased cell apoptosis. Moreover, the absorption capacities of HMF and HML by Caco-2 cells were equivalent (p > 0.05) at 7.23-12.57% after incubation at 2 mM for 30-150 min.

Thiol-ene Click Derivatization for the Determination of Acrylamide in Potato Products by Capillary Electrophoresis with Capacitively Coupled Contactless Conductivity Detection

The development of analytical methods for acrylamide formed during food processing is of great significance for food safety, but limited by its inherent characteristics, the analysis of acrylamide is a continuing challenge. In this study, an efficient derivatization strategy for acrylamide based on thiol-ene click reaction with cysteine as derivatization reagent was proposed, and the resulting derivative was then analyzed by capillary electrophoresis with capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection (CE-C⁴D). After systematic investigation including catalyst dosage (0-20 mM), reaction temperature (30-90 °C) and time (1-60 min), and cysteine concentration (0.2-3.6 mM), acrylamide could be efficiently labeled by 2.0 mM cysteine at 70 °C for 10 min using 4 mM n-butylamine as catalyst. Application of 10 mM triethylamine as separation buffer, the labeled acrylamide was analyzed within 2.0 min, and the relative standard deviations of migration time and peak area were less than 0.84% and 5.6%, indicating good precision. The C⁴D signal of acrylamide derivative showed a good linear relationship with acrylamide concentration in the range of 7-200 μM with the correlation coefficient of 0.9991. The limit of detection and limit of quantification were calculated to be 0.16 μM and 0.52 μM, respectively. Assisted further by the QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe) sample pretreatment, the developed derivatization strategy and subsequent CE-C⁴D method were successfully applied for the determination of acrylamide in potato products.

Acrylamide Content of Experimental Flatbreads Prepared from Potato, Quinoa, and Wheat Flours with Added Fruit and Vegetable Peels and Mushroom Powders

Flatbreads are a major food consumed worldwide. To mitigate an undesirable safety aspect of flatbreads that might be associated with the potentially-toxic compound acrylamide, we recently developed recipes using a variety of grains that resulted in the production of low-acrylamide flatbreads. To further enhance the functionality of flatbreads, we have developed, in this work, new experimental flatbreads using potato, quinoa, and wheat flours supplemented with peel powders prepared from commercial nonorganic and organic fruits and vegetables (apples, cherry tomatoes, melons, oranges, pepino melons, sweet potato yams), potato peels, and mushroom powders (Lion’s Mane, Hericium erinaceus; Reishi, Ganoderma lucidum; and Turkey Tail, Trametes versicolor). These additives have all been reported to contain beneficial compositional and health properties. The results of fortification of the baked flatbreads showed either no effect or increases in acrylamide content by unknown mechanisms. Since the additives did not increase the acrylamide content of the quinoa flour flatbreads for the most part, such supplemented quinoa flatbreads have the potential to serve as a nutritional, gluten-free, low-acrylamide, health-promoting functional food. Mushroom powder-fortified wheat flatbreads with relatively low acrylamide content may also have health benefits.

Is Chickpea a Potential Substitute for Soybean? Phenolic Bioactives and Potential Health Benefits

Legume seeds are rich sources of protein, fiber, and minerals. In addition, their phenolic compounds as secondary metabolites render health benefits beyond basic nutrition. Lowering apolipoprotein B secretion from HepG2 cells and decreasing the level of low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol oxidation are mechanisms related to the prevention of cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Likewise, low-level chronic inflammation and related disorders of the immune system are clinical predictors of cardiovascular pathology. Furthermore, DNA-damage signaling and repair are crucial pathways to the etiology of human cancers. Along CVD and cancer, the prevalence of obesity and diabetes is constantly increasing. Screening the ability of polyphenols in inactivating digestive enzymes is a good option in pre-clinical studies. In addition, in vivo studies support the role of polyphenols in the prevention and/or management of diabetes and obesity. Soybean, a well-recognized source of phenolic isoflavones, exerts health benefits by decreasing oxidative stress and inflammation related to the above-mentioned chronic ailments. Similar to soybeans, chickpeas are good sources of nutrients and phenolic compounds, especially isoflavones. This review summarizes the potential of chickpea as a substitute for soybean in terms of health beneficial outcomes. Therefore, this contribution may guide the industry in manufacturing functional foods and/or ingredients by using an undervalued feedstock.

Effect of Asparaginase Enzyme in the Reduction of Asparagine in Green Coffee

Coffee is the most consumed beverage in the world, especially in Nordic countries. Its composition has substances considered to have high value for human health, such as chlorogenic and phenolic acids. However, the roasting of coffee can form substances such as acrylamide that are considered toxic and carcinogenic, depending on the time and the heat of roasting. However, there are some ways of reducing acrylamide formation during the processing of coffee beans. The reduction of its precursor asparagine is one of these ways. This can be achieved by the treatment of beans with the enzyme asparaginase. This study aimed to test the effectiveness of applying asparaginase (Acrylaway™) and evaluate the reduction of the amount of asparagine in Coffea arabica and C. canephora beans. The results showed the effectiveness of the enzyme in the reduction of free asparagine in green coffee beans of both species (C. arabica and C. canephora). Steam pretreatment was effective for the two species but required different times (30 min for C. arabica and 45 min for C. canephora). This can be attributed to the different chemical compositions found in the two species.

Acrylamide Content of Experimental and Commercial Flatbreads

Acrylamide, formed in baked and fried plant-based foods, is reported to induce numerous adverse effects in cells, animals, and humans. Examples from the literature show that processed potato- and cereal-based products are two major food types that seem to contribute the highest amounts of acrylamide to the diet worldwide. To meet both the demand for gluten-free products and the interest in alternative grains, we previously developed recipes for flatbreads using a variety of different grains. In this study, we determined the acrylamide content of 15 experimental flatbreads made from a variety of flours and 21 commercial flatbreads. The application of a validated, highly sensitive HPLC/MS method revealed that flatbreads made with the following flours baked at 195.5 °C for 2 min had very low (<10 μg/kg) levels of acrylamide: brown rice, buckwheat, cornmeal, millet, oat, and quinoa. The acrylamide levels of the following flatbreads were 14 to 59 μg/kg: rye, sorghum, soy, wheat, commercial pita, pita crackers, pizza, naan, and lavash. Wheat-based matzo breads, which are rapidly baked to a crisp texture at high heat (∼400 °C), contained 101 to 504 μg/kg acrylamide. Potato-based products were some of the highest of the products tested, ranging from 153 (potato pancakes) to 2,070 (potato-containing gluten-free matzos) μg/kg acrylamide. Except for the potato-containing products, the flatbreads made in this study were lower in acrylamide content (<3 to 21.3 μg/kg) than any of the commercial products tested. Of these experimental flatbreads, wheat- and sorghum-based products were the highest. Flatbreads from alternative grains can result in gluten-free products with high nutritional value and less acrylamide. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Acrylamide formation is dependent on both the composition of the food product and the method of cooking. Flatbreads have the potential to be high in acrylamide due to cooking methods which lead to the development of desirable browning products. Flatbreads developed in this study using alternative and ancient grains were mostly lower in acrylamide content than their wheat counterpart, suggesting that they can serve as a low-acrylamide, gluten-free functional food.

Overview on mitigation of acrylamide in starchy fried and baked foods

Acrylamide in fried and baked foods has the potential to cause toxic effects in animals and humans. A major challenge lies in developing an effective strategy for acrylamide mitigation in foods without altering its basic properties. Food scientists around the world have developed various methods to mitigate the presence of acrylamide in fried food products. Mitigation techniques using additives such as salts, amino acids, cations and organic acids along with blanching of foods have reduced the concentration of acrylamide. The use of secondary metabolites such as polyphenols also reduces acrylamide concentration in fried food products. Other mitigation techniques such as asparaginase pre-treatment and low-temperature air frying with chitosan have been effective in mitigating the concentration of acrylamide. The combined pre-treatment process along with the use of additives is the latest trend in acrylamide mitigation. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

The health-nutrition dimension: a methodological approach to assess the nutritional sustainability of typical agro-food products and the Mediterranean diet

BACKGROUND

The aim of this paper is to provide a methodological approach to evaluate the nutritional sustainability of typical agro-food products, representing Mediterranean eating habits and included in the Mediterranean food pyramid.

RESULTS

For each group of foods, suitable and easily measurable indicators were identified. Two macro-indicators were used to assess the nutritional sustainability of each product. The first macro-indicator, called 'business distinctiveness', takes into account the application of different regulations and standards regarding quality, safety and traceability as well as the origin of raw materials. The second macro-indicator, called 'nutritional quality', assesses product nutritional quality taking into account the contents of key compounds including micronutrients and bioactive phytochemicals. For each indicator a 0-10 scoring system was set up, with scores from 0 (unsustainable) to 10 (very sustainable), with 5 as a sustainability benchmark value. The benchmark value is the value from which a product can be considered sustainable. A simple formula was developed to produce a sustainability index.

CONCLUSION

The proposed sustainability index could be considered a useful tool to describe both the qualitative and quantitative value of micronutrients and bioactive phytochemical present in foodstuffs. This methodological approach can also be applied beyond the Mediterranean, to food products in other world regions. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.