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Eldridge MAG, Hines BE, Murray EA. The visual prefrontal cortex of anthropoids: interaction with temporal cortex in decision making and its role in the making of "visual animals". Curr Opin Behav Sci 2021; 41:22-29. [PMID: 33796638 PMCID: PMC8009333 DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2021.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The ventral prefrontal cortex (PFC) of primates-a region strongly implicated in decision making-receives highly processed visual sensory inputs from the inferior temporal cortex (ITC) and perirhinal cortex (PRC) and can therefore be considered visual PFC. Usually, the functions of temporal cortex and visual PFC have been discussed in separate literatures. By considering them together, we aim to clarify the ways in which fronto-temporal networks guide decision making. After discussing the ways in which visual PFC interacts with temporal cortex to promote decision making, we offer specific predictions about the selective roles of the ITC- and PRC-based fronto-temporal networks. Finally, we suggest that an increased reliance on visual PFC in anthropoid primates led to our emergence as 'visual' animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A G Eldridge
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Brendan E Hines
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Elisabeth A Murray
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
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2
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Waguespack HF, Málková L, Forcelli PA, Turchi J. Effects of systemic cholinergic antagonism on reinforcer devaluation in macaques. Neurosci Lett 2018; 678:62-67. [PMID: 29729357 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2018.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2018] [Revised: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The capacity to adjust actions based on new information is a vital cognitive function. An animal's ability to adapt behavioral responses according to changes in reward value can be measured using a reinforcer devaluation task, wherein the desirability of a given object is reduced by decreasing the value of the associated food reinforcement. Elements of the neural circuits serving this ability have been studied in both rodents and nonhuman primates. Specifically, the basolateral amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, and mediodorsal thalamus have each been shown to play a critical role in the process of value updating, required for adaptive goal selection. As these regions receive dense cholinergic input, we investigated whether systemic injections of non-selective nicotinic or muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonists, mecamylamine and scopolamine, respectively, would impair performance on a reinforcer devaluation task. Here we demonstrate that in the presence of either a nicotinic or muscarinic antagonist, animals are able to shift their behavioral responses in an appropriate manner, suggesting that disruption of cholinergic neuromodulation is not sufficient to disrupt value updating, and subsequent goal selection, in rhesus macaques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah F Waguespack
- Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Georgetown University, New Research Bldg., 3970 Reservoir Rd. NW, Washington, DC 20007, USA.
| | - Ludise Málková
- Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Georgetown University, New Research Bldg., 3970 Reservoir Rd. NW, Washington, DC 20007, USA.
| | - Patrick A Forcelli
- Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Georgetown University, New Research Bldg., 3970 Reservoir Rd. NW, Washington, DC 20007, USA.
| | - Janita Turchi
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, NIMH, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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3
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Takahashi YK, Chang CY, Lucantonio F, Haney RZ, Berg BA, Yau HJ, Bonci A, Schoenbaum G. Neural estimates of imagined outcomes in the orbitofrontal cortex drive behavior and learning. Neuron 2014; 80:507-18. [PMID: 24139047 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2013.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Imagination, defined as the ability to interpret reality in ways that diverge from past experience, is fundamental to adaptive behavior. This can be seen at a simple level in our capacity to predict novel outcomes in new situations. The ability to anticipate outcomes never before received can also influence learning if those imagined outcomes are not received. The orbitofrontal cortex is a key candidate for where the process of imagining likely outcomes occurs; however, its precise role in generating these estimates and applying them to learning remain open questions. Here we address these questions by showing that single-unit activity in the orbitofrontal cortex reflects novel outcome estimates. The strength of these neural correlates predicted both behavior and learning, learning that was abolished by temporally specific inhibition of orbitofrontal neurons. These results are consistent with the proposal that the orbitofrontal cortex is critical for integrating information to imagine future outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuji K Takahashi
- National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Cellular Neurobiology Research Branch, Behavioral Neurophysiology Research Section, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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4
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Bachevalier J, Machado CJ, Kazama A. Behavioral outcomes of late-onset or early-onset orbital frontal cortex (areas 11/13) lesions in rhesus monkeys. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2012; 1239:71-86. [PMID: 22145877 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06211.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The orbital frontal cortex (OFC) has been implicated in a number of psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, phobia, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Thus, a better understanding of its functions will likely provide critical information to understand the specific behavioral and cognitive processes affected in these human disorders. In recent years, a growing number of studies have provided evidence for anatomical and functional differentiation within the OFC. Here we discuss the effects of selective OFC (areas 11/13) lesions on social behavior, emotional regulation, and behavioral adaptation. Damage to these specific OFC subfields in adult monkeys resulted in profound changes in the flexible modulation of responses guided by reward value that could explain the poor fear regulation and disturbed social interactions observed in the same animals. A similar pattern of results was found when the OFC lesions were done in infancy. Thus, in monkeys, self-regulation abilities mediated by OFC areas 11/13 emerge from midinfancy through adolescence.
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Transient inactivation of orbitofrontal cortex blocks reinforcer devaluation in macaques. J Neurosci 2011; 31:15128-35. [PMID: 22016546 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3295-11.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and its interactions with the basolateral amygdala (BLA) are critical for goal-directed behavior, especially for adapting to changes in reward value. Here we used a reinforcer devaluation paradigm to investigate the contribution of OFC to this behavior in four macaques. Subjects that had formed associations between objects and two different primary reinforcers (foods) were presented with choices of objects overlying the two different foods. When one of the two foods was devalued by selective satiation, the subjects shifted their choices toward the objects that represented the nonsated food reward (devaluation effect). Transient inactivation of OFC by infusions of the GABA(A) receptor agonist muscimol into area 13 blocked the devaluation effect: the monkeys did not reduce their selection of objects associated with the devalued food. This effect was observed when OFC was inactivated during both satiation and the choice test, and during the choice test only. This supports our hypothesis that OFC activity is required during the postsatiety object choice period to guide the selection of objects. This finding sharply contrasts with the role of BLA in the same devaluation process (Wellman et al., 2005). Whereas activity in BLA was required during the selective satiation procedure, it was not necessary for guiding the subsequent object choice. Our results are the first to demonstrate that transient inactivation of OFC is sufficient to disrupt the devaluation effect, and to document a role for OFC distinct from that of BLA for the conditioned reinforcer devaluation process in monkeys.
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Murray EA, Wise SP, Drevets WC. Localization of dysfunction in major depressive disorder: prefrontal cortex and amygdala. Biol Psychiatry 2011; 69:e43-54. [PMID: 21111403 PMCID: PMC3058124 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.09.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2010] [Revised: 09/22/2010] [Accepted: 09/25/2010] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Despite considerable effort, the localization of dysfunction in major depressive disorder (MDD) remains poorly understood. We present a hypothesis about its localization that builds on recent findings from primate neuropsychology. The hypothesis has four key components: a deficit in the valuation of "self" underlies the core disorder in MDD; the medial frontal cortex represents "self"; interactions between the amygdala and cortical representations update their valuation; and inefficiency in using positive feedback by orbital prefrontal cortex contributes to MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth A. Murray
- Section on the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Steven P. Wise
- Olschefskie Institute for the Neurobiology of Knowledge, Potomac, Maryland
| | - Wayne C. Drevets
- Laureate Institute for Brain Research, Tulsa, OK, Oklahoma University College of Medicine, Tulsa, Oklahoma
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A visual, position-independent instrumental reinforcer devaluation task for rats. J Neurosci Methods 2010; 194:297-304. [PMID: 21093482 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2010.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2010] [Revised: 11/04/2010] [Accepted: 11/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Flexible goal-directed behavior has been studied across species using reinforcer devaluation tasks, in which subjects form associations between specific stimuli (cues) and specific reinforcer(s). The reinforcer is subsequently devalued by selective satiation or taste aversion. Following devaluation, subjects adjust their responding to the cues reflecting the new value of the reinforcer. Tasks currently used in rats differ in several ways from tasks used in monkeys and this may explain contrasting results between the two species. To address one of the differences, we developed a rat task independent of spatial cues. It employs two visual cues presented simultaneously, changing left and right positions pseudorandomly. Each cue predicts one of two food reinforcers. Rats were trained to lever press in response to the two visual cues. Subsequently, they were satiated on one of the foods followed by an extinction test where in each trial they could choose to respond to one of the two cues, one predicting the devalued reinforcer and the other the non-devalued. This procedure was repeated later with the alternative food devalued. The rats adjusted their responding by choosing the cue predicting the devalued food significantly less (p<0.05) than the alternative cue. These results show that rats can discriminate two visual stimuli presented simultaneously, devalue two different foods by selective satiation, and transfer the new value to the visual cues. Discrimination of the visual cues is not aided by spatial cues, thereby eliminating a major difference between the instrumental tasks used in rats and the task used in monkeys.
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Neurotoxic lesions of the medial mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus disrupt reinforcer devaluation effects in rhesus monkeys. J Neurosci 2007; 27:11289-95. [PMID: 17942723 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1914-07.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The mediodorsal thalamus is a major input to the prefrontal cortex and is thought to modulate cognitive functions of the prefrontal cortex. Damage to the medial, magnocellular part of the mediodorsal thalamus (MDmc) impairs cognitive functions dependent on prefrontal cortex, including memory. The contribution of MDmc to other aspects of cognition dependent on prefrontal cortex has not been determined. The ability of monkeys to adjust their choice behavior in response to changes in reinforcer value, a capacity impaired by lesions of orbital prefrontal cortex, can be tested in a reinforcer devaluation paradigm. In the present study, rhesus monkeys with bilateral neurotoxic MDmc lesions were tested in the devaluation procedure. Monkeys learned visual discrimination problems in which each rewarded object is reliably paired with one of two different food rewards and then were given choices between pairs of rewarded objects, one associated with each food. Selective satiation of one of the food rewards reduces choices of objects associated with that food in normal monkeys. Monkeys with bilateral neurotoxic lesions of MDmc learned concurrently presented visual discrimination problems as quickly as unoperated control monkeys but showed impaired reinforcer devaluation effects. This finding suggests that the neural circuitry for control of behavioral choice by changes in reinforcer value includes MDmc.
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9
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Machado CJ, Bachevalier J. Measuring reward assessment in a semi-naturalistic context: the effects of selective amygdala, orbital frontal or hippocampal lesions. Neuroscience 2007; 148:599-611. [PMID: 17693034 PMCID: PMC2064940 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.06.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2007] [Revised: 06/04/2007] [Accepted: 07/06/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Studying the neural mechanisms underlying complex goal-directed behaviors, such as social behavior, reward seeking or punishment avoidance, has become increasingly tractable in humans, nonhuman primates and rodents. In most experiments, however, goal-directed behaviors are measured in a laboratory setting, which is vastly different from the context in which these behaviors naturally occur. This study adapted a reward assessment paradigm, previously conducted with rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) in the controlled environment of a Wisconsin General Testing Apparatus (WGTA) [Machado CJ, Bachevalier J (2007) The effects of selective amygdala, orbital frontal cortex or hippocampal formation lesions on reward assessment in nonhuman primates. Eur J Neurosci 25:2885-2904], to a more naturalistic context. We used this new paradigm to examine the effects of bilateral amygdaloid, hippocampal or orbital frontal cortex lesions on established food and nonfood preferences. Behavioral modification following reinforcer devaluation was also measured. Consistent with our previous study, none of the lesions produced changes in preference for palatable foods relative to pre-surgery, but animals with amygdala lesions displayed heightened preference for unpalatable foods that control or other operated animals typically avoided. In contrast to several previous WGTA-based experiments, nonfood preference was not affected by any of the lesions. Finally, animals with orbital frontal cortex lesions continued to select preferred foods after satiation, but those with amygdala, hippocampal or sham lesions altered their foraging behavior appropriately and selected less of the sated food. These findings parallel food devaluation results obtained with these same animals when tested in the WGTA. Overall, this study stresses the importance of testing context when measuring decision-making abilities in nonhuman primates with selective brain lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- C J Machado
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Texas Health Science Center, 6431 Fannin Street, Houston, TX, USA.
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Machado CJ, Bachevalier J. The effects of selective amygdala, orbital frontal cortex or hippocampal formation lesions on reward assessment in nonhuman primates. Eur J Neurosci 2007; 25:2885-904. [PMID: 17561849 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05525.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We examined the effects of bilateral amygdaloid, hippocampal or orbital frontal cortex lesions on reward assessment in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). In Experiment 1, basic preferences for foods and inedible nonfoods were measured pre- and postsurgery. None of the lesions produced changes in animals' preferences for palatable foods or raw meat relative to presurgery, although amygdaloid or hippocampal lesions yielded increased preference for inedible nonfoods postsurgery. When the reinforcement value of each animal's highest-preferred food was decreased by selective satiation, only animals with neurotoxic orbital frontal cortex lesions continued to select the sated food. Experiment 2 measured the impact of each lesion on learning 60 concurrent discrimination problems and, then, on flexibly avoiding objects associated with sated foods in favour of objects associated with nonsated foods. None of the lesions affected concurrent discrimination learning, but animals with neurotoxic amygdala or aspiration orbital frontal lesions could not refrain from displacing items covering devalued foods. Only animals with orbital lesions also selected the devalued food beneath the object. The results indicate a functional dissociation for the amygdala and orbital frontal cortex in reward assessment, depending on the type of the reinforcer available (objects vs. food). Finally, this is the first study indicating that the hippocampal formation is involved in the assessment of familiar nonfoods, but not in judging the current value of unconditioned and conditioned reinforcers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Machado
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Texas Health Science Center, 6431 Fannin Street, Houston, TX, USA.
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11
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Verhagen JV. The neurocognitive bases of human multimodal food perception: consciousness. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 53:271-86. [PMID: 17027988 PMCID: PMC3373180 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2006.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2006] [Revised: 09/04/2006] [Accepted: 09/06/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
This review explores how we become aware of the (integrated) flavor of food. In recent years, progress has been made understanding the neural correlates of consciousness. Experimental and computational data have been largely based on the visual system. Contemporary neurobiological frameworks of consciousness are reviewed, concluding that neural reverberation among forward- and back-projecting neural ensembles across brain areas is a common theme. In an attempt to extrapolate these concepts to the oral-sensory and olfactory systems involved with multimodal flavor perception, the integration of the sensory information of which into a flavor gestalt has been reviewed elsewhere (Verhagen, J.V., Engelen, L., 2006. The neurocognitive bases of human multimodal food perception: Sensory integration. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 30(5): 613_650), I reconceptualize the flavor-sensory system by integrating it into a larger neural system termed the Homeostatic Interoceptive System (HIS). This system consists of an oral (taste, oral touch, etc.) and non-oral part (non oral-thermosensation, pain, etc.) which are anatomically and functionally highly similar. Consistent with this new concept and with a large volume of experimental data, I propose that awareness of intraoral food is related to the concomitant reverberant self-sustained activation of a coalition of neuronal subsets in agranular insula and orbitofrontal cortex (affect, hedonics) and agranular insula and perirhinal cortex (food identity), as well as the amygdala (affect and identity) in humans. I further discuss the functional anatomy in relation essential nodes. These formulations are by necessity to some extent speculative.
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12
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Murray EA, Wise SP. What, if anything, is the medial temporal lobe, and how can the amygdala be part of it if there is no such thing? Neurobiol Learn Mem 2004; 82:178-98. [PMID: 15464403 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2004.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2004] [Revised: 05/06/2004] [Accepted: 05/07/2004] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Should the medial temporal lobe (MTL) of primates--which includes allocortical structures such as the hippocampus, neocortical structures such as the parahippocampal cortex, and nuclear structures such as the basolateral amygdala--be considered a single "thing"? According to the prevailing view, here termed the reification theory, the answer is yes. According to this theory, the MTL functions as an amalgamated entity that provides the neuronal mechanisms for declarative memory; the greater the damage to the MTL or any of its components, the greater the deleterious effects on declarative memory. A countervailing view, here called the balkanization theory, holds that the various components of the MTL process and store different kinds of information. According to this theory, damage to each part of the MTL causes a unique set of behavioral deficits-some involving memory, others involving perception, and yet others involving response selection. The empirical neuropsychological evidence favors the balkanization theory, as do some new concepts in theoretical neuroanatomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth A Murray
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, Building 49, Room 1B80, MSC 4415, 49 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892-4415, USA.
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Eacott MJ, Norman G, Gaffan EA. The Role of Perirhinal Cortex in Visual Discrimination Learning for Visual Secondary Reinforcement in Rats. Behav Neurosci 2003; 117:1318-25. [PMID: 14674850 DOI: 10.1037/0735-7044.117.6.1318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Perirhinal cortex in monkeys has been thought to be involved in visual associative learning. The authors examined rats' ability to make associations between visual stimuli in a visual secondary reinforcement task. Rats learned 2-choice visual discriminations for secondary visual reinforcement. They showed significant learning of discriminations before any primary reinforcement. Following bilateral perirhinal cortex lesions, rats continued to learn visual discriminations for visual secondary reinforcement at the same rate as before surgery. Thus, this study does not support a critical role of perirhinal cortex in learning for visual secondary reinforcement. Contrasting this result with other positive results, the authors suggest that the role of perirhinal cortex is in "within-object" associations and that it plays a much lesser role in stimulus-stimulus associations between objects.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Eacott
- Department of Psychology, University of Durham, Durham, United Kingdom.
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14
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Abstract
The amygdala -- an almond-shaped group of nuclei at the heart of the telencephalon -- has been associated with a range of cognitive functions, including emotion, learning, memory, attention and perception. Most current views of amygdala function emphasize its role in negative emotions, such as fear, and in linking negative emotions with other aspects of cognition, such as learning and memory. However, recent evidence supports a role for the amygdala in processing positive emotions as well as negative ones, including learning about the beneficial biological value of stimuli. Indeed, the amygdala's role in stimulus-reward learning might be just as important as its role in processing negative affect and fear conditioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark G Baxter
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, 906 William James Hall, 33 Kirkland Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA.
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15
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Ridley RM, Warner KA, Maclean CJ, Gaffan D, Baker HF. Visual agnosia and Klüver-Bucy syndrome in marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) following ablation of inferotemporal cortex, with additional mnemonic effects of immunotoxic lesions of cholinergic projections to medial temporal areas. Brain Res 2001; 898:136-51. [PMID: 11292457 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(01)02187-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Inferotemporal ablations in the New World monkey, the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), produced a persistent impairment on visual discrimination learning and a florid, but transient, Klüver-Bucy syndrome. Monkeys with these ablations were impaired on acquisition of object discriminations to a high criterion and on concurrent discrimination learning, to a single high criterion across all trials. Neither the control monkeys nor the monkeys with inferotemporal ablations found acquisition more difficult when the component discriminations of a set were presented concurrently compared to consecutively, although the monkeys with inferotemporal ablations found acquisition under both these conditions somewhat more difficult than did control monkeys. This suggests that the severe impairment caused by inferotemporal ablations on concurrent learning measured across all trials is due to the need for sustained performance across a concurrent set rather than to the extra mnemonic demands of concurrent presentation. When immunotoxic lesions of the cholinergic projection to the hippocampal formation were added to the inferotemporal ablations, a further impairment on retention, and a differential impairment on concurrent, compared to consecutive, learning was observed. Previous studies have shown that lesions of the cholinergic projection to the hippocampus alone, or excitotoxic hippocampal lesions, do not affect simple visual discrimination learning. It is suggested that large inferotemporal ablations in monkeys produce a visual agnosia which causes severe 'psychic blindness' in the first instance, and a persistent impairment on visual discrimination learning. The hippocampus makes a contribution, which may be mnemonic, to discrimination performance after inferotemporal ablations.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Ridley
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Innes Building, School of Veterinary Medicine, Madingley Road, CB3 0ES, Cambridge, UK.
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16
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Murray EA, Richmond BJ. Role of perirhinal cortex in object perception, memory, and associations. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2001; 11:188-93. [PMID: 11301238 DOI: 10.1016/s0959-4388(00)00195-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The perirhinal cortex plays a key role in acquiring knowledge about objects. It contributes to at least four cognitive functions, and recent findings provide new insights into how the perirhinal cortex contributes to each: first, it contributes to recognition memory in an automatic fashion; second, it probably contributes to perception as well as memory; third, it helps identify objects by associating together the different sensory features of an object; and fourth, it associates objects with other objects and with abstractions.
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Affiliation(s)
- E A Murray
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, Building 49, Room 1B80, 49 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892-4415, USA.
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17
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Baxter MG, Murray EA. Impairments in visual discrimination learning and recognition memory produced by neurotoxic lesions of rhinal cortex in rhesus monkeys. Eur J Neurosci 2001; 13:1228-38. [PMID: 11285020 DOI: 10.1046/j.0953-816x.2001.01491.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Much work on the cognitive functions of the primate rhinal (i.e. entorhinal plus perirhinal) cortex has been based on aspiration lesions of this structure, which might disrupt fibres passing nearby and through the rhinal cortex in addition to removing the cell bodies of the rhinal cortex itself. To determine whether damage limited to the cell bodies of the rhinal cortex is sufficient to impair visual learning and memory, four rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) were preoperatively trained on a battery of visual learning and memory tasks, including single-pair discrimination learning for primary reinforcement, single-pair discrimination reversals, concurrent discrimination learning and reversal, and delayed matching-to-sample. Following acquisition of these tasks and a preoperative performance test, ibotenic acid was injected bilaterally into the rhinal cortex, and the monkeys were retested. Consistent with the results of studies using aspiration lesions, the monkeys were impaired on single-pair discrimination learning as well as recognition memory performance postoperatively, although reliable reversal learning impairments were not observed. The magnitude of postoperative impairment in discrimination learning was not correlated with the magnitude of postoperative impairment in recognition memory, suggesting a possible dissociation between these functions within the rhinal cortex. The correspondence of behavioural deficits following aspiration and neurotoxic lesions of the rhinal cortex validates the attribution of various cognitive functions to this structure, based on the results of studies with aspiration lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Baxter
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, 906 William James Hall, 33 Kirkland Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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18
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Liu Z, Murray EA, Richmond BJ. Learning motivational significance of visual cues for reward schedules requires rhinal cortex. Nat Neurosci 2000; 3:1307-15. [PMID: 11100152 DOI: 10.1038/81841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The limbic system is necessary to associate stimuli with their motivational and emotional significance. The perirhinal cortex is directly connected to this system, and neurons in this region carry signals related to a monkey's progress through visually cued reward schedules. This task manipulates motivation by displaying different visual cues to indicate the amount of work remaining until reward delivery. We asked whether rhinal (that is, entorhinal and perirhinal) cortex is necessary to associate the visual cues with reward schedules. When faced with new visual cues in reward schedules, intact monkeys adjusted their motivation in the schedules, whereas monkeys with rhinal cortex removals failed to do so. Thus, the rhinal cortex is critical for forming associations between visual stimuli and their motivational significance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Liu
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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19
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Abstract
1 The current paper reviews the role of temporal lobe structures in learning and different kinds of memory, with an emphasis on behavioral tasks that re auditory stimuli. 2 The effects of lesions to structures in the temporal lobe were examined in separate groups of dogs, which were trained on an auditory spatial delayed response, or in a trial-unique auditory delayed match to sample recognition task. 3 Spatial memory was impaired after bilateral hippocampal lesions. On the other hand, neither an anterior temporal lesion or rhinal cortical injury nor combined lesion to the hippocampus and the anterior temporal lobe, affected postoperative retraining and performance of the spatial task. 4 Auditory recognition memory task was not impaired after a hippocampal and/or rhinal cortex lesion. However, postoperative retraining of the task was impaired after a lesion to auditory association areas. 5 These results confirm the role of the hippocampus in spatial memory in the dog. On the other hand, the organization of auditory recognition functions within the temporal lobe appears to be different from those described for visual recognition functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Kowalska
- Department of Neurophysiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Warsaw, Poland.
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20
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Control of response selection by reinforcer value requires interaction of amygdala and orbital prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci 2000. [PMID: 10818166 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.20-11-04311.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 345] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Goal-directed actions are guided by expected outcomes of those actions. Humans with bilateral damage to ventromedial prefrontal cortex, or the amygdala, are deficient in their ability to use information about positive and negative outcomes to guide their choice behavior. Similarly, rats and monkeys with orbital prefrontal or amygdala damage have been found to be impaired in their responses to changing values of outcomes. In the present study, we tested whether direct, functional interaction between the amygdala and the orbital prefrontal cortex is necessary for guiding behavior based on expected outcomes. Unlike control monkeys, rhesus monkeys with surgical disconnection of these two structures, achieved by crossed unilateral lesions of the amygdala in one hemisphere and orbital prefrontal cortex in the other, combined with forebrain commissurotomy, were unable to adjust their choice behavior after a change in the outcome (here, a reduction in the value of a particular reinforcer). The lesions did not affect motivation to work for a food reinforcer, or food preferences, per se. Hence, the amygdala and orbital prefrontal cortex act as part of an integrated neural system guiding decision-making and adaptive response selection.
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21
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Liu Z, Richmond BJ. Response differences in monkey TE and perirhinal cortex: stimulus association related to reward schedules. J Neurophysiol 2000; 83:1677-92. [PMID: 10712488 DOI: 10.1152/jn.2000.83.3.1677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Anatomic and behavioral evidence shows that TE and perirhinal cortices are two directly connected but distinct inferior temporal areas. Despite this distinctness, physiological properties of neurons in these two areas generally have been similar with neurons in both areas showing selectivity for complex visual patterns and showing response modulations related to behavioral context in the sequential delayed match-to-sample (DMS) trials, attention, and stimulus familiarity. Here we identify physiological differences in the neuronal activity of these two areas. We recorded single neurons from area TE and perirhinal cortex while the monkeys performed a simple behavioral task using randomly interleaved visually cued reward schedules of one, two, or three DMS trials. The monkeys used the cue's relation to the reward schedule (indicated by the brightness) to adjust their behavioral performance. They performed most quickly and most accurately in trials in which reward was immediately forthcoming and progressively less well as more intermediate trials remained. Thus the monkeys appeared more motivated as they progressed through the trial schedule. Neurons in both TE and perirhinal cortex responded to both the visual cues related to the reward schedules and the stimulus patterns used in the DMS trials. As expected, neurons in both areas showed response selectivity to the DMS patterns, and significant, but small, modulations related to the behavioral context in the DMS trial. However, TE and perirhinal neurons showed strikingly different response properties. The latency distribution of perirhinal responses was centered 66 ms later than the distribution of TE responses, a larger difference than the 10-15 ms usually found in sequentially connected visual cortical areas. In TE, cue-related responses were related to the cue's brightness. In perirhinal cortex, cue-related responses were related to the trial schedules independently of the cue's brightness. For example, some perirhinal neurons responded in the first trial of any reward schedule including the one trial schedule, whereas other neurons failed to respond in the first trial but respond in the last trial of any schedule. The majority of perirhinal neurons had more complicated relations to the schedule. The cue-related activity of TE neurons is interpreted most parsimoniously as a response to the stimulus brightness, whereas the cue-related activity of perirhinal neurons is interpreted most parsimoniously as carrying associative information about the animal's progress through the reward schedule. Perirhinal cortex may be part of a system gauging the relation between work schedules and rewards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Liu
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-4415, USA
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22
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Abstract
The effects of variations in the amount of training on behavioral plasticity were examined in three experiments that used appetitive Pavlovian conditioning procedures with rats. In experiments 1 and 2, an auditory conditioned stimulus (CS) substituted for a food unconditioned stimulus (US) in the acquisition of new learning about the food US after small numbers of CS-US pairings, but not after larger numbers of pairings. After limited exposure to the relation between the auditory CS and food, pairings of the CS with the toxin LiCl, in the absence of food, were sufficient to establish an aversion to the food US that was previously paired with that CS. This CS-mediated learning did not occur after more extensive exposure to the CS-food relation. In contrast, in experiment 3. mediated performance of previously-established conditioned responding was unaffected by the number of CS-US pairings used to establish that performance. Conditioned responding to the auditory CS remained sensitive to post-training devaluation of the food US regardless of the amount of initial CS-US training. Implications of these results for the investigations of cortical and other brain mechanisms of behavioral plasticity are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Holland
- Department of Psychology: Experimental, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708-0086, USA.
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