The intergenerational transmission of harsh parenting, substance use, and emotional distress: Impact on the third-generation child

Spillover of macro-level violence to parental physical abuse of children in low- and middle-income countries

BACKGROUND

Through violence socialization processes, exposure to higher rates of violence in the macro context may spill over to family violence, including caregivers' use of physical child abuse.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the associations of violence occurring in macro contexts with parental physical abuse, after accounting for norms justifying women's exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV) and parental physical punishment against children.

METHODS

We used data from 435,131 households with a reference child aged 1 to 17 years across 43 countries from rounds 4 and 5 of the UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys. We employed multilevel logistic regression to estimate the extent to which country-level violence-measured by rates of terrorism and political conflict, homicide, and women's exposure to IPV-was associated with the use of severe and moderate physical abuse. The models controlled for norms justifying IPV and physical punishment, as well as socio-demographic factors.

RESULTS

Results indicated that greater endorsement of IPV (OR = 1.024, p < .001) and attitudes supporting the use of physical punishment with children (OR = 1.016, p < .05) were both associated with higher odds of severe physical abuse after controlling for covariates. The association of terrorism and political violence with severe physical abuse was mediated by norms that legitimize IPV (indirect b = 0.027, p < .01).

CONCLUSION

Interventions aimed at reducing abusive parenting practices in LMICs may benefit from efforts to reduce social norms that support IPV and physical punishment of children. These interventions should incorporate trauma-informed approaches that recognize the effects of macro-level violence.

Caregiving Environmental Risk and Aggression From Infancy to Adolescence in a High-Risk Sample: An Examination of Between-Family and Within-Family Effects

The dynamic, longitudinal interplay between caregiving environmental risk (e.g., caregiver postnatal substance use and psychological symptoms, caregiving instability, exposure to violence) and child aggression is not well understood, particularly for substance-exposed children. A random intercept cross-lagged panel model was used to examine within- and between-family variability in the reciprocal relations between caregiving environmental risk and child aggression from infancy to kindergarten age, and their contribution to early adolescent aggression, with prenatal substance exposure as an exogenous predictor, controlling for maternal education, child sex, and peer delinquency. The sample included 216 mother-child dyads (49% boys; 57.6% African American). Multimethod assessments were conducted at infancy, toddlerhood, early-preschool, late-preschool, kindergarten, and early adolescence. Positive cross-lagged effects from child aggression to caregiving environmental risk revealed that after a temporary increase in aggression, children were exposed to more caregiving environmental risk a year later. Positive reciprocal paths from caregiving environmental risk at infancy and toddlerhood to child aggression a year later indicated that children had increased aggression at toddlerhood and early preschool when exposed to higher-than-expected levels of caregiving environmental risk the year prior. In contrast, caregiving environmental risk at early preschool and late preschool did not relate to child aggression a year later and caregiving environmental risk at kindergarten did not relate to early adolescent aggression. Findings highlight the ways in which child behavior impacts caregiving environmental risk and have implications for identifying and intervening with early childhood aggression and the contexts in which it occurs.

Intergenerational Effects of Parenting on Children's Internalizing and Externalizing Trajectories: A Latent Growth Model Analysis

Externalizing and internalizing problems in childhood are associated with risk for later psychopathology. It is important to identify antecedents as they may be targets for intervention. In a sample of 501 children (M = 6.07; 54.7% male; 12.4% Hispanic; 12.2% non-White), we leveraged data from a longitudinal study to examine the transmission of parenting behaviors across two generations and its effects on children's internalizing and externalizing outcomes in the subsequent generation. The results suggested transmission of parenting behaviors, confirmed the role of parenting on children's psychopathology, and provided novel evidence of a direct and indirect role of grandparent's caregiving on children's psychopathology via parenting continuity. These findings may inform interventions addressing continuity of parenting behaviors and their subsequent effects.

You are a Mirror of My Childhood: Pathways Through Family Dyadic Interactions and Gender Preference in the Intergenerational Association of ODD Symptoms

We examined the intergenerational association of ODD symptoms between parents and child offspring, elaborating a model whereby parental childhood ODD symptoms influence their children's ODD symptoms through dyadic interactions within the current family system. The sample included 731 children (aged 6-11, 64.3% boys) and their parents. In a sample of Chinese families, parents reported their childhood ODD symptoms and their marital quality, their negative parenting practices, and their children's ODD symptoms at T1 and T2, about half a year apart. Results indicated that parents' childhood ODD symptoms positively predicted children's T1 ODD symptoms, especially for boys. Path analysis revealed gender-based differences. That is, mothers' childhood ODD symptoms negatively predicted parental marital relationship quality at T1, which in turn positively predicted boys' ODD symptoms at T2. Yet fathers' childhood ODD symptoms were positive predictors of fathers' negative parenting practices at T1, which in turn positively predicted girls' ODD symptoms at T2. Our findings support a gender preference in the intergenerational association of psychopathology. In the current study, such a gender preference is mainly reflected in the stronger direct association between parental childhood ODD symptoms and the T1 ODD symptoms of male offspring than female ones.

A National Strategy for Preventing Substance and Opioid Use Disorders Through Evidence-Based Prevention Programming That Fosters Healthy Outcomes in Our Youth

The recently released National Drug Control Strategy (2022) from the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) lays out a comprehensive plan to, not only enhance access to treatment and increase harm reduction strategies, but also increase implementation of evidence-based prevention programming at the community level. Furthermore, the Strategy provides a framework for enhancing our national data systems to inform policy and to evaluate all components of the plan. However, not only are there several missing components to the Strategy that would assure its success, but there is a lack of structure to support a national comprehensive service delivery system that is informed by epidemiological data, and trains and credentials those delivering evidence-based prevention, treatment, and harm reduction/public health interventions within community settings. This paper provides recommendations for the establishment of such a structure with an emphasis on prevention. Systematically addressing conditions known to increase liability for behavioral problems among vulnerable populations and building supportive environments are strategies consistently found to avert trajectories away from substance use in general and substance use disorders (SUD) in particular. Investments in this approach are expected to result in significantly lower rates of SUD in current and subsequent generations of youth and, therefore, will reduce the burden on our communities in terms of lowered social and health systems involvement, treatment needs, and productivity. A national strategy, based on strong scientific evidence, is presented to implement public health policies and prevention services. These strategies work by improving child development, supporting families, enhancing school experiences, and cultivating positive environmental conditions. Appeared originally in Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 2023; 26:1-16.

Father and mother harsh parenting and adult romantic relationships over time: Individual behavior during adolescence

The present study examined how father and mother harsh parenting as experienced in middle adolescence impacted individual behavior during late adolescence and subsequent harsh couple interaction with their romantic partner in adulthood using a prospective longitudinal design (n = 117 males, 239 females). Data were collected during home visits by a trained interviewer in which family members completed questionnaires and participated in videotaped structured interaction tasks that were coded by trained observers. We assessed the influence of harsh parenting in adolescence (ages 15 and 16, Time 1) on individual processes (e.g., academic difficulty, substance use, and low self-esteem; age 18, Time 2) and harsh couple interaction in adulthood (ages 29 and 31, Time 3; age 34, Time 4). Father harsh parenting was associated with low self-esteem for sons and daughters and substance use for sons. Mother harsh parenting was associated with academic difficulty for adolescents. Academic difficulty and low self-esteem for daughters were further associated with harsh couple interaction at Time 3, while substance use for adolescents was associated with harsh couple interaction at Time 3, which remained stable through established adulthood. We highlight the unique effects of father and mother harsh parenting on later romantic relationship quality through individual mechanisms in late adulthood, for daughters and sons, in the context of the family system. Understanding these nuances as adolescents approach adulthood have implications for programming and policy aimed at strengthening the parent-child relationship in adolescence to allow for the development of healthy romantic relationships later in life. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Prospective Intergenerational Associations between Parents' and Children's Illicit Substance Use During Adolescence

OBJECTIVE

Intergenerational studies have identified relations between adolescents' and their future offspring's cannabis and alcohol use, but rarely have examined the association for other illicit drug use. Given the low prevalence of such use in community populations, we pooled data from three prospective intergenerational studies to test this link.

METHOD

Participants were 1,060 children of 937 parents who had been repeatedly assessed since early adolescence. Children and parents reported on their use of cocaine, stimulants, hallucinogens, sedatives/tranquilizers, and opiates/narcotics from ages 10 to 18 years. Intergenerational similarities in any versus no use of these drugs were formally modeled using logistic regression. Patterns also were descriptively analyzed.

RESULTS

Parent illicit substance use was associated with significantly higher odds of child use (adjusted odds ratio [95% confidence interval] = 2.682 [1.328-5.416], p = 0.006). However, intergenerational continuity was modest; 87% of children whose parent used illicit drugs in adolescence did not use such drugs, and 77% of parents of children who used illicit drugs had not themselves used these drugs during adolescence.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of illicit substances by parents during their teenage years poses a risk for their offspring's similar behaviors. However, the discontinuity of these behaviors across generations implies children are largely resilient to or protected from this risk, and conversely that other aspects of parents' and children's experiences or characteristics may be more powerful risks for children's illicit drug use than this transgenerational influence.

Adolescent predictors of psychiatric disorders in adulthood: The role of emotional distress and problem drinking in emerging adulthood

The current study evaluated risk factors in adolescence on problem drinking and emotional distress in late adolescence and emerging adulthood, and meeting criteria for diagnosed disorders in adulthood. The study included 501 parents and their adolescent who participated from middle adolescence to adulthood. Risk factors in middle adolescence (age 18) included parent alcohol use, adolescent alcohol use, and parent and adolescent emotional distress. In late adolescence (age 18), binge drinking and emotional distress were assessed, and in emerging adulthood (age 25), alcohol problems and emotional distress were examined. Meeting criteria for substance use, behavioral, affective, or anxiety disorders were examined between the ages of 26 and 31. Results showed parent alcohol use predicted substance use disorder through late adolescent binge drinking and emerging adulthood alcohol problems. Behavioral disorders were indirectly predicted by adolescent and emerging adult emotional distress. Affective disorders were indirectly predicted by parent emotional distress through adolescent emotional distress. Finally, anxiety disorders were predicted by parent alcohol use via adolescent drinking; parent emotional distress via adolescent emotional distress, and through adolescent alcohol use and emotional distress. Results provided support for the intergenerational transmission of problem drinking and emotional distress on meeting criteria for diagnosed psychiatric disorders in adulthood.

Intergenerational Transmission of Human Parenting Styles to Human-Dog Relationships

Parenting style and intergenerational transmission have been extensively studied in parent-child relationships. As dogs are increasingly recognized as integral members of the family system, there is a growing interest in understanding how parenting behaviors directed towards dogs can also influence a dog's behaviors. However, the reasons why people adopt certain parenting behaviors towards dogs remain relatively unknown. This study delved into the intergenerational transmission of parenting styles from one's upbringing to caregiving for dogs. Using a mixed methods approach with 391 dog caregivers and 10 interviews, this study employed multivariate linear regression and thematic analysis. Permissive parenting exhibited an intergenerational effect, with those experiencing it being more likely to replicate the style with their dogs. Orientation towards dogs emerged as a crucial mediator, with protectionistic attitudes reducing the likelihood of replicating authoritarian parenting. Humanistic and protectionistic orientation increased the likelihood of compensatory permissive behaviors. Insights from interviews underscored the impact of perceived childhood experiences on adopting specific parenting behaviors. Ultimately, this study provides valuable insights that can contribute to the promotion of appropriate caregiving behaviors toward dogs. By drawing on our understanding of child-parent relationships, addressing the underlying elements of human-dog dynamics may lead to positive outcomes both for dogs and their caregivers.

The hidden impact of alcohol on young victims: an analysis of alcohol-related police offences resulting in hospitalisation

BACKGROUND

Alcohol-related harm (ARH) is a significant public health concern affecting young individuals, particularly those involved in alcohol-related police incidents resulting in hospitalisation. However, the impact of alcohol on young victims remains under researched. This study aimed to identify the characteristics of offenders and victims involved in these incidents, analyse the types of offences, and understand the under-ascertainment of ARH in hospital records.

METHODS

A retrospective longitudinal study of 12-24-year-olds born between 1980 and 2005 was conducted using linked data from hospital admissions, emergency department presentations, and police incident records. Alcohol-related incidents were identified based on the attending officers' opinions in the Western Australia Police's Incident Management System (IMS). Logistic and log-binomial regression were utilised to analyse the factors associated with victimisation and under-ascertainment of ARH.

RESULTS

Our study included 22,747 individuals (11,433 victims and 11,314 offenders) involved in alcohol-related police incidents, with a small majority of victims being female (53%, n = 6,074) and a large majority of offenders being male (84.3%, n = 9,532). Most victims did not receive a diagnosis of ARH (71%, n = 760). Women were 10 times more likely to have been a victim in ARH police incidents and 2 times more likely to have an undiagnosed alcohol-related hospital admission than men. Victims and offenders predominantly came from disadvantaged areas and major cities. Aboriginal individuals were overrepresented as both offenders and victims. A significant proportion of individuals experienced emergency department presentations or hospital admissions, with head injuries being the most common. Assault causing bodily harm was the most prevalent offence resulting in hospitalisation (66%, n = 2,018).

CONCLUSIONS

There is a noteworthy disparity between the quantity of hospital admissions attributed to alcohol-related incidents and the number of cases that are formally classified as ARH in the hospital system. This disparity highlights a more profound issue of substantial under-ascertainment or inadequate identification of ARH than previously acknowledged. Our findings justify the prioritisation of prevention strategies, beyond improvement in the documentation of alcohol-related hospitalisation. Considering the scale of the problem, and the underestimation of the burden of alcohol-related hospitalisation, a proportional increase in investment is necessary to achieve population-level reductions in ARH.

Effects of a preventive parenting intervention for bereaved families on the intergenerational transmission of parenting attitudes: Mediating processes

This study evaluated whether the Family Bereavement Program (FBP), a prevention program for parentally bereaved families, improved parenting attitudes toward parental warmth and physical punishment in young adult offspring 15 years after participation and identified mediational cascade pathways. One hundred fifty-six parents and their 244 offspring participated. Data were collected at pretest (ages 8-16), posttest, and six- and 15-year follow-ups. Ethnicity of offspring was: 67% non-Hispanic Caucasian, 16% Hispanic, 7% African American, 3% Native American, 1% Asian or Pacific Islander, and 6% other; 54% were males. There was a direct effect of the FBP on attitudes toward physical punishment; offspring in the FBP had less favorable attitudes toward physical punishment. There were also indirect effects of the FBP on parenting attitudes. The results supported a cascade effects model in which intervention-induced improvements in parental warmth led to fewer externalizing problems in adolescence/emerging adulthood, which in turn led to less favorable attitudes toward physical punishment. In addition, intervention-induced improvements in parental warmth led to improvements in anxious romantic attachment in mid-to-late adolescence/emerging adulthood, which led to more favorable attitudes toward parental warmth in emerging/young adulthood. These findings suggest that the effects of relatively brief prevention programs may persist into subsequent generations.

Is there intergenerational continuity in early life experiences? Findings from the Harvard Study of Adult Development

There has been longstanding and widespread interdisciplinary interest in understanding intergenerational processes, or the extent to which conditions repeat themselves across generations. However, due to the difficulty of collecting longitudinal, multigenerational data on early life conditions, less is known about the extent to which offspring experience the same early life conditions that their parents experienced in their own early lives. Using data from a socioeconomically diverse, White U.S. American cohort of 1,312 offspring (50% female) and their fathers (N = 518 families), we address three primary questions: (1) To what extent is there intergenerational continuity in early life experiences (social class, home atmosphere, parent-child relationship quality, health)? (2) Is intergenerational continuity in early life experiences greater for some domains of experience compared to others? and (3) Are there person-level (offspring sex, birth order, perceptions of marital stability) and family-level factors (family size, father education level and education mobility, marital stability) that moderate intergenerational continuity? Multilevel models indicated that intergenerational continuity was particularly robust for childhood social class, but nonsignificant for other early life experiences. Further, intergenerational continuity was moderated by several family-level factors, such that families with higher father education/mobility and marital stability, tended to have offspring with the most optimal early life experiences, regardless of what their father experienced in early life. We discuss the broader theoretical implications for family systems, as well as practical implications for individual-level and family-level interventions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The intergenerational transmission of economic adversity, BMI, and emotional distress from adolescence to middle adulthood

The present study examined the intergenerational transmission of economic adversity, as well as physical and mental health across generations. Specifically, we examined the effects of parental economic adversity, body mass index (BMI), and emotional distress during the child's adolescence on their economic adversity, BMI, and emotional distress in middle adulthood. The study included 366 Generation 1 (G1) mothers and fathers and their adolescents (Generation 2; G2) in middle adulthood. G1 behavior was examined when G2 was 16 years old and G2 behavior was assessed at Age 42. In line with aspects of the family stress model, economic hardship was related to economic pressure, which in turn was related to emotional distress for both G1 and G2. For each generation, economic pressure was also associated with BMI. There was also evidence of the intergenerational transmission of economic hardship, BMI, and emotional distress from G1 to G2. Finally, the intergenerational transmission of economic adversity in the family of origin to adult health outcomes was explained by these same health behaviors of the first generation. Results suggest that economic adversity and parental health behaviors as experienced in adolescence have long-term economic and health consequences into middle adulthood. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Impacts of intergenerational substance use and trauma among black women involved in the criminal justice system: A longitudinal analysis

INTRODUCTION

Intergenerational substance use and trauma disproportionately impact racialized women. Yet, how these factors impact outcomes in women involved in the criminal justice system is understudied.

METHODS

Using data from 443 participants in the Black Women in a Study of Epidemics, we assessed the impact of intergenerational substance use and trauma on participant drug use and open Child Protective Services (CPS) cases over 18 months. In repeated-measures logistic regression, intergenerational substance and trauma were independent variables, while participants' drug use at each follow-up and any open CPS case (s) served as separate dependent variables. Models were adjusted for criminal justice involvement, age, marital status, education, childhood guardian, number of children, and prior year homelessness.

RESULTS

On average, participants were aged 35 years, 64 % had never married, and 44 % were raised by both parents. Two-thirds of women (67 %) reported intergenerational substance use (≥1 parent and/or grandparent with alcohol/drug problems), while only 13 % reported intergenerational trauma. Each increase in the number of parents/grandparents with drug/alcohol problems was associated with 30 % increased odds of participants' drug use (aOR 1.30, 95 % CI: 1.07,1.57) and 40 % increased odds of having an open CPS case (aOR 1.40, 95 % CI: 1.11, 1.78). The association of intergenerational trauma and CPS cases was attenuated with sociodemographic/contextualizing factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Intergenerational substance use and trauma are associated with negative outcomes. Our findings highlight the need for substance use treatment to address the pervasive generational effects of substance use and trauma faced by racialized women in the criminal justice system.

Transmit Radiant Individuality to Offspring (TRIO) study: investigating intergenerational transmission effects on brain development

Intergenerational transmission is a crucial aspect of human development. Although prior studies have demonstrated the continuity of psychopathology and maladaptive upbringing environments between parents and offspring, the underlying neurobiological mechanisms remain unclear. We have begun a novel neuroimaging research project, the Transmit Radiant Individuality to Offspring (TRIO) study, which focuses on biological parent-offspring trios. The participants of the TRIO study were Japanese parent-offspring trios consisting of offspring aged 10-40 and their biological mother and father. Structural and functional brain images of all participants were acquired using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Saliva samples were collected for DNA analysis. We obtained psychosocial information, such as intelligence, mental health problems, personality traits, and experiences during the developmental period from each parent and offspring in the same manner as much as possible. By April 2023, we completed data acquisition from 174 trios consisting of fathers, mothers, and offspring. The target sample size was 310 trios. However, we plan to conduct genetic and epigenetic analyses, and the sample size is expected to be expanded further while developing this project into a multi-site collaborative study in the future. The TRIO study can challenge the elucidation of the mechanism of intergenerational transmission effects on human development by collecting diverse information from parents and offspring at the molecular, neural, and behavioral levels. Our study provides interdisciplinary insights into how individuals' lives are involved in the construction of the lives of their descendants in the subsequent generation.

A National Strategy for Preventing Substance and Opioid Use Disorders Through Evidence-Based Prevention Programming that Fosters Healthy Outcomes in Our Youth

The recently released National Drug Control Strategy (2022) from the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) lays out a comprehensive plan to, not only enhance access to treatment and increase harm reduction strategies, but also increase implementation of evidence-based prevention programming at the community level. Furthermore, the Strategy provides a framework for enhancing our national data systems to inform policy and to evaluate all components of the plan. However, not only are there several missing components to the Strategy that would assure its success, but there is a lack of structure to support a national comprehensive service delivery system that is informed by epidemiological data, and trains and credentials those delivering evidence-based prevention, treatment, and harm reduction/public health interventions within community settings. This paper provides recommendations for the establishment of such a structure with an emphasis on prevention. Systematically addressing conditions known to increase liability for behavioral problems among vulnerable populations and building supportive environments are strategies consistently found to avert trajectories away from substance use in general and substance use disorders (SUD) in particular. Investments in this approach are expected to result in significantly lower rates of SUD in current and subsequent generations of youth and, therefore, will reduce the burden on our communities in terms of lowered social and health systems involvement, treatment needs, and productivity. A national strategy, based on strong scientific evidence, is presented to implement public health policies and prevention services. These strategies work by improving child development, supporting families, enhancing school experiences, and cultivating positive environmental conditions.

Major depression, temperament, and social support as psychosocial mechanisms of the intergenerational transmission of parenting styles

In this three-generation longitudinal study of familial depression, we investigated the continuity of parenting styles, and major depressive disorder (MDD), temperament, and social support during childrearing as potential mechanisms. Each generation independently completed the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI), measuring individuals' experiences of care and overprotection received from parents during childhood. MDD was assessed prospectively, up to 38 years, using the semi-structured Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (SADS). Social support and temperament were assessed using the Social Adjustment Scale - Self-Report (SAS-SR) and Dimensions of Temperament Scales - Revised, respectively. We first assessed transmission of parenting styles in the generation 1 to generation 2 cycle (G1→G2), including 133 G1 and their 229 G2 children (367 pairs), and found continuity of both care and overprotection. G1 MDD accounted for the association between G1→G2 experiences of care, and G1 social support and temperament moderated the transmission of overprotection. The findings were largely similar when examining these psychosocial mechanisms in 111 G2 and their spouses (G2+S) and their 136 children (G3) (a total of 223 pairs). Finally, in a subsample of families with three successive generations (G1→G2→G3), G2 experiences of overprotection accounted for the association between G1→G3 experiences of overprotection. The results of this study highlight the roles of MDD, temperament, and social support in the intergenerational continuity of parenting, which should be considered in interventions to "break the cycle" of poor parenting practices across generations.

Parental Cannabis Use, Negative Parenting, and Behavior Problems of Young Children

Introduction: Cannabis use in the United States is increasingly accepted and legal. Rise in use among childbearing aged adults is potentially concerning, as the impacts of parental cannabis use on children are largely unknown, especially for young children. This study examined whether cannabis use is associated with increased risk for negative parenting and child emotional and behavioral problems among the parents of young children. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional survey of parents and child behavior, recruited through five primary care practices in three states. Parents of children aged 1.5-5 years reported on family demographics, last 6-months cannabis use, negative parenting, parent mental health, parents' adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), and child emotional/behavioral problems. We conducted hierarchical regressions to determine if parental cannabis use predicts negative parenting and/or child emotional/behavioral problems when controlling for other risk factors. Results: Of 266 responding parents, 34 (13%) reported cannabis use in the last 6 months. Parents who endorsed cannabis use reported significantly more negative parenting, ACEs, anxiety, depression, and child emotional/behavioral problems. Adjusting for the effects of other risk factors, cannabis use significantly predicted more negative parenting, but was not uniquely and significantly associated with child emotional/behavioral problems. Conclusion: Parental cannabis predicted negative parenting, which in turn predicted early childhood emotional/behavioral problems; however, parental cannabis use did not predict child emotional/behavioral problems when other risk factors were considered. Further research is needed to elucidate the nature and direction of relationships between parent cannabis use, negative parenting, child psychological outcomes, and other risk factors.

Parenting style history in predicting harsh parenting and child abuse risk across the transition to parenthood: Role of gender

BACKGROUND

Intergenerational transmission of abuse processes imply that individuals abused as children are more likely to abuse their own children when they become parents, with similar intergenerational patterns observed for parenting styles.

OBJECTIVE

The present study addresses an important gap in the literature regarding the intergenerational cycle, investigating how perceived parenting style history predicts mothers' and fathers' child abuse risk across the transition to parenthood, with particular attention to the role of gender by comparing cross-gender and same-gender grandparent-parent dyads.

PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS

The sample is drawn from a four-wave longitudinal study that enrolled 203 families beginning the final trimester of mothers' pregnancy until children were four years old. Parents responded to measures on parenting style history received from both their mothers and fathers as well as measures of their own child abuse risk, parent-child aggression, and personal parenting style.

RESULTS

Mothers demonstrated more same-gender effects, whereas fathers demonstrated more cross-gender effects-both patterns supportive of a tendency to follow maternal influences when considering child abuse risk. With regards to behavior, both mothers' and fathers' reports of parent-children aggression were most influenced by perceived harsh parenting received from their fathers.

CONCLUSIONS

Future development of parenting interventions could be more individualized to the participating parent's reported personal history of parenting style and gender.

Bridging the Gap between the Pressing Need for Family Skills Programmes in Humanitarian Settings and Implementation

A supportive environment with nurturing caregivers is essential for the healthy development of children. For children who have been exposed to extreme stress, such as humanitarian contexts, the need for strong, healthy, nurturing caregiver relationships may assume even greater importance. Much research has been building to position family skills interventions as a key tool in encouraging safe and supporting relationships between caregivers and children, thus preventing many problem behaviours and poor mental health. While there is substantial evidence of the effectiveness of family skills interventions in high-income and stable contexts, evidence of interventions that have been tested in humanitarian and challenging settings, such as contexts of refugee and displacement, are far fewer. Despite the role that family skills interventions can play in protecting children from current and future challenges, there is a significant lack of such interventions being utilised in humanitarian settings. We put forward seven likely reasons for this lack of uptake. Furthermore, the Strong Families programme, a UNODC family skills intervention, is presented as an example of an intervention that aims to bridge this gap of interventions that meet the need for humanitarian and contexts of extreme stress. More research is needed to unpack the content, delivery mechanisms and reach of family skills programmes to further aid programme developers in investing in efforts that might provide significant sustained impact for families in humanitarian contexts.

"I Grew Up Amidst Alcohol and Drugs:" a Qualitative Study on the Lived Experiences of Parental Substance Use Among Adults Who Developed Substance Use Disorders Themselves

Experiencing parental substance use (PSU) has been associated with a heightened risk of developing substance use disorders (SUDs) in offspring. The primary goal of this study was to explore perspectives of adult children with lived experience of PSU who also developed SUDs themselves through first-hand experience. This study was conducted in Flanders (Belgium). A qualitative exploratory research design was applied. Seventeen semi-structured interviews were conducted with adult children of parents with SUDs (range: 29-48 years) who themselves had developed SUDs. All interviews were audio-taped and transcribed verbatim. Three overarching themes emerged through thematic analysis: 1) loneliness and neglect in childhood; 2) stigma and the self; and 3) the role of social connection in substance use and recovery. The narratives highlighted the central role of feelings of loneliness, isolation and belonging among children of parents with SUDs in childhood and adulthood. Increasing public awareness on the impact of PSU on children and accessible support is needed to overcome stigma and remove barriers to social inclusion for children of parents with SUDs. Findings may prove valuable in informing policy, program and treatment development aimed at breaking maladaptive intergenerational cycles.

Adverse childhood experiences and the substance use behaviors of Latinx youth

PURPOSE

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are associated with substance use, how cultural factors influence this association for Latinx youth is unknown. This study uses longitudinal data to examine associations of cultural factors, ACEs and substance use among Latinx young adults.

METHODS

Latinx youth (N = 1179) completed surveys from a longitudinal study at seven assessment points from 2005 to 2016; ACEs was assessed when participants were on average 21.6 and substance use 23.9 years. ACEs measured psychological, physical, and sexual abuse, parental violence, divorce, substance use, mental illness, and incarceration. A three-stage hierarchical ordinary least squares (alcohol use) and negative binomial regression models (problematic alcohol, marijuana and tobacco use) were estimated to evaluate the role of cultural factors (acculturation, enculturation and ethnic identity) and ACEs in shaping substance use behaviors.

RESULTS

Controlling for cultural variables, ACEs sum (B = 0.03, p = .01), maltreatment (B = 0.16, p < .01), and household (B = 0.12, p = .03) subdomains predicted alcohol use. One additional increase in maltreatment (IRR=1.23, 95 % CI: 1.00, 1.53) predicted 23 % higher count of problematic alcohol use. Maltreatment (IRR=1.50, 95 % CI: 1.05, 2.13) and household (IRR=1.66, 95 % CI: 1.18, 2.32) subdomains predicted increased counts of marijuana use. Four or more ACEs predicted increased counts of tobacco use (IRR=1.49, 95 % CI: 1.08, 2.06) among Latinx young adults.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest a predictive relationship between ACEs, and alcohol, marijuana and tobacco use, after accounting for cultural factors. Beyond acculturation, enculturation and ethnic identity, findings identify ACEs as a salient predictor of substance use among Latinx young adults.

Parent and Peer Attachments in Adolescence and Paternal Postpartum Mental Health: Findings From the ATP Generation 3 Study

Background: When adolescent boys experience close, secure relationships with their parents and peers, the implications are potentially far reaching, including lower levels of mental health problems in adolescence and young adulthood. Here we use rare prospective intergenerational data to extend our understanding of the impact of adolescent attachments on subsequent postpartum mental health problems in early fatherhood.

Methods: At age 17–18 years, we used an abbreviated Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment to assess trust, communication, and alienation reported by 270 male participants in their relationships with mothers, fathers, and peers. More than a decade later, we assessed the adult males, now fathers, at 12 months postpartum (N = 409 infant offspring) for symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress. Logistic regression was used to examine the extent to which attachment dimensions predicted paternal postpartum mental health, adjusting for potential confounding, and with assessment for interactions between parent and peer attachments.

Results: Trust in mothers and peers, and good communication with fathers during adolescence, were associated with 5 to 7 percentage point reductions in postpartum mental health symptoms in early fatherhood. Weak evidence of parent-peer interactions suggested secure attachments with either parent or peer may compensate for an insecure attachment with the other.

Conclusions: Our results suggest that fostering trust and communication in relationships that adolescent boys have with parents and peers may have substantial effects on rates of paternal postpartum mental health problems. The protective benefits may be preventative in intergenerational cycles of risk for mental health problems.

Introduction to the special section on the intergenerational transmission of risk for substance use

Six original research papers were submitted to this Special Section to address questions regarding the intergenerational transmission of risk for cannabis and other substance use. Study teams recruited youth in Iowa, Washington, Oregon, New York, and Arizona in the 1980s-1990s, assessed them into adulthood, and recruited their partners and offspring for another study. All of the studies assessed substance use in 2 or more generations. Other strengths in this section include the strong representation of fathers, the demographic diversity of the samples as a whole, and the demonstrations of varied statistical and replication approaches. The findings highlight features of parental histories of cannabis use during adolescence that are associated with their children's risk for cannabis use and factors that explain or weaken intergenerational similarities. Two groups of prevention scholars also offered commentaries on the implications of these studies for prevention and training, and collaboration. It is hoped that the Special Section will stimulate new hypotheses, replications, and communication among etiological and prevention researchers. Furthermore, the papers highlight that the familial transmission of substance use risk should be taken into account more fully in the design of prevention programs to maximize impacts for youth as well as their future offspring. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).