Testing specificity among parents' depressive symptoms, parenting, and child internalizing and externalizing symptoms

A meta-analytic examination of sensitive responsiveness as a mediator between depression in mothers and psychopathology in children

The current meta-analysis examined the mediating role of sensitive-responsive parenting in the relationship between depression in mothers and internalizing and externalizing behavior in children. A systematic review of the path of maternal sensitive responsiveness to child psychopathology identified eligible studies. Meta-analytic structural equation modelling (MASEM) allowed for the systematic examination of the magnitude of the indirect effect across 68 studies (N = 15,579) for internalizing and 92 studies (N = 26,218) for externalizing psychopathology. The synthesized sample included predominantly White, English-speaking children (age range = 1 to 205 months; Mage = 66 months; 47% female) from Western, industrialized countries. The indirect pathway was small in magnitude and similar for externalizing (b = .02) and internalizing psychopathology (b = .01). Moderator analyses found that the indirect pathway for externalizing problems was stronger when mother-child interactions were observed during naturalistic and free-play tasks rather than structured tasks. Other tested moderators were not significant.

Mediating effects of parent-child dysfunctional interactions in the relationship between parenting distress and social-emotional problems and competencies

This study investigated the association between parenting distress and four variables of young children's social-emotional problems and competencies: externalizing, internalizing, and dysregulation problems, and social-emotional competencies, and whether parent-child dysfunctional interactions mediated these associations. Participants were Chinese toddlers (N = 711) aged 24-36 months in family (44.3%) and center-based (55.7%) care. The results from structural equation modeling showed that parent-child dysfunctional interactions fully mediated the relationship between parenting distress and externalizing, and dysregulation problems, and social-emotional competencies, while partially mediated in the internalizing problems for both groups. Furthermore, multi-group SEM models showed the direct and indirect pathways differed between two groups. The research concludes that parent-child interaction plays a crucial role in mediating the relationship between parenting distress and young children's social-emotional problems and competencies. For families' choice of childcare, this study suggests early center-based services provided for toddlers exposed to family risk characteristics such as parents' poor mental health, and more importantly, low levels of parent-child interactions.

Prosocial and externalizing behaviors in children raised by different-and same-gender parent families: new directions in parenting research

Introduction

Limited research focused on the association between parenting practices and children's prosocial and externalizing behaviors comparing same- and different-gender parent families. The present study considered 76 Italian families (73% same-gender and 27% different-gender parent families) with 8-year-old (SD = 2.17; 49% assigned female at birth) children born through assisted reproductive techniques, to explore parenting practices and children's prosocial and externalizing behaviors.

Method

We ran a Multiple-group-by-couple Structural Equation Model in which we estimated the predictive role of parenting on children's behaviors, controlling for age, gender, and family socioeconomic status using the Maximum Likelihood estimation.

Results

Results showed that both same- and different-gender parent families reported high levels of parental warmth and very low levels of hostility and rejection; regarding children's behaviors, both same- and different-gender parent families reported high levels of prosociality and low levels of externalizing behaviors. In addition, same-gender parents reported significantly higher levels of children's prosociality and parental warmth than different-gender parents. Regarding associations between parenting practices and behaviors, we found a positive association between positive parenting practices and increasing children's prosocial behaviors and decreasing children's externalizing behaviors, in both same- and different-gender families, controlling for family background characteristics.

Conclusion

The present study encourages future research to investigate how specific parenting practices can influence behavioral adjustment in children, focusing on same-gender parent families.

Daily Associations Between Sleep and Affect in Youth at Risk for Psychopathology: The Moderating Role of Externalizing Symptoms

Problems with sleep, emotion regulation, and externalizing psychopathology are interrelated, but little is known about their day-to-day associations in youth. We examined self-reported daily sleep quality as a bidirectional predictor of next-day positive and negative affect (PA/NA), with externalizing symptoms as a moderator. Data were drawn from an ecological momentary assessment (EMA) study involving 82 youths (ages 9-13; 50% female; 44% White, 37% Black/African American) at high (n = 41) or low (n = 41) familial risk for psychopathology. Parents rated youths' externalizing symptoms at baseline. Youths then completed a 9-day EMA protocol, reporting sleep quality 1x/day and affect 4-8x/day. Daily means, peaks, and variability in PA and NA were computed. Multilevel models examined bidirectional associations between sleep and affect (between- and within-person), testing externalizing symptoms as a moderator and controlling for age and sex. In models of sleep predicting affect: Within-person, poorer-than-usual sleep quality predicted greater variability and higher peaks in next-day NA, but only for youth with higher levels of externalizing symptoms. Between-person, poor sleep quality and higher levels of externalizing symptoms predicted lower mean and peak PA. In models of affect predicting sleep: Within-person, lower-than-usual mean PA predicted poorer subsequent sleep quality, but only for youth with higher levels of externalizing symptoms. Between-person, youths with higher mean and peak PA had better sleep quality. These findings suggest that affective functioning is bidirectionally linked to daily self-reported sleep quality among high- and low-risk youth. Specific disturbances in daily sleep-affect cycles may be distinctly associated with externalizing psychopathology.

The association between dissociative symptoms and schizophrenia-related negative symptoms: A transdiagnostic approach

Negative symptoms of schizophrenia remain clinically and theoretically understudied and represent an unmet psychiatric need. Negative symptoms are assumed to be related to other psychiatric disorders, but their association with dissociative symptoms is yet to be explored, particularly in light of depression and anxiety symptoms. We examined the five domains of negative symptoms (anhedonia, asociality, avolition, blunted affect and alogia) in an Israeli national sample of 1930 participants of whom 645 (33.4%) were with increased risk for dissociative disorder. The results show that anhedonia, blunted affect and alogia significantly associated with risk for dissociative disorder, above and beyond depression and anxiety. When assessing for negative symptoms it may be worth screening for dissociation and vice versa and thus make a more accurate clinical picture of the interplay between them.

The relationship between cumulative family risk and athlete burnout among Chinese college athletes: the mediating role of negative affect

Introduction

Burnout of college athletes affects the sports performance of college athletes, etc., and plays an important role in the career development of college athletes. China attaches great importance to the mental health development of college athletes, but the influence mechanism of college athlete burnout has not received attention. This study explored the relationship between cumulative family risk, negative affect, and athlete burnout in college athletes.

Methods

Data on 824 college athletes from more than 40 universities in China were collected through convenient sampling, using questionnaires including Cumulative Family Risk Scale, Athlete Burnout Questionnaire, and Negative Affect Scale.

Results

The results of the structural equation model show that cumulative family risk has a significant positive effect on college athlete burnout. Cumulative family risk has a significant positive effect on the negative affect of college athletes. Negative affect also plays a significant mediating role in the relationship between cumulative family risk and college athlete burnout.

Discussion

These results suggest that cumulative family risk directly or indirectly affects collegiate athlete burnout.

Maternal postnatal depressive symptoms and children's internalizing problems: The moderating role of mother-infant RSA synchrony

Maternal depressive symptoms are a crucial risk factor for children's internalizing problems, though positive mother-child relationships may buffer this risk transmission. Mother-child physiological coregulation (e.g., synchrony) has emerged as a potentially important mechanism of developmental psychopathology and may play a role in the transmission of internalizing symptoms. In this two-wave longitudinal study, we examined whether and how mother-infant physiological synchrony (of respiratory sinus arrhythmia; RSA) moderated the association between maternal postnatal depressive symptoms and children's internalizing problems in a rural, low-SES community sample (N = 166 dyads). At 6 months, mother-infant RSA synchrony and infant negative affect were assessed during free play. Mother reported their depressive symptoms at 6 months and children's internalizing problems at 24 months. Multilevel structural equation models indicated that mother-infant dyads demonstrated significant and positive RSA synchrony on average and RSA synchrony significantly moderated the association between maternal depressive symptoms and children's internalizing problems even after controlling for infant negative affect. Greater maternal depressive symptoms were associated with higher child internalizing problems when RSA synchrony was lower but not when it was higher. This finding suggests that mother-infant RSA synchrony may operate as a resilience factor for the intergenerational transmission of internalizing symptoms in community samples.

Racial/ethnic differences in parenting behaviors among depressed parents

Low parental warmth and high control are associated with parental depression and with the development of depression in children. The majority of this research, however, has focused on non-Hispanic White (NHW) parents. The present study tested whether parenting behaviors differed by race/ethnicity in a sample (N = 169) of parents with a history of depression. Participants were drawn from a randomized trial designed to prevent depression in at-risk adolescents (ages 9-15 years old). All participating parents had a current or past depressive episode within the youth's lifetime. Parents self-classified as 67.5% NHW, 17.2% Latinx (LA), and 15.4% Black (BL). Youths and parents completed standardized positive and negative interaction tasks; trained raters coded the videotaped interactions for parental warmth and control. Analyses examined the impact of race/ethnicity, current parent depression symptoms, context of the discussion (positive/negative task), and demographic covariates on observed parenting behaviors. Results revealed significant interactions among race/ethnicity, depression, and task type. Differences in warmth and control between racial/ethnic groups were more likely to be observed in negative interactions and when parents' depression symptoms were lower. In these circumstances, BL parents were rated as higher in control and lower in warmth than NHW parents. Results add to the literature on racial/ethnic differences in parenting among parents with a history of depression and highlight the importance of assessing parenting in context to capture more subtle patterns of interactions between parents and offspring. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Cumulative Ecological Risk and Academic Burnout in Chinese College Students: A Moderated Mediation Model

This study explored the relationship between cumulative ecological risk exposure and academic burnout among Chinese college students and the mediating and moderating effects of neuroticism and gender, respectively. A total of 580 college students were selected as participants. They completed a battery of questionnaires that measured cumulative ecological risk, neuroticism, and academic burnout. The results showed that: (1) cumulative ecological risk was positively related to neuroticism and academic burnout; (2) cumulative ecological risk positively predicted academic burnout; (3) neuroticism partly mediated the relationship between cumulative ecological risk and academic burnout; and (4) gender moderated the effect of cumulative ecological risk and academic burnout. A high level of cumulative ecological risk had a greater impact on neuroticism among women, compared to men. These findings advance our current knowledge of the specific effects of cumulative ecological risk on academic burnout and the underlying internal mechanisms of this relationship. Furthermore, this study provides a constructive perspective on preventing and reducing academic burnout among college students.

Maternal separation: Does it hold the potential to model consequences of postpartum depression?

The postpartum period is a sensitive time where women are especially vulnerable to develop postpartum depression (PPD), with 10%-15% of women affected. This review investigates whether the maternal separation (MS) paradigm in rodents holds the potential to help to understand mothers suffering from PPD. MS is a well-established stress model to investigate effects on infants, whereas effects on the dam are often overlooked. The database PubMed was searched for studies investigating effects of daily MS within the first weeks after parturition on dams in rats and mice and compared to findings in PPD mothers. MS was categorized as brief MS (5-45 min) with or without handling of pups and long MS (3-4 h and longer). MS alters maternal care, depressive-like behavior, anxiety, and aggression; leads to alterations in neuronal gene expression; and affects hormone and neurotransmitter levels similar to observations in PPD patients. Even though there are disparities between human and rodent mothers, with some results differing in directionality, as well as the reason for separation (self-induced in PPD, externally induced in MS), the overall effects found on neurobiological, hormonal, and behavioral levels mostly coincide. Thus, the MS paradigm can add relevant knowledge to existing PPD animal models, further advancing the study of PPD.

Coping with COVID-19 stress: Associations with depression and anxiety in a diverse sample of U.S. adults

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought unprecedented levels of stress to individuals in the U.S. and throughout the world. These high stress levels place individuals at risk for symptoms of anxiety, depression, and other psychiatric disorders. The current study applies a control-based model of coping to contribute to the development of evidence-based interventions to promote resilience. Data were collected online from April 22 through July 12, 2020. Data from two samples of U. S. community adults who completed an online battery of standardized questionnaires were combined (N = 709). More than a quarter reported moderate to severe levels of depression symptoms, and more than one-fifth reported moderate to severe levels of anxiety symptoms; symptom levels were higher among adults who reported more COVID-19-related stress. As hypothesized, multiple regression analyses indicated that greater use of primary and secondary control coping was associated with lower symptom levels, whereas greater use of disengagement coping was associated with higher symptom levels, above and beyond the association of stress with symptoms. Race and ethnicity emerged as important moderators of these associations, indicating that what constitutes adaptive coping varies according to characteristics of the individual. Implications for public health policy and clinical practice are discussed.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-021-02444-6.

Prolonged grief in refugees, parenting behaviour and children's mental health

BACKGROUND

Many refugees experience bereavement, and as a result they suffer elevated rates of prolonged grief disorder. Evidence also indicates that elevated rates of psychological disturbance in refugee children can be associated with parental mental health. This study examined the extent to which prolonged grief disorder in refugees is associated with their parenting behaviour and in turn with their children's mental health.

METHODS

This study recruited participants from the Building a New Life in Australia prospective cohort study of refugees admitted to Australia between October 2013 and February 2014. The current data were collected in 2015-2016 and comprised 1799 adults, as well as 411 children of the adult respondents. Adult refugees were assessed for trauma history, post-migration difficulties, harsh and warm parenting, probable prolonged grief disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. Children were administered the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. The current analyses on bereaved refugees comprise 110 caregivers and 178 children.

RESULTS

In this cohort, 37% of bereaved refugees reported probable prolonged grief disorder. Path analysis indicated that caregivers' grief was directly associated with children's emotional difficulties. Caregiver warmth was associated with reduced emotional problems in children of refugees with minimal grief but associated with more emotional problems in caregivers with more severe grief. More harsh parenting was associated with children's conduct problems, and this was more evident in those with less severe grief.

CONCLUSION

Severity of prolonged grief disorder is directly linked to refugee children's mental health. The association between parenting style, grief severity and children's mental health highlights that managing grief reactions in refugees can benefit both refugees and their children.

Genetic and environmental contributions to psychopathological symptoms in adulthood: Clarifying the role of individual and parental risk factors

Psychopathology-related suicide attempts and deaths are increasing, and the research focus remains on mental disorder in childhood and adolescence. We examined the genetic and environmental contributions to internalizing, externalizing, and general psychopathological distress to clarify the role of individual/parental risk factors for suicide in young adults. Data from 1206 young adults were obtained from a publicly available dataset from the Human Connectome Project. Heritability estimates were analyzed by twin modelling using OpenMx and data from a subsample of 402 monozygotic and dizygotic twins. The estimated prevalence of psychopathological symptoms ranged from 9 to 16%. The heritability of internalizing, externalizing, and general psychopathological distress reached significance, with estimates ranging from 22 to 46%. Shared (common) environments contributed to aggressive behavior (30 %). Determining factors for psychopathological distress (internalizing, externalizing, general) were evaluated using logistic regression analysis. Household income (<$50,000), childhood conduct problems, and maternal drug or alcohol problems were common risk factors of internalizing, externalizing, and general psychopathological distress. Marijuana dependence and maternal anxiety were additional risk factors of externalizing distress. The presence of alcohol and maternal drug or alcohol problems was linked to general psychopathological distress. The results highlight risk factors associated with psychopathological symptoms that should be considered in the early detection of high-risk groups and implementation of family-based interventions. Providing continuous care and/or follow-up in at-risk children and young adults may improve mental health and well-being.

Intergenerational Transmission of Depression

The study of depression in mothers in relation to transmission of risk for the development of psychopathology in their children relies on solid foundations in the understanding of psychopathology, of development, and of developmental psychopathology per se. This article begins with a description of the scope of the problem, including a summary of knowledge of how mothers’ depression is associated with outcomes in children and of moderators of those associations. The sense of scope then informs a theoretical and empirical perspective on knowledge of mechanisms in those associations, with a focus on what has been learned in the past 20 years. Throughout the article, and in conclusions at the end, are suggestions for next steps in research and practice.

Associations between maternal depressive symptoms, children’s behavioral problems and perceptions regarding family interactions

Abstract The aim of this study was to verify possible associations between maternal depressive symptoms, children’s behavioral problems and perceptions regarding the family interactions, considering the reports of mothers and children. A total of 60 mothers and their school-age children were divided into two equal groups, according to the presence or absence of maternal depression indicators, and evaluated using the following instruments: Sociodemographic Questionnaire, Patient Health Questionnaire-9, Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, and scales of family interaction (Escalas de Qualidade nas Interações Familiares). The results indicate that maternal depressive symptoms were associated with children’s behavioral problems and with family interactions reported by mothers and children. Maternal depression and positive family interactions reported by the mothers predicted behavioral problems in children. Positive family interactions reported by the mothers also mediated the association between maternal depression and children’s behavioral problems, highlighting the relevance of interventions with mothers with depression indicators that have school-age children.

Cumulative socioeconomic status risk and observations of parent depression: Are there associations with child outcomes?

Parental depression (Goodman et al., 2011) and low socioeconomic status (SES) are important risk factors for child maladjustment. Further, depression and low SES are linked; low SES adults are more likely to experience depression. Whereas studies commonly covary out noise associated with SES variability, research on the association of SES with child outcomes after controlling for parental depression is limited. This study aimed to extend the literature by observing parent depressive affect and evaluating the relationship between cumulative SES risk and child problems as well as whether child gender moderates this association using multigroup nested model comparisons. Findings suggested that cumulative SES risk status explained significant variance in child- and parent-reported internalizing problems and parent-reported externalizing problems after accounting for observed parent depressive affect. Of importance, child gender moderated 2 of these significant findings (i.e., child-reported internalizing and parent-reported externalizing behaviors), such that girls, but not boys, were at higher risk of problems in the context of high cumulative SES risk. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Prospective Relations between Parents' Depressive Symptoms and Children's Attributional Style

Children of parents with depression are at increased risk for developing psychopathology. The purpose of the current longitudinal study was to examine the dynamic relations between parents' depressive symptoms and children's cognitions, specifically their attributions for the causes of life events. Participants were 227 parent-child dyads with one parent (M_age = 42.19, SD = 6.82; 76% female) and one child (M_age = 12.53, SD = 2.33; 53% female) per family. Parents either were diagnosed with a current major depressive disorder (n= 129; 72.9% female) or were lifetime-free of mood disorders (n= 98; 79.6% female). The Beck Depression Inventory-II was used to obtain a dimensional measure of parents' depressive symptoms, and the Children's Attributional Style Questionnaire-Revised was used to assess children's attributions of negative and positive events. Evaluations were conducted 5 times across 22 months. We used latent difference score (LDS) modeling to examine the relations between changes in parents' depressive symptoms and changes in children's attributional style over time. The final model provided a close fit to the data: χ²(30) = 35.22, p = .24; comparative fit index = .995, root mean square error of approximation = .028, 90% confidence interval (CI) [.000, .060], standardized root mean square residual = .024. Parents' levels of depressive symptoms significantly predicted the worsening of children's attributions (i.e., becoming more pessimistic) over the 22 months, whereas children's attributions did not significantly predict changes in parents' depressive symptoms at the next time point. Preventive interventions should aim to both reduce parents' depression and teach children strategies for examining the accuracy of their beliefs regarding the causes of life events.

Parental Depressive Symptoms and Parenting: Associations with Children's Coping in Families of Depressed Parents

OBJECTIVE

This multi-method study examined parental depressive symptoms and levels of harsh/intrusive and warm/responsive parenting as correlates of secondary control coping (acceptance, cognitive reappraisal, distraction) in children of parents with a history of depression.

DESIGN

The sample included 165 parents with a history of major depressive disorder and their 9- to15-year-old children. Parents provided self-reports of their current depressive symptoms; videorecordings of parent-child interactions were coded to determine parenting behaviors; and children reported their use of secondary control coping strategies.

RESULTS

Harsh/intrusive parenting related to less, and warm/responsive parenting related to greater, use of secondary control coping strategies in children. Parents' current depressive symptoms were only conditionally related to children's use of secondary control coping strategies, such that depressive symptoms moderated the relation between warm/responsive parenting behaviors and child secondary control coping. When parental depressive symptoms were low or average, warm/responsive parenting was positively related to children's secondary control coping. When parental depressive symptoms were high, warm/responsive parenting was not associated with children's secondary control coping.

CONCLUSIONS

The association between positive parenting behaviors and children's coping is contingent on current levels of parents' depressive symptoms. Efforts to enhance children's coping skills should target both parental depressive symptoms and parenting skills.

Emotion Regulation and Parental Bonding in Families of Adolescents With Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms

Parental bonding and emotional regulation, while important to explain difficulties that may arise in child development, have mainly been studied at an individual level. The present study aims to examine alexithymia and parental bonding in families of adolescents with psychiatric disorders through different generations. The sample included a total of 102 adolescent patients with psychiatric disorders and their parents. In order to take a family level approach, a Latent Class Analysis was used to identify the latent relationships among alexithymia (Toronto Alexithymia Scale), perceived parental bonding (Parental Bonding Instrument) and the presence of adolescent internalizing or externalizing psychiatric symptoms (Youth Self-Report). Families of internalizing and externalizing adolescents present different and specific patterns of emotional regulation and parenting. High levels of adolescent alexithymia, along with a neglectful parenting style perceived by the adolescent and the father as well, characterized the families of patients with internalizing symptoms. On the other hand, in the families with externalizing adolescents, it was mainly the mother to remember an affectionless control parental style. These results suggest the existence of an intergenerational transmission of specific parental bonding, which may influence the emotional regulation and therefore the manifestation of psychiatric symptoms.

Women's views and experiences of having their mental health needs considered in the perinatal period

OBJECTIVE

To explore women's views and experiences of having their mental health needs considered in the perinatal period in an Irish maternity hospital setting.

DESIGN

A qualitative design using semi-structured interviews was used to explore women's views and experiences. Data were analysed using Thematic Analysis (Braun and Clarke, 2006).

SETTING

A voluntary maternity hospital in Dublin, Ireland which had access to a perinatal mental health team.

PARTICIPANTS

In total 8 women who met the inclusion criteria were recruited and participated in this study. The women were interviewed in the early postpartum period.

FINDINGS

The study offers important insights into how women feel about having their mental health needs considered in the perinatal period. Women reported pregnancy was an emotional time, feeling expected to be happy, and women with significant mental health histories preferred not to be referred to available services unless they asked for help. Women reported barriers to disclosure including stigma/shame, lack of time. Screening tools were viewed with mixed opinions. In getting help, the baby was a motivator for some women, attitudes of healthcare professionals and lack of time affected this.

KEY CONCLUSIONS

Women appreciated all methods of enquiry about their mental health and being given time to discuss concerns with healthcare professionals. Perceived busy staff workloads was a barrier in asking for help, as was lack of continuity of care. Screening tools were viewed as a tick box exercise, but also as a 'modality' to assist detection of women at risk. Mental health enquiry focused on depression and anxiety, with little or no enquiry about less common disorders. Women with significant histories were less likely to engage or accept referral to perinatal mental health services, preferring to access help if they felt they needed to.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

HCPs should enquire regularly about women's emotional wellbeing at every antenatal and postnatal contact, offering support where required. Detailed enquiry about mental health should encompass the broad spectrum of perinatal mental health problems, including but not limited to depression and anxiety. Screening tools can assist in the identification of women at risk of developing perinatal mental health problems. A specialist mental health midwife should link with high-risk women at the first antenatal booking visit and provide information on early intervention and access to services.

Psychological Intrusion - An Overlooked Aspect of Dental Fear

Dental fear/anxiety is a widely recognised problem affecting a large proportion of the population. It can result in avoidance and/or difficulty accepting dental care. We believe that psychological intrusion may play a role in the aetiology and maintenance of dental fear for at least some individuals. In this narrative review we will take a developmental perspective in order to understand its impact across the lifespan. We will consider the nature of 'self,' parenting styles, the details of intrusive parenting or parental psychological control, and briefly touch upon child temperament and parental anxiety. Finally, we draw together the supporting (largely unrecognised) evidence available in the dental literature. We illustrate the paper with clinical examples and discuss possibly effective ways of addressing the problem. We conclude that psychological intrusion appears to play an important role in dental fear, for at least some individuals, and we call for detailed research into the extent and exact nature of the problem. A simple means of identifying individuals who are vulnerable to psychological intrusion would be useful for dentists.

Intergenerational Transmission of Depressive Symptoms: The Role of Parental Negative Perceptions and Behaviors

This study examined parental proximal processes involving in the intergenerational transmission of depressive symptoms from parents to their children. Extant literature has predominantly focused on maternal depressive symptoms. Yet, the mechanisms that may underlie the transmission of paternal depressive symptoms is less often studied. Participants were Chinese parents of first-graders (N = 2282). Results of structural equation modeling suggested that maternal and paternal depressive symptoms may be transmitted to their children through differential processes. Depressive symptoms in mothers, but not in fathers, were associated with their negatively-biased perceptions and dysfunctional parenting practices, which then predicted depressive symptoms in children. Moreover, mothers' depressive symptoms were associated with children's depressive symptoms regardless of child gender, whereas fathers' depressive symptoms were associated with boys', but not girls', depressive symptoms. Findings expand the understandings on parental processes in the intergenerational transmission of depressive symptoms in families, the role of paternal depressive symptoms in promoting children's depressive symptoms, and who may be at particular risks for psychopathology in the face of parental depressive symptoms.

Maternal Depression and Youth Internalizing and Externalizing Symptomatology: Severity and Chronicity of Past Maternal Depression and Current Maternal Depressive Symptoms

Maternal depression is a well-documented risk factor for youth depression, and taking into account its severity and chronicity may provide important insight into the degree of risk conferred. This study explored the degree to which the severity/chronicity of maternal depression history explained variance in youth internalizing and externalizing symptoms above and beyond current maternal depressive symptoms among 171 youth (58 % male) ages 8 to 12 over a span of 3 years. Severity and chronicity of past maternal depression and current maternal depressive symptoms were examined as predictors of parent-reported youth internalizing and externalizing symptomatology, as well as youth self-reported depressive symptoms. Severity and chronicity of past maternal depression did not account for additional variance in youth internalizing and externalizing symptoms at Time 1 beyond what was accounted for by maternal depressive symptoms at Time 1. Longitudinal growth curve modeling indicated that prior severity/chronicity of maternal depression predicted levels of youth internalizing and externalizing symptoms at each time point when controlling for current maternal depressive symptoms at each time point. Chronicity of maternal depression, apart from severity, also predicted rate of change in youth externalizing symptoms over time. These findings highlight the importance of screening and assessing for current maternal depressive symptoms, as well as the nature of past depressive episodes. Possible mechanisms underlying the association between severity/chronicity of maternal depression and youth outcomes, such as residual effects from depressive history on mother-child interactions, are discussed.