A siphonotid millipede (Rhinotus) as the source of spiropyrrolizidine oximes of dendrobatid frogs

Linking Predator Responses to Alkaloid Variability in Poison Frogs

Many chemically-defended/aposematic species rely on diet for sequestering the toxins with which they defend themselves. This dietary acquisition can lead to variable chemical defenses across space, as the community composition of chemical sources is likely to vary across the range of (an aposematic) species. We characterized the alkaloid content of two populations of the Dyeing Poison Frog (Dendrobates tinctorius) in northeastern French Guiana. Additionally, we conducted unpalatability experiments with naive predators, Blue Tits (Cyanistes caeruleus), using whole-skin secretion cocktails to assess how a model predator would respond to the defense of individuals from each population. While there was some overlap between the two D. tinctorius populations in terms of alkaloid content, our analysis revealed that these two populations are markedly distinct in terms of overall alkaloid profiles. Predator responses to skin secretions differed between the populations. We identified 15 candidate alkaloids (including three previously undescribed) in seven classes that are correlated with predator response in one frog population. We describe alkaloid profile differences between populations for D. tinctorius and provide a novel method for assessing unpalatability of skin secretions and identifying which toxins may contribute to the predator response. In one population, our results suggest 15 alkaloids that are implicated in predator aversive response. This method is the first step in identifying the causal link between alkaloids and behavioral responses of predators, and thus makes sense of how varying alkaloid combinations are capable of eliciting consistent behavioral responses, and eventually driving evolutionary change in aposematic characters (or characteristics).

The first true millipede-1306 legs long

The name “millipede” translates to a thousand feet (from mille “thousand” and pes “foot”). However, no millipede has ever been described with more than 750 legs. We discovered a new record-setting species of millipede with 1,306 legs, Eumillipes persephone, from Western Australia. This diminutive animal (0.95 mm wide, 95.7 mm long) has 330 segments, a cone-shaped head with enormous antennae, and a beak for feeding. A distant relative of the previous record holder, Illacme plenipes from California, it belongs to a different order, the Polyzoniida. Discovered 60 m below ground in a drill hole created for mineral exploration, E. persephone possesses troglomorphic features; it lacks eyes and pigmentation, and it has a greatly elongated body—features that stand in stark contrast to its closest surface-dwelling relatives in Australia and all other members of its order. Using phylogenomics, we found that super-elongation (> 180 segments) evolved repeatedly in the millipede class Diplopoda. The striking morphological similarity between E. persephone and I. plenipes is a result of convergent evolution, probably for locomotion in similar soil habitats. Discovered in the resource-rich Goldfields-Esperance region and threatened by encroaching surface mining, documentation of this species and conservation of its habitat are of critical importance.

First characterization of toxic alkaloids and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the cryptic dendrobatid Silverstoneia punctiventris

Background

Poison frogs are known for the outstanding diversity of alkaloid-based chemical defences with promising therapeutic applications. However, current knowledge about chemical defences in Dendrobatoidea superfamily has two sources of bias. First, cryptic, brown-colored species have been neglected in comparison to those conspicuously colored, and second, there has been little interest in characterizing metabolites other than alkaloids mediating defensive functions. In an effort to contribute to fill the gap of knowledge about cryptic species and broadening the spectrum of compounds analyzed we have applied head-space solid phase microextraction coupled to gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (HS-SPME/GC-MS) for extracting amphibian alkaloids and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from Silverstoneia punctiventris.

Results

Using the skin from 8 specimens in 4 biological replicates we have found 33 different compounds. Twenty of them were classified as VOCs into 15 chemical classes including alkanes, alcohols, carbonyl compounds, methylpyridines, benzothiazoles, N-alkylpyrrolidines, pyrazines, and sesquiterpenoids, some of which were previously reported as repellents, defence compounds or defence pheromones in other organisms, and as sex pheromones in a treefrog. Interestingly, six of the remaining compounds were identified as alkaloids previously reported in other toxic/unpalatable dendrobatid frogs.

Conclusions

This is the first report of alkaloids and VOCs found in the Silverstoneia genus, which has been assumed for decades as non-chemically defended. This study establishes HS-SPME/GC-MS as a new application for a simultaneous approach to amphibian alkaloids and VOCs in poison frogs while opens up new research questions to assess the co-occurrence of both type of compounds and to investigate the evolutionary significance of a defence gradient that includes olfactory avoidance, unpalatability, and toxicity in dendrobatids. In addition, our results show that amphibian alkaloids could have a dual function (olfactory at distance, taste by contact) never explored before neither in Silverstonaeia nor in any other dendrobatid species.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12983-021-00420-1.

Links between prey assemblages and poison frog toxins: A landscape ecology approach to assess how biotic interactions affect species phenotypes

Ecological studies of species pairs showed that biotic interactions promote phenotypic change and eco-evolutionary feedbacks. However, it is unclear how phenotypes respond to synergistic interactions with multiple taxa. We investigate whether interactions with multiple prey species explain spatially structured variation in the skin toxins of the neotropical poison frog Oophaga pumilio. Specifically, we assess how dissimilarity (i.e., beta diversity) of alkaloid-bearing arthropod prey assemblages (68 ant species) and evolutionary divergence between frog populations (from a neutral genetic marker) contribute to frog poison dissimilarity (toxin profiles composed of 230 different lipophilic alkaloids sampled from 934 frogs at 46 sites). We find that models that incorporate spatial turnover in the composition of ant assemblages explain part of the frog alkaloid variation, and we infer unique alkaloid combinations across the range of O. pumilio. Moreover, we find that alkaloid variation increases weakly with the evolutionary divergence between frog populations. Our results pose two hypotheses: First, the distribution of only a few prey species may explain most of the geographic variation in poison frog alkaloids; second, different codistributed prey species may be redundant alkaloid sources. The analytical framework proposed here can be extended to other multitrophic systems, coevolutionary mosaics, microbial assemblages, and ecosystem services.

Lenomyrmex hoelldobleri: a new ant species discovered in the stomach of the dendrobatid poison frog, Oophaga sylvatica (Funkhouser)

The ant genus Lenomyrmex was recently discovered and described from mid to high elevation rainforests in southern Central and northwestern South America. Lenomyrmex currently consists of six described species, which are only rarely collected. Here, we add a new species, Lenomyrmexhoelldoblerisp. n., which was discovered in a stomach content sample of the dendrobatid frog, Oophagasylvatica, from northwestern Ecuador. Lenomyrmexhoelldobleri can be distinguished from other species in the genus by the presence of a well-developed petiolar node, whereas in all other species the node of the petiole is ill-defined. In addition to the shape of the petiolar node, Lenomyrmexhoelldobleri can be distinguished from the morphologically similar Lenomyrmexcostatus by (i) the presence of the metanotal suture, (ii) the direction of the striae on dorsum of propodeum (concentrically transverse in Lenomyrmexhoelldobleri, longitudinal in Lenomyrmexcostatus), (iii) the finely striate dorsum of postpetiole, (iv) its larger size, and (v) distinctly darker coloration. We also describe the gyne of Lenomyrmexfoveolatus. This collection record from northwestern Ecuador extends the geographic distribution of Lenomyrmexfoveolatus 400 km south from its previous record in Colombia. A revised taxonomic key to the workers and gynes of all described Lenomyrmex species is provided. We discuss the taxonomic relationship of Lenomyrmexhoelldobleri to other species in the genus and its biology based on the limited information that is currently available. Finally, we briefly discuss the feeding ecology of dendrobatid poison frogs in the context of providing a valuable source of rarely collected and cryptic new ant species.

Sequestered defensive toxins in tetrapod vertebrates: principles, patterns, and prospects for future studies

Chemical defenses are widespread among animals, and the compounds involved may be either synthesized from nontoxic precursors or sequestered from an environmental source. Defensive sequestration has been studied extensively among invertebrates, but relatively few examples have been documented among vertebrates. Nonetheless, the number of described cases of defensive sequestration in tetrapod vertebrates has increased recently and includes diverse lineages of amphibians and reptiles (including birds). The best-known examples involve poison frogs, but other examples include natricine snakes that sequester toxins from amphibians and two genera of insectivorous birds. Commonalities among these diverse taxa include the combination of consuming toxic prey and exhibiting some form of passive defense, such as aposematism, mimicry, or presumptive death-feigning. Some species exhibit passive sequestration, in which dietary toxins simply require an extended period of time to clear from the tissues, whereas other taxa exhibit morphological or physiological specializations that enhance the uptake, storage, and/or delivery of exogenous toxins. It remains uncertain whether any sequestered toxins of tetrapods bioaccumulate across multiple trophic levels, but multitrophic accumulation seems especially likely in cases involving consumption of phytophagous or mycophagous invertebrates and perhaps consumption of poison frogs by snakes. We predict that additional examples of defensive toxin sequestration in amphibians and reptiles will be revealed by collaborations between field biologists and natural product chemists. Candidates for future investigation include specialized predators on mites, social insects, slugs, and toxic amphibians. Comprehensive studies of the ecological, evolutionary, behavioral, and regulatory aspects of sequestration will require teams of ecologists, systematists, ethologists, physiologists, molecular biologists, and chemists. The widespread occurrence of sequestered defenses has important implications for the ecology, evolution, and conservation of amphibians and reptiles.

Sex-related differences in alkaloid chemical defenses of the dendrobatid frog Oophaga pumilio from Cayo Nancy, Bocas del Toro, Panama

Poison frogs contain an alkaloid-based chemical defense that is sequestered directly from a diet of alkaloid-containing arthropods. Geographic and temporal variation in alkaloid defense is common in poison frogs and is generally attributed to differences in the availability of alkaloid-containing arthropods. Variable chemical defense in poison frogs may have important consequences for predator-prey interactions, requiring a full understanding of the factors involved in explaining such variation. In the present study, we examine alkaloid variation in the dendrobatid poison frog Oophaga pumilio between males and females on Cayo Nancy (Isla Solarte), located in the Bocas del Toro archipelago of Panama. On average, females contained a significantly larger number and quantity of alkaloids when compared to males. Alkaloid composition varied significantly between males and females, illustrating that chemical defense in this population of O. pumilio is sex-dependent. The variation in alkaloids between sexes is attributed to differences in feeding and behavior between males and females. The majority of alkaloids present in the skin of O. pumilio appear to be of oribatid mite origin, supporting the importance of these dietary arthropods in the chemical defense of poison frogs.

Natural Products as a Foundation for Drug Discovery

Natural products have contributed to the development of many drugs for diverse indications. While most U.S. pharmaceutical companies have reduced or eliminated their in-house natural product groups, new paradigms and new enterprises have evolved to carry on a role for natural products in the pharmaceutical industry. Many of the reasons for the decline in popularity of natural products are being addressed by the development of new techniques for screening and production. This overview aims to inform pharmacologists of current strategies and techniques that make natural products a viable strategic choice for inclusion in drug discovery programs.

Spatial and temporal patterns of alkaloid variation in the poison frog Oophaga pumilio in Costa Rica and Panama over 30 years

A total of 232 alkaloids, representing 21 structural classes were detected in skin extracts from the dendrobatid poison frog Oophaga pumilio, collected from 53 different populations from over 30 years of research. The highly toxic pumiliotoxins and allopumiliotoxins, along with 5,8-disubstitiuted and 5,6,8-trisubstituted indolizidines, all of which are proposed to be of dietary mite origin, were common constituents in most extracts. One decahydroquinoline (DHQ), previously shown be of ant origin, occurred in many extracts often as a major alkaloid, while other DHQs occurred rather infrequently. Histrionicotoxins, thought to be of ant origin, did not appear to possess a specific pattern of occurrence among the populations, but when present, were usually found as major components. Certain 3,5-disubstituted pyrrolizidines and indolizidines, known to be of ant origin, did occur in extracts, but infrequently. Alkaloid composition differed with regard to geographic location of frog populations, and for populations that were sampled two or more times during the 30-year period significant changes in alkaloid profiles sometimes occurred. The results of this study indicate that chemical defense in a dendrobatid poison frog is dependent on geographic location and habitat type, which presumably controls the abundance and nature of alkaloid-containing arthropods.

Oribatid mites as a major dietary source for alkaloids in poison frogs

Alkaloids in the skin glands of poison frogs serve as a chemical defense against predation, and almost all of these alkaloids appear to be sequestered from dietary arthropods. Certain alkaloid-containing ants have been considered the primary dietary source, but dietary sources for the majority of alkaloids remain unknown. Herein we report the presence of approximately 80 alkaloids from extracts of oribatid mites collected throughout Costa Rica and Panama, which represent 11 of the approximately 24 structural classes of alkaloids known in poison frogs. Forty-one of these alkaloids also occur in the dendrobatid poison frog, Oophaga pumilio, which co-occurs with the collected mites. These shared alkaloids include twenty-five 5,8-disubstituted or 5,6,8-trisubstituted indolizidines; one 1,4-disubstituted quinolizidine; three pumiliotoxins; and one homopumiliotoxin. All but the last of these alkaloid classes occur widely in poison frogs. In addition, nearly 40 alkaloids of unknown structure were detected in mites; none of these alkaloids have been identified in frog extracts. Two of these alkaloids are homopumiliotoxins, five appear to be izidines, four appear to be tricyclics, and six are related in structure to poison frog alkaloids that are currently unclassified as to structure. Mites are common in the diet of O. pumilio, as well as in the diets of other poison frogs. The results of this study indicate that mites are a significant arthropod repository of a variety of alkaloids and represent a major dietary source of alkaloids in poison frogs.

Alkaloids in Bufonid Toads (Melanophryniscus): Temporal and Geographic Determinants for Two Argentinian Species

Bufonid toads of the genus Melanophryniscus represent one of several lineages of anurans with the ability to sequester alkaloids from dietary arthropods for chemical defense. The alkaloid profile for Melanophryniscus stelzneri from a location in the province of Córdoba, Argentina, changed significantly over a 10-year period, probably indicating changes in availability of alkaloid-containing arthropods. A total of 29 alkaloids were identified in two collections of this population. Eight alkaloids were identified in M. stelzneri from another location in the province of Córdoba. The alkaloid profiles of Melanophryniscus rubriventris collected from four locations in the provinces of Salta and Jujuy, Argentina, contained 44 compounds and differed considerably between locations. Furthermore, alkaloid profiles of M. stelzneri and M. rubriventris strongly differed, probably reflecting differences in the ecosystem and hence in availability of alkaloid-containing arthropods.

Amphibian Biology and Husbandry

Extant amphibians comprise three lineages-- salamanders (Urodela or Caudata), frogs and toads (Anura), and caecilians (Gymnophiona, Apoda, or Caecilia)--which contain more than 6,000 species. Fewer than a dozen species of amphibians are commonly maintained in laboratory colonies, and the husbandry requirements for the vast majority of amphibians are poorly known. For these species, a review of basic characteristics of amphibian biology supplemented by inferences drawn from the morphological and physiological characteristics of the species in question provides a basis for decisions about housing and feeding. Amphibians are ectotherms, and their skin is permeable to water, ions, and respiratory gases. Most species are secretive and, in many cases, nocturnal. The essential characteristics of their environment include appropriate levels of humidity, temperature, and lighting as well as retreat sites. Terrestrial and arboreal species require moist substrates, water dishes, and high relative humidity. Because temperature requirements for most species are poorly known, it is advisable to use a temperature mosaic that will allow an animal to find an appropriate temperature within its cage. Photoperiod may affect physiology and behavior (especially reproduction and hibernation), and although the importance of ultraviolet light for calcium metabolism by amphibians is not yet known, ecological observations suggest that it might be important for some species of frogs. Some amphibians are territorial, and some use olfactory cues to mark their territory and to recognize other individuals of their species. All amphibians are carnivorous as adults, and the feeding response of many species is elicited by the movement of prey. Diets should include a mixture of prey species, and it may be advisable to load prey with vitamins and minerals.

Current status of the Myriapod class diplopoda (millipedes): taxonomic diversity and phylogeny

The arthropod class Diplopoda, the millipedes, ranks among the most diverse groups of terrestrial organisms, with over 12,000 species described. Although they play an important ecological role in most terrestrial ecosystems, little is known about the group's diversity, morphology, and phylogeny compared with other arthropod groups. We review diplopod natural history and discuss the historical and current literature pertaining to millipede morphology, ecology, chemical defenses, and the paleontological record of the group's ancient history. Diplopod systematics, past and present, are reviewed with a focus on taxonomy, collections, and biogeography. The phylogenetics of the class is reviewed, with particular attention on diplopod placement within the Myriapoda and emphasis on recent advances using molecular approaches to phylogenetic reconstruction. We present (a) the first combined morphological and molecular analysis of the millipede orders, and (b) a list of critically evaluated characteristics of nominal clades identifying putative apomorphies.

Geographic and seasonal variation in alkaloid-based chemical defenses of Dendrobates pumilio from Bocas del Toro, Panama

Poison frogs contain an alkaloid-based chemical defense that is derived from a diet of certain alkaloid-containing arthropods, which include mites, ants, beetles, and millipedes. Variation in population-level alkaloid profiles among species has been documented, and more than 800 different alkaloids have been identified. In the present study, we examine individual alkaloid variation in the dendrobatid poison frog Dendrobates pumilio among seven populations and between two seasons on Isla Bastimentos, located in the Bocas del Toro archipelago of Panama. Alkaloid profiles vary among populations and between seasons, illustrating that chemical defense in this species can vary on a small spatial and temporal scale. Alkaloid variation among populations is marginally correlated with geographic distance, and close populations have profiles more similar to each other than to distant populations. Individuals within populations also vary in alkaloid profiles. Differences are attributed to both spatial and temporal variations in the availability of alkaloid-containing arthropods. Many of the alkaloids present in the skin of D. pumilio appear likely to be of ant origin, supporting the importance of myrmecophagy in chemical defense among poison frogs. However, a variety of frog skin alkaloids was recently detected in mites, suggesting that mites may also play an important role in chemical defense.

Alkaloids from amphibian skin: a tabulation of over eight-hundred compounds

A diverse array of biologically active, lipid-soluble alkaloids have been discovered in amphibian skin. Such alkaloids include the following: the steroidal samandarines from salamanders, the batrachotoxins, histrionicotoxins, gephyrotoxins, and epibatidine from neotropical poison frogs (Dendrobatidae), the pumiliotoxins, allopumiliotoxins, homopumiliotoxins, and decahydroquinolines from certain genera of anurans from four families (Dendrobatidae, Mantellidae, Bufonidae, and Myobatrachidae), a variety of izidines (pyrrolizidines, indolizidines, quinolizidines, lehmizidines), pyrrolidines, piperidines, various tricyclics (related in structures to the coccinellines), and spiropyrrolizidines from the first three of these four families, the pseudophrynamines from one genus of Australian frogs, and a variety of unclassified alkaloids as yet of undetermined structure. With the exception of the samandarines and the pseudophrynamines, all alkaloids appear to be derived from dietary sources. Although only a few of the over 800 amphibian skin alkaloids have been detected in arthropods, putative arthropod sources for the batrachotoxins and coccinelline-like tricyclics (beetles), the pumiliotoxins (ants, mites), the decahydroquinolines, izidines, pyrrolidines, and piperidines (ants), and the spiropyrrolizidines (millipedes) have been discovered. Ants are likely sources for histrionicotoxins, lehmizidines, and tricyclic gephyrotoxins. Epibatidines represent an important alkaloid class without a putative dietary source. The structures for many of these alkaloids have been rigorously established, while the structures of others represent tentative proposals, based only on mass spectral and FTIR spectral data, along with analogies to structures of well-defined alkaloids.

Convergent evolution of chemical defense in poison frogs and arthropod prey between Madagascar and the Neotropics

With few exceptions, aposematically colored poison frogs sequester defensive alkaloids, unchanged, from dietary arthropods. In the Neotropics, myrmicine and formicine ants and the siphonotid millipede Rhinotus purpureus are dietary sources for alkaloids in dendrobatid poison frogs, yet the arthropod sources for Mantella poison frogs in Madagascar remained unknown. We report GC-MS analyses of extracts of arthropods and microsympatric Malagasy poison frogs (Mantella) collected from Ranomafana, Madagascar. Arthropod sources for 11 "poison frog" alkaloids were discovered, 7 of which were also detected in microsympatric Mantella. These arthropod sources include three endemic Malagasy ants, Tetramorium electrum, Anochetus grandidieri, and Paratrechina amblyops (subfamilies Myrmicinae, Ponerinae, and Formicinae, respectively), and the pantropical tramp millipede R. purpureus. Two of these ant species, A. grandidieri and T. electrum, were also found in Mantella stomachs, and ants represented the dominant prey type (67.3% of 609 identified stomach arthropods). To our knowledge, detection of 5,8-disubstituted (ds) indolizidine iso-217B in T. electrum represents the first izidine having a branch point in its carbon skeleton to be identified from ants, and detection of 3,5-ds pyrrolizidine 251O in A. grandidieri represents the first ponerine ant proposed as a dietary source of poison frog alkaloids. Endemic Malagasy ants with defensive alkaloids (with the exception of Paratrechina) are not closely related to any Neotropical species sharing similar chemical defenses. Our results suggest convergent evolution for the acquisition of defensive alkaloids in these dietary ants, which may have been the critical prerequisite for subsequent convergence in poison frogs between Madagascar and the Neotropics.

A resistant predator and its toxic prey: persistence of newt toxin leads to poisonous (not venomous) snakes

The common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis) preys upon the rough-skinned newt (Taricha granulosa), which contains the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin (TTX) in the skin. TTX is toxic, large quantities are present in a newt, and highly resistant snakes have the ability to ingest multiple newts; subsequently snakes harbor significant amounts of active toxin in their own tissues after consuming a newt. Snakes harbor TTX in the liver for 1 mo or more after consuming just one newt, and at least 7 wk after consuming a diet of newts. Three weeks after eating one newt, snakes contained an average of 42 microg of TTX in the liver. This amount could severely incapacitate or kill avian predators, and mammalian predators may be negatively affected as well.

Evolution of Dietary Specialization and Chemical Defense in Poison Frogs (Dendrobatidae): A Comparative Analysis

Defensive mechanisms, including noxious or toxic substances, are favored by predation-driven natural selection. The acquisition of noxious/toxic substances can be either endogenous, in which the substances are produced by the organism, or exogenous, in which the substances are produced by another organism and are sequestered. Evidence indicates that the defensive skin alkaloids of Neotropical poison frogs (Dendrobatidae) have an exogenous source: a diet of ants and other small alkaloid-containing arthropods, which we term the diet-toxicity hypothesis. A critical prediction of the diet-toxicity hypothesis is that independent origins of dietary specialization will be found to be correlated with independent origins of skin alkaloids. We tested this prediction in an integrated framework using comparative methods with new and published data on feeding ecology and chemical defense for 15 species of dendrobatids in five genera. We found a significant correlation between alkaloid profiles and degree of dietary specialization. This reveals a recurring association of dietary specialization and alkaloid sequestration in dendrobatids, which suggests parallel evolutionary trends in the origins of defensive mechanisms.

Melyrid beetles (Choresine): a putative source for the batrachotoxin alkaloids found in poison-dart frogs and toxic passerine birds

Batrachotoxins are neurotoxic steroidal alkaloids first isolated from a Colombian poison-dart frog and later found in certain passerine birds of New Guinea. Neither vertebrate group is thought to produce the toxins de novo, but instead they likely sequester them from dietary sources. Here we describe the presence of high levels of batrachotoxins in a little-studied group of beetles, genus Choresine (family Melyridae). These small beetles and their high toxin concentrations suggest that they might provide a toxin source for the New Guinea birds. Stomach content analyses of Pitohui birds revealed Choresine beetles in the diet, as well as numerous other small beetles and arthropods. The family Melyridae is cosmopolitan, and relatives in Colombian rain forests of South America could be the source of the batrachotoxins found in the highly toxic Phyllobates frogs of that region.

Formicine ants: An arthropod source for the pumiliotoxin alkaloids of dendrobatid poison frogs

A remarkable diversity of bioactive lipophilic alkaloids is present in the skin of poison frogs and toads worldwide. Originally discovered in neotropical dendrobatid frogs, these alkaloids are now known from mantellid frogs of Madagascar, certain myobatrachid frogs of Australia, and certain bufonid toads of South America. Presumably serving as a passive chemical defense, these alkaloids appear to be sequestered from a variety of alkaloid-containing arthropods. The pumiliotoxins represent a major, widespread, group of alkaloids that are found in virtually all anurans that are chemically defended by the presence of lipophilic alkaloids. Identifying an arthropod source for these alkaloids has been a considerable challenge for chemical ecologists. However, an extensive collection of neotropical forest arthropods has now revealed a putative arthropod source of the pumiliotoxins. Here we report on the presence of pumiliotoxins in formicine ants of the genera Brachymyrmex and Paratrechina, as well as the presence of these ants in the stomach contents of the microsympatric pumiliotoxin-containing dendrobatid frog, Dendrobates pumilio. These pumiliotoxins are major alkaloids in D. pumilio, and Brachymyrmex and Paratrechina ants now represent the only known dietary sources of these toxic alkaloids. These findings further support the significance of ant-specialization and alkaloid sequestration in the evolution of bright warning coloration in poison frogs and toads.