Living with death: the evolution of the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis in animals

Elevated temperature triggers increase in global DNA methylation, 5-methylcytosine expression levels, apoptosis and NOx levels in the gonads of Atlantic sea urchin

Global warming is one of the greatest threats to living organisms. Among them, marine invertebrates are severely impacted on reproductive fitness by rising seawater surface temperatures due to climate change (e.g., massive heat waves). In this study, we used highly sensitive radioimmunoassay, immunohistochemistry, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), in situ TUNEL assay, luminescence assay, and colorimetric assay techniques to investigate the impacts of high temperatures on global DNA methylation, cellular apoptosis, and nitrative stress in gonads of Atlantic sea urchin (Arbacia punctulata, a commercially important species). Young adult sea urchins were exposed to 24, 28, and 32 °C for one week in a controlled laboratory setting. High temperatures (28 and 32 °C) markedly increased global DNA methylation (around 1.1-1.5-fold in testes and ~ 1.7-fold in ovaries) and 5-methylcytosine (5-mC) levels in gonads (around 2.7- to ~5.1-fold in ovaries and ~ 3.5- to ~6.2-fold in testes) compared with controls (24 °C). The number of apoptotic nuclei in gonads was much higher in high-temperature groups. The caspase activity also increased significantly (P < 0.05) in gonads in high-temperature groups. Nitrate/nitrites (NOx, a biomarker of reactive nitrogen species) levels were increased around 2.6- to ~5.2-fold in testes and ~ 1.9- to ~3.8-fold in ovaries in high-temperature groups. Collectively, these outcomes indicate that high temperatures drastically induce global DNA methylation, 5-mC expression levels, cellular apoptosis, and NOx levels in the gonads of Atlantic sea urchin.

APPA Increases Lifespan and Stress Resistance via Lipid Metabolism and Insulin/IGF-1 Signal Pathway in Caenorhabditis elegans

Animal studies have proven that 1-acetyl-5-phenyl-1H-pyrrol-3-yl acetate (APPA) is a powerful antioxidant as a novel aldose reductase inhibitor independently synthesized by our laboratory; however, there is no current information on APPA's anti-aging mechanism. Therefore, this study examined the impact and mechanism of APPA's anti-aging and anti-oxidation capacity using the Caenorhabditis elegans model. The results demonstrated that APPA increases C. elegans' longevity without affecting the typical metabolism of Escherichia coli OP50 (OP50). APPA also had a non-toxic effect on C. elegans, increased locomotor ability, decreased the levels of reactive oxygen species, lipofuscin, and fat, and increased anti-stress capacity. QRT-PCR analysis further revealed that APPA upregulated the expression of antioxidant genes, including sod-3, gst-4, and hsp-16.2, and the critical downstream transcription factors, daf-16, skn-1, and hsf-1 of the insulin/insulin-like growth factor (IGF) receptor, daf-2. In addition, fat-6 and nhr-80 were upregulated. However, the APPA's life-prolonging effects were absent on the daf-2, daf-16, skn-1, and hsf-1 mutants implying that the APPA's life-prolonging mechanism depends on the insulin/IGF-1 signaling system. The transcriptome sequencing also revealed that the mitochondrial route was also strongly associated with the APPA life extension, consistent with mev-1 and isp-1 mutant life assays. These findings aid in the investigation of APPA's longevity extension mechanism.

The Haves and Have-Nots: The Mitochondrial Permeability Transition Pore across Species

The demonstration that F1FO (F)-ATP synthase and adenine nucleotide translocase (ANT) can form Ca2+-activated, high-conductance channels in the inner membrane of mitochondria from a variety of eukaryotes led to renewed interest in the permeability transition (PT), a permeability increase mediated by the PT pore (PTP). The PT is a Ca2+-dependent permeability increase in the inner mitochondrial membrane whose function and underlying molecular mechanisms have challenged scientists for the last 70 years. Although most of our knowledge about the PTP comes from studies in mammals, recent data obtained in other species highlighted substantial differences that could be perhaps attributed to specific features of F-ATP synthase and/or ANT. Strikingly, the anoxia and salt-tolerant brine shrimp Artemia franciscana does not undergo a PT in spite of its ability to take up and store Ca2+ in mitochondria, and the anoxia-resistant Drosophila melanogaster displays a low-conductance, selective Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release channel rather than a PTP. In mammals, the PT provides a mechanism for the release of cytochrome c and other proapoptotic proteins and mediates various forms of cell death. In this review, we cover the features of the PT (or lack thereof) in mammals, yeast, Drosophila melanogaster, Artemia franciscana and Caenorhabditis elegans, and we discuss the presence of the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis and of other forms of cell death. We hope that this exercise may help elucidate the function(s) of the PT and its possible role in evolution and inspire further tests to define its molecular nature.

Live or death in cells: from micronutrition metabolism to cell fate

Micronutrients and cell death have a strong relationship and both are essential for human to maintain good body health. Dysregulation of any micronutrients causes metabolic or chronic diseases, including obesity, cardiometabolic condition, neurodegeneration, and cancer. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is an ideal genetic organism for researching the mechanisms of micronutrients in metabolism, healthspan, and lifespan. For example, C. elegans is a haem auxotroph, and the research of this special haem trafficking pathway contributes important reference to mammal study. Also, C. elegans characteristics including anatomy simply, clear cell lineage, well-defined genetics, and easily differentiated cell forms make it a powerful tool for studying the mechanisms of cell death including apoptosis, necrosis, autophagy, and ferroptosis. Here, we describe the understanding of micronutrient metabolism currently and also sort out the fundamental mechanisms of different kinds of cell death. A thorough understanding of these physiological processes not only builds a foundation for developing better treatments for various micronutrient disorders but also provides key insights into human health and aging.

Factors Affecting Arbovirus Midgut Escape in Mosquitoes

Arboviral diseases spread by mosquitoes cause significant morbidity and mortality throughout much of the world. The treatment and prevention of these diseases through medication and vaccination is often limited, which makes controlling arboviruses at the level of the vector ideal. One way to prevent the spread of an arbovirus would be to stop its vector from developing a disseminated infection, which is required for the virus to make its way to the saliva of the mosquito to be potentially transmitted to a new host. The midgut of the mosquito provides one such opportunity to stop an arbovirus in its tracks. It has been known for many years that in certain arbovirus-vector combinations, or under certain circumstances, an arbovirus can infect and replicate in the midgut but is unable to escape from the tissue to cause disseminated infection. This situation is known as a midgut escape barrier. If we better understand why this barrier occurs, it might aid in the development of more informed control strategies. In this review, we discuss how the midgut escape barrier contributes to virus-vector specificity and possible mechanisms that may allow this barrier to be overcome in successful virus-vector combinations. We also discuss several of the known factors that either increase or decrease the likelihood of midgut escape.

Exposure to Polypropylene Microplastics via Oral Ingestion Induces Colonic Apoptosis and Intestinal Barrier Damage through Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in Mice

Extensive environmental pollution by microplastics has increased the risk of human exposure to plastics. However, the biosafety of polypropylene microplastics (PP-MPs), especially of PP particles < 10 μm, in mammals has not been studied. Thus, here, we explored the mechanism of action and effect of exposure to small and large PP-MPs, via oral ingestion, on the mouse intestinal tract. Male C57BL/6 mice were administered PP suspensions (8 and 70 μm; 0.1, 1.0, and 10 mg/mL) for 28 days. PP-MP treatment resulted in inflammatory pathological damage, ultrastructural changes in intestinal epithelial cells, imbalance of the redox system, and inflammatory reactions in the colon. Additionally, we observed damage to the tight junctions of the colon and decreased intestinal mucus secretion and ion transporter expression. Further, the apoptotic rate of colonic cells significantly increased after PP-MP treatment. The expression of pro-inflammatory and pro-apoptosis proteins significantly increased in colon tissue, while the expression of anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptosis proteins significantly decreased. In summary, this study demonstrates that PP-MPs induce colonic apoptosis and intestinal barrier damage through oxidative stress and activation of the TLR4/NF-κB inflammatory signal pathway in mice, which provides new insights into the toxicity of MPs in mammals.

Antimicrobial Peptides Mediate Apoptosis by Changing Mitochondrial Membrane Permeability

Changes in mitochondrial membrane permeability are closely associated with mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), which have been found to enter cells to exert physiological effects, cause damage to the mitochondria. This paper reviews the molecular mechanisms of AMP-mediated apoptosis by changing the permeability of the mitochondrial membrane through three pathways: the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM), inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM), and mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP). The roles of AMPs in inducing changes in membrane permeability and apoptosis are also discussed. Combined with recent research results, the possible application prospects of AMPs are proposed to provide a theoretical reference for the development of AMPs as therapeutic agents for human diseases.

Cancer as a Channelopathy—Appreciation of Complimentary Pathways Provides a Different Perspective for Developing Treatments

Simple Summary

While improvements in technology have improved our ability to treat many forms of cancer when diagnosed at an early stage of the disease, the ability to improve survival and quality of life for patients with late stage disease has been limited, largely due to the ability of cancer cells to evade destruction when treatments block preferred paths for survival. Here, we review the role that ions and ion channels play in normal cell function, the development of disease and their role in the life and death of a cell. It is hoped that viewing cancer from the perspective of altered ion channel expression and ion balance may provide a novel approach for developing more effective treatments for this devastating disease.

Abstract

Life depends upon the ability of cells to evaluate and adapt to a constantly changing environment and to maintain internal stability to allow essential biochemical reactions to occur. Ions and ion channels play a crucial role in this process and are essential for survival. Alterations in the expression of the transmembrane proteins responsible for maintaining ion balance that occur as a result of mutations in the genetic code or in response to iatrogenically induced changes in the extracellular environment is a characteristic feature of oncogenesis and identifies cancer as one of a constellation of diseases known as channelopathies. The classification of cancer as a channelopathy provides a different perspective for viewing the disease. Potentially, it may expand opportunities for developing novel ways to affect or reverse the deleterious changes that underlie establishing and sustaining disease and developing tolerance to therapeutic attempts at treatment. The role of ions and ion channels and their interactions in the cell’s ability to maintain ionic balance, homeostasis, and survival are reviewed and possible approaches that mitigate gain or loss of ion channel function to contribute to new or enhance existing cancer therapies are discussed.

Tissue homeostasis in sponges: Quantitative analysis of cell proliferation and apoptosis

Tissues of multicellular animals are maintained due to a tight balance between cell proliferation and programmed cell death. Sponges are early branching metazoans essential to understanding the key mechanisms of tissue homeostasis. This article is dedicated to the comparative analysis of proliferation and apoptosis in intact tissues of two sponges, Halisarca dujardinii (class Demospongiae) and Leucosolenia variabilis (class Calcarea). Labeled nucleotides EdU and anti-phosphorylated histone 3 antibodies reveal a considerable number of cycling cells in intact tissues of both species. Quantitative DNA staining reveals the classic cell cycle distribution curve. The main type of cycling cells are choanocytes - flagellated cells of the aquiferous system. The rate of proliferation remains constant throughout various areas of sponge bodies that contain choanocytes. The EdU tracking experiments conducted in H. dujardinii indicate that choanocytes may give rise to mesohyl cells through migration. The number of apoptotic cells in tissues of both species is insignificant, although being comparable to the renewing tissues of other animals. In vivo studies with tetramethylrhodamine ethyl ester and CellEvent Caspase-3/7 indicate that apoptosis might be independent of mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization. Altogether, a combination of confocal laser scanning microscopy and flow cytometry provides a quantitative description of cell proliferation and apoptosis in sponges displaying either rapid growth or cell turnover.

Beyond the behavioural phenotype: Uncovering mechanistic foundations in aquatic eco-neurotoxicology

During the last decade, there has been an increase in awareness of how anthropogenic pollution can alter behavioural traits of diverse aquatic organisms. Apart from understanding profound ecological implications, alterations in neuro-behavioural indices have emerged as sensitive and physiologically integrative endpoints in chemical risk assessment. Accordingly, behavioural ecotoxicology and broader eco-neurotoxicology are becoming increasingly popular fields of research that span a plethora of fundamental laboratory experimentations as well as applied field-based studies. Despite mounting interest in aquatic behavioural ecotoxicology studies, there is, however, a considerable paucity in deciphering the mechanistic foundations underlying behavioural alterations upon exposure to pollutants. The behavioural phenotype is indeed the highest-level integrative neurobiological phenomenon, but at its core lie myriads of intertwined biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes. Therefore, the mechanisms that underlie changes in behavioural phenotypes can stem among others from dysregulation of neurotransmitter pathways, electrical signalling, and cell death of discrete cell populations in the central and peripheral nervous systems. They can, however, also be a result of toxicity to sensory organs and even metabolic dysfunctions. In this critical review, we outline why behavioural phenotyping should be the starting point that leads to actual discovery of fundamental mechanisms underlying actions of neurotoxic and neuromodulating contaminants. We highlight potential applications of the currently existing and emerging neurobiology and neurophysiology analytical strategies that should be embraced and more broadly adopted in behavioural ecotoxicology. Such strategies can provide new mechanistic discoveries instead of only observing the end sum phenotypic effects.

A flavivirus-inducible gene expression system that modulates broad-spectrum antiviral activity against dengue and Zika viruses

Incidence of dengue virus (DENV) and Zika virus (ZIKV), two mosquito-borne flaviviruses, is increasing in large parts of the world. Vaccination and medication for these diseases are unsatisfactory. Here, we developed a novel antiviral approach, using a virus-inducible gene expression system, to block virus replication and transmission. Constructs containing the smallest replication units of dengue virus serotype 2 (DENV2) with negative-stranded DENV2 artificial genomes and genes of interest were established in an Aedes aegypti cell line, resulting in expression of target genes after DENV2 infection. Green fluorescent protein (GFP) assays confirmed the system was virus-inducible. When we used one of two apoptosis-related genes, A. aegypti michelob_x (AaMx) and inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP)-antagonist michelob_x-like protein (AaIMP) instead of GFP, the production of viral RNA and proteins were inhibited for all five viruses tested (DENV1-4 and ZIKV), and effector caspase activity was induced. The system thus inhibited the production of infectious virus particles in vitro, and in mosquitoes it did so after DENV2 infection. This is a novel broad-spectrum antiviral approach using a flavivirus-inducible gene-expression system, which could lead to new avenues for mosquito-borne disease control.

Warangalone Induces Apoptosis in HeLa Cells via Mitochondria-Mediated Endogenous Pathway

Cervical cancer as one of the major malignant tumors seriously threatens women's health. More than 270,000 women die of cervical cancer each year. Warangalone is an isoflavone compound isolated from Cudrania tricuspidata with excellent antitumor activity. In this research, we investigated the molecular mechanism of warangalone-induced apoptosis in HeLa cells. The results show that warangalone can selectively and effectively inhibit HeLa cells proliferation. Warangalone can effectively inhibit the invasion and migration of HeLa cells. Furthermore, warangalone was confirmed to activate p53 and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family signaling pathways to cause apoptosis. In this case, the expression of the B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) family is regulated, and caspase-3 is eventually cleaved, finally triggering the mitochondrial apoptosis. In conclusion, warangalone can induce HeLa cells apoptosis via a mitochondria-mediated endogenous pathway, which represented the potential therapeutic effect of warangalone on cervical cancer.

Studies of Glyoxalase 1-Linked Multidrug Resistance Reveal Glycolysis-Derived Reactive Metabolite, Methylglyoxal, Is a Common Contributor in Cancer Chemotherapy Targeting the Spliceosome

Background

Tumor glycolysis is a target for cancer chemotherapy. Methylglyoxal (MG) is a reactive metabolite formed mainly as a by-product in anaerobic glycolysis, metabolized by glyoxalase 1 (Glo1) of the glyoxalase system. We investigated the role of MG and Glo1 in cancer chemotherapy related in multidrug resistance (MDR).

Methods

Human Glo1 was overexpressed in HEK293 cells and the effect on anticancer drug potency, drug-induced increase in MG and mechanism of cytotoxicity characterized. Drug-induced increased MG and the mechanisms driving it were investigated and the proteomic response to MG-induced cytotoxicity explored by high mass resolution proteomics of cytoplasmic and other subcellular protein extracts. Glo1 expression data of 1,040 human tumor cell lines and 7,489 tumors were examined for functional correlates and impact of cancer patient survival.

Results

Overexpression of Glo1 decreased cytotoxicity of antitumor drugs, impairing antiproliferative activity of alkylating agents, topoisomerase inhibitors, antitubulins, and antimetabolites. Antitumor drugs increased MG to cytotoxic levels which contributed to the cytotoxic, antiproliferative mechanism of action, consistent with Glo1-mediated MDR. This was linked to off-target effects of drugs on glycolysis and was potentiated in hypoxia. MG activated the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis, with decrease of mitochondrial and spliceosomal proteins. Spliceosomal proteins were targets of MG modification. Spliceosomal gene expression correlated positively with Glo1 in human tumor cell lines and tumors. In clinical chemotherapy of breast cancer, increased expression of Glo1 was associated with decreased patient survival, with hazard ratio (HR) = 1.82 (logrank p < 0.001, n = 683) where upper quartile survival of patients was decreased by 64% with high Glo1 expression.

Conclusions

We conclude that MG-mediated cytotoxicity contributes to the cancer chemotherapeutic response and targets the spliceosome. High expression of Glo1 contributes to multidrug resistance by shielding the spliceosome from MG modification and decreasing survival in the chemotherapy of breast cancer. Adjunct chemotherapy with Glo1 inhibitor may improve treatment outcomes.

Recent progress in cytometric technologies and their applications in ecotoxicology and environmental risk assessment

Environmental toxicology focuses on identifying and predicting impact of potentially toxic anthropogenic chemicals on biosphere at various levels of biological organization. Presently there is a significant drive to gain deeper understanding of cellular and sub-cellular mechanisms of ecotoxicity. Most notable is increased focus on elucidation of cellular-response networks, interactomes, and greater implementation of cell-based biotests using high-throughput procedures, while at the same time decreasing the reliance on standard animal models used in ecotoxicity testing. This is aimed at discovery and interpretation of molecular pathways of ecotoxicity at large scale. In this regard, the applications of cytometry are perhaps one of the most fundamental prospective analytical tools for the next generation and high-throughput ecotoxicology research. The diversity of this modern technology spans flow, laser-scanning, imaging, and more recently, Raman as well as mass cytometry. The cornerstone advantages of cytometry include the possibility of multi-parameter measurements, gating and rapid analysis. Cytometry overcomes, thus, limitations of traditional bulk techniques such as spectrophotometry or gel-based techniques that average the results from pooled cell populations or small model organisms. Novel technologies such as cell imaging in flow, laser scanning cytometry, as well as mass cytometry provide innovative and tremendously powerful capabilities to analyze cells, tissues as well as to perform in situ analysis of small model organisms. In this review, we outline cytometry as a tremendously diverse field that is still vastly underutilized and often largely unknown in environmental sciences. The main motivation of this work is to highlight the potential and wide-reaching applications of cytometry in ecotoxicology, guide environmental scientists in the technological aspects as well as popularize its broader adoption in environmental risk assessment.

Drug-free phototherapy of superficial tumors: White light at the end of the tunnel

Visible light has long been recognized as a treatment for many diseases and an essential component of photo-induced chemotherapy. While previous data proved its inherent cytotoxicity, this study is the first to explore the use of a commercially available, high-intensity white LED light (24.5 mW.cm^-2) as a treatment for skin tumors. After a 9-h exposure in vitro, the viability of Human Malignant Melanoma cells (A375) decreased by around 70%. Western blot analysis suggested an apoptotic cell death confirmed by the upregulation of Bax, cleaved PARP/caspase-3/8, cytochrome c, and t-bid. Additionally, cellular ROS accumulation and DNA damage were induced upon irradiation with blue light. When tested on a DMBA/TPA skin carcinogenesis model, a 90-min exposure to white light thrice weekly resulted in a significant decrease in tumor volumes/incidence compared to control and cisplatin groups, and restored normal morphological features, as confirmed by histopathology. Toxicological evaluation of ight-treated animals indicated a 100% survival rate, no skin irritation, no signs of discomfort or changes in body weight/behavior, and no toxicities to vital organs. Although these results must be confirmed by further studies, this research showed that short-exposure by commercially available high-intensity white LED light irradiation may be a promising approach for the treatment of superficial malignancies.

Drosophila as a model to explore secondary injury cascades after traumatic brain injury

Drosophilae are emerging as a valuable model to study traumatic brain injury (TBI)-induced secondary injury cascades that drive persisting neuroinflammation and neurodegenerative pathology that imposes significant risk for long-term neurological deficits. As in mammals, TBI in Drosophila triggers axonal injury, metabolic crisis, oxidative stress, and a robust innate immune response. Subsequent neurodegeneration stresses quality control systems and perpetuates an environment for neuroprotection, regeneration, and delayed cell death via highly conserved cell signaling pathways. Fly injury models continue to be developed and validated for both whole-body and head-specific injury to isolate, evaluate, and modulate these parallel pathways. In conjunction with powerful genetic tools, the ability for longitudinal evaluation, and associated neurological deficits that can be tested with established behavioral tasks, Drosophilae are an attractive model to explore secondary injury cascades and therapeutic intervention after TBI. Here, we review similarities and differences between mammalian and fly pathophysiology and highlight strategies for their use in translational neurotrauma research.

Curcumin, a potential initiator of apoptosis via direct interactions with Bcl-xL and Bid

Apoptosis is a naturally occurring process during the growth and development of multicellular organisms and is increasingly active during times of cellular stress such as in response to intracellular DNA damage when removal of the host cell is paramount to prevent cancer. Unfortunately, once formed, cancer cells become impervious to apoptosis, creating a desperate need to identify an approach to induce apoptosis in these cells. An attractive option is to focus efforts on developing and locating compounds which activate apoptosis using natural compounds. Curcumin is a natural component in turmeric and is well-known for its pharmacological effects in preventing and combating many ailments and has been shown to decrease the rapid proliferation of a wide variety of tumor cells. However, to date, the apoptotic intermediates and interactions through which curcumin exerts its cytotoxic effects are unknown. Motivated by reports linking the intracellular modulation of the concentrations of Bid and Bcl-xL, following curcumin administration to cancer cells, we set out to probe for potential intermolecular interactions of these proteins with curcumin. Using several biophysical techniques, most notably, fluorescence, circular dichroism and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, we reveal binding interactions of curcumin with both Bcl-xLΔC and full-length Bid (Bid-FL) and prove that this binding is hydrophobically driven and localized to well-known functional regions of each protein. Specifically, our NMR studies show that while Bid-FL interacts with curcumin through its hydrophobic and pore forming helices (α6-α7), Bcl-xLΔC interacts with curcumin via its BH3 binding pocket (α2-α3-α4-α5), a critical region for mediating apoptosis.

Pyrimethamine Modulates Interplay between Apoptosis and Autophagy in Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia Cells

Pyrimethamine (Pyri) is being used in combination with other medications to treat serious parasitic infections of the body, brain, or eye and to also reduce toxoplasmosis infection in the patients with HIV infection. Additionally, Pyri can display significant anti-cancer potential in different tumor models, but the possible mode of its actions remains unclear. Hence, in this study, the possible anti-tumoral impact of Pyri on human chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) was deciphered. Pyri inhibited cell growth in various types of tumor cells and exhibited a marked inhibitory action on CML cells. In addition to apoptosis, Pyri also triggered sustained autophagy. Targeted inhibition of autophagy sensitized the tumor cells to Pyri-induced apoptotic cell death. Moreover, the activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 (STAT5) and its downstream target gene Bcl-2 was attenuated by Pyri. Accordingly, small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated STAT5 knockdown augmented Pyri-induced autophagy and apoptosis and promoted the suppressive action of Pyri on cell viability. Moreover, ectopic overexpression of Bcl-2 protected the cells from Pyri-mediated autophagy and apoptosis. Overall, the data indicated that the attenuation of STAT5-Bcl-2 cascade by Pyri can regulate its growth inhibitory properties by simultaneously targeting both apoptosis and autophagy cell death mechanism(s).

The Antisocial Network: Cross Talk Between Cell Death Programs in Host Defense

Nearly all animal cells contain proteins evolved to trigger the destruction of the cell in which they reside. The activation of these proteins occurs via sequential programs, and much effort has been expended in delineating the molecular mechanisms underlying the resulting processes of programmed cell death (PCD). These efforts have led to the definition of apoptosis as a form of nonimmunogenic PCD that is required for normal development and tissue homeostasis, and of pyroptosis and necroptosis as forms of PCD initiated by pathogen infection that are associated with inflammation and immune activation. While this paradigm has served the field well, numerous recent studies have highlighted cross talk between these programs, challenging the idea that apoptosis, pyroptosis, and necroptosis are linear pathways with defined immunological outputs. Here, we discuss the emerging idea of cell death as a signaling network, considering connections between cell death pathways both as we observe them now and in their evolutionary origins. We also discuss the engagement and subversion of cell death pathways by pathogens, as well as the key immunological outcomes of these processes.

The application of BH3 mimetics in myeloid leukemias

Execution of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway is controlled by the BCL-2 proteins at the level of the mitochondrial outer membrane (MOM). This family of proteins consists of prosurvival (e.g., BCL-2, MCL-1) and proapoptotic (e.g., BIM, BAD, HRK) members, the functional balance of which dictates the activation of BAX and BAK. Once activated, BAX/BAK form pores in the MOM, resulting in cytochrome c release from the mitochondrial intermembrane space, leading to apoptosome formation, caspase activation, and cleavage of intracellular targets. This pathway is induced by cellular stress including DNA damage, cytokine and growth factor withdrawal, and chemotherapy/drug treatment. A well-documented defense of leukemia cells is to shift the balance of the BCL-2 family in favor of the prosurvival proteins to protect against such intra- and extracellular stimuli. Small molecule inhibitors targeting the prosurvival proteins, named 'BH3 mimetics', have come to the fore in recent years to treat hematological malignancies, both as single agents and in combination with standard-of-care therapies. The most significant example of these is the BCL-2-specific inhibitor venetoclax, given in combination with standard-of-care therapies with great success in AML in clinical trials. As the number and variety of available BH3 mimetics increases, and investigations into applying these novel inhibitors to treat myeloid leukemias continue apace the need to evaluate where we currently stand in this rapidly expanding field is clear.

Gracillin Isolated from Reineckia carnea Induces Apoptosis of A549 Cells via the Mitochondrial Pathway

Background

Reineckia carnea is commonly used to treat cough, pneumonia and other diseases in China. In our previous study, it was found that the ethanol extracts of Reineckia carnea have a strong inhibitory effect on the proliferation of human lung cancer A549 cells. Here, we isolated gracillin from ethanol extracts for the first time.

Purpose

Clarify the antiproliferation effect of gracillin on A549 cells and further explore its mechanisms via the mitochondrial pathway.

Methods

Gracillin was isolated and purified by silica gel, D-101 macroporous resin and preparative RP-HPLC, then identified by NMR and HR-MS. The inhibitory effects of gracillin on the proliferation of A549 cells were detected by the MTS method. Its mechanisms were further explored by flow cytometry and Western blot.

Results

A steroid saponin, gracillin, was isolated and identified from Reineckia carnea for the first time. In a concentration-dependent and time-dependent manner, gracillin significantly inhibited the proliferation of A549 cells with an IC₅₀ value at 2.54 μmol/L and induced morphological changes. The results of flow cytometry analysis showed that the apoptosis rate of A549 cells was significantly increased (p < 0.05), and the cells proportion was obviously arrested in S phase. The concentration of intracellular calcium was raised (p < 0.01), and the mitochondrial membrane potential was greatly decreased (p < 0.01). In addition, the expression levels of Bax, caspase-3, cleaved caspase-3, and cytochrome C were dramatically up-regulated while Bcl-2 was down-regulated (p < 0.05) in A549 cells.

Conclusion

This study confirmed that gracillin has a significant antiproliferative effect on A549 cells. Gracillin could induce the apoptosis of A549 cells through the mitochondrial pathway, which might be associated with regulation of the concentration of intracellular calcium, the mitochondrial membrane potential and the expression levels of Bax, Bcl-2, caspase-3, cleaved caspase-3, and cytochrome C.

Targeted therapy for intervertebral disc degeneration: inhibiting apoptosis is a promising treatment strategy

Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration (IDD) is a multifactorial pathological process associated with low back pain (LBP). The pathogenesis is complicated, and the main pathological changes are IVD cell apoptosis and extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation. Apoptotic cell loss leads to ECM degradation, which plays an essential role in IDD pathogenesis. Apoptosis regulation may be a potential attractive therapeutic strategy for IDD. Previous studies have shown that IVD cell apoptosis is mainly induced by the death receptor pathway, mitochondrial pathway, and endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) pathway. This article mainly summarizes the factors that induce IDD and apoptosis, the relationship between the three apoptotic pathways and IDD, and potential therapeutic strategies. Preliminary animal and cell experiments show that targeting apoptotic pathway genes or drug inhibition can effectively inhibit IVD cell apoptosis and slow IDD progression. Targeted apoptotic pathway inhibition may be an effective strategy to alleviate IDD at the gene level. This manuscript provides new insights and ideas for IDD therapy.

Mitochondria orchestrate macrophage effector functions in atherosclerosis

Macrophages are pivotal in the initiation and development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases. Recent studies have reinforced the importance of mitochondria in metabolic and signaling pathways to maintain macrophage effector functions. In this review, we discuss the past and emerging roles of macrophage mitochondria metabolic diversity in atherosclerosis and the potential avenue as biomarker. Beyond metabolic functions, mitochondria are also a signaling platform integrating epigenetic, redox, efferocytic and apoptotic regulations, which are exquisitely linked to their dynamics. Indeed, mitochondria functions depend on their density and shape perpetually controlled by mitochondria fusion/fission and biogenesis/mitophagy balances. Mitochondria can also communicate with other organelles such as the endoplasmic reticulum through mitochondria-associated membrane (MAM) or be secreted for paracrine actions. All these functions are perturbed in macrophages from mouse or human atherosclerotic plaques. A better understanding and integration of how these metabolic and signaling processes are integrated and dictate macrophage effector functions in atherosclerosis may ultimately help the development of novel therapeutic approaches.

Significance of cytosolic cathepsin D in Alzheimer's disease pathology: Protective cellular effects of PLGA nanoparticles against β-amyloid-toxicity

BACKGROUND

Evidence suggests that amyloid β (Aβ) peptides play an important role in the degeneration of neurons during the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD), the prevalent cause of dementia affecting the elderly. The endosomal-lysosomal system, which acts as a major site for Aβ metabolism, has been shown to exhibit abnormalities in vulnerable neurons of the AD brain, reflected by enhanced levels/expression of lysosomal enzymes including cathepsin D (CatD). At present, the implication of CatD in selective neuronal vulnerability in AD pathology remains unclear.

METHODS

We evaluated the role of CatD in the degeneration of neurons in Aβ-treated cultures, transgenic AD mouse model (that is 5xFAD) and post mortem AD brain samples.

RESULTS

Our results showed that Aβ_1-42 -induced toxicity in cortical cultured neurons is associated with impaired lysosomal integrity, enhanced levels of carbonylated proteins and tau phosphorylation. The cellular and cytosolic levels/activity of CatD are also elevated in cultured neurons following exposure to Aβ peptide. Additionally, we observed that CatD cellular and subcellular levels/activity are increased in the affected cortex, but not in the unaffected cerebellum, of 5xFAD mice and post mortem AD brains. Interestingly, treatment of cultured neurons with nanoparticles PLGA, which targets lysosomal system, attenuated Aβ toxicity by reducing the levels of carbonylated proteins, tau phosphorylation and the level/distribution/activity of CatD.

CONCLUSION

Our study reveals that increased cytosolic level/activity of CatD play an important role in determining neuronal vulnerability in AD. Additionally, native PLGA can protect neurons against Aβ toxicity by restoring lysosomal membrane integrity, thus signifying its implication in attenuating AD.

Flavonoids and Mitochondria: Activation of Cytoprotective Pathways?

A large number of diverse mechanisms that lead to cytoprotection have been described to date. Perhaps, not surprisingly, the role of mitochondria in these phenomena is notable. In addition to being metabolic centers, due to their role in cell catabolism, ATP synthesis, and biosynthesis these organelles are triggers and/or end-effectors of a large number of signaling pathways. Their role in the regulation of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway, calcium homeostasis, and reactive oxygen species signaling is well documented. In this review, we aim to characterize the prospects of influencing cytoprotective mitochondrial signaling routes by natural substances of plant origin, namely, flavonoids (e.g., flavanones, flavones, flavonols, flavan-3-ols, anthocyanidins, and isoflavones). Flavonoids are a family of widely distributed plant secondary metabolites known for their beneficial effects on human health and are widely applied in traditional medicine. Their pharmacological characteristics include antioxidative, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antidiabetic properties. Here, we focus on presenting mitochondria-mediated cytoprotection against various insults. Thus, the role of flavonoids as antioxidants and modulators of antioxidant cellular response, apoptosis, mitochondrial biogenesis, autophagy, and fission and fusion is reported. Finally, an emerging field of flavonoid-mediated changes in the activity of mitochondrial ion channels and their role in cytoprotection is outlined.

Heat shock transcription factor 2 inhibits intestinal epithelial cell apoptosis through the mitochondrial pathway in ulcerative colitis

UC is a chronic inflammatory disease of the colonic mucosa and lacks effective treatments because of unclear pathogenesis. Excessive apoptosis of IECs damages the intestinal epithelial barrier and is involved in the progression of UC, but the mechanism is unknown. HSPs are important in maintaining homeostasis and regulate apoptosis through the mitochondrial pathway. In our previous studies, HSF2, an important regulator of HSPs, was highly expressed in UC patients and negatively correlated with inflammation in mice and IECs. Therefore, we hypothesized that HSF2 may protect against intestinal mucositis by regulating the apoptosis of IECs. In this study, a DSS-induced colitis model of hsf2^-/- mice was used to explore the relationship between HSF2 and apoptosis in IECs for the first time. The expression of HSF2 increased in the WT + DSS group compared with that in the WT + H₂O group. Moreover, the extent of apoptosis was more severe in the KO + DSS group than in the WT + DSS group. The results showed that HSF2 was negatively correlated with apoptosis in vivo. The expression of HSF2 in Caco-2 cells was changed by lentiviral transfection, and the expression of Bax, cytoplasmic Cyto-C, Cleaved Caspase-9 and Cleaved Caspase-3 were negatively correlated with the different levels of HSF2. These results suggest that HSF2 negatively regulates apoptosis of IECs through the mitochondrial pathway. This may be one of the potential mechanisms to explain the protective role of HSF2 in UC.

Novel Apoptotic Mediators Identified by Conservation of Vertebrate Caspase Targets

Caspases are proteases conserved throughout Metazoans and responsible for initiating and executing the apoptotic program. Currently, there are over 1800 known apoptotic caspase substrates, many of them known regulators of cell proliferation and death, which makes them attractive therapeutic targets. However, most caspase substrates are by-standers, and identifying novel apoptotic mediators amongst all caspase substrates remains an unmet need. Here, we conducted an in silico search for significant apoptotic caspase targets across different species within the Vertebrata subphylum, using different criteria of conservation combined with structural features of cleavage sites. We observed that P1 aspartate is highly conserved while the cleavage sites are extensively variable and found that cleavage sites are located primarily in coiled regions composed of hydrophilic amino acids. Using the combination of these criteria, we determined the final list of the 107 most relevant caspase substrates including 30 novel targets previously unknown for their role in apoptosis and cancer. These newly identified substrates can be potential regulators of apoptosis and candidates for anti-tumor therapy.

Apoptosis inhibition mitigates aging effects in Drosophila melanogaster

Aging is a natural biological process that results in progressive loss of cell, tissue, and organ function. One of the causing factors of the aging process is the decrease in muscle mass, which has not been fully verified in Drosophila. Apoptotic cell death may result in aberrant cell loss and can eventually diminish tissue function and muscle atrophy. If so, inhibition of apoptosis may prolong longevity and reduce motor function and muscle mass decline with age in Drosophila flies. Here, we used Drosophila melanogaster as study material, and induced the overexpression of Drosophila inhibitor of apoptosis protein 1 gene to inhibit apoptosis, and investigated the effect of apoptosis inhibition on the longevity and age-related declines in flight and climbing ability and muscle mass. As a result, the inhibition of apoptosis tended to mitigate the aging effects and prolonged longevity and reduced climbing ability decline with age. The current study suggests that apoptosis inhibition could mitigate the aging effects in D. melanogaster. Although such effects have already been known in mammals, the current results suggest that the apoptosis may play a similar role in insects as well.

An initial comparative genomic autopsy of wasting disease in sea stars

Beginning in 2013, sea stars throughout the Eastern North Pacific were decimated by wasting disease, also known as "asteroid idiopathic wasting syndrome" (AIWS) due to its elusive aetiology. The geographic extent and taxonomic scale of AIWS meant events leading up to the outbreak were heterogeneous, multifaceted, and oftentimes unobserved; progression from morbidity to death was rapid, leaving few tell-tale symptoms. Here, we take a forensic genomic approach to discover candidate genes that may help explain sea star wasting syndrome. We report the first genome and annotation for Pisaster ochraceus, along with differential gene expression (DGE) analyses in four size classes, three tissue types, and in symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals. We integrate nucleotide polymorphisms associated with survivors of the wasting disease outbreak, DGE associated with temperature treatments in P. ochraceus, and DGE associated with wasting in another asteroid Pycnopodia helianthoides. In P. ochraceus, we found DGE across all tissues, among size classes, and between asymptomatic and symptomatic individuals; the strongest wasting-associated DGE signal was in pyloric caecum. We also found previously identified outlier loci co-occur with differentially expressed genes. In cross-species comparisons of symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals, consistent responses distinguish genes associated with invertebrate innate immunity and chemical defence, consistent with context-dependent stress responses, defensive apoptosis, and tissue degradation. Our analyses thus highlight genomic constituents that may link suspected environmental drivers (elevated temperature) with intrinsic differences among individuals (age/size, alleles associated with susceptibility) that elicit organismal responses (e.g., coelomocyte proliferation) and manifest as sea star wasting mass mortality.

Single-Cell and Population-Level Analyses Using Real-Time Kinetic Labeling Couples Proliferation and Cell Death Mechanisms

Quantifying cytostatic and cytotoxic outcomes are integral components of characterizing perturbagens used as research tools and in drug discovery pipelines. Furthermore, data-rich acquisition, coupled with robust methods for analysis, is required to properly assess the function and impact of these perturbagens. Here, we present a detailed and versatile method for single-cell and population-level analyses using real-time kinetic labeling (SPARKL). SPARKL integrates high-content live-cell imaging with automated detection and analysis of fluorescent reporters of cell death. We outline several examples of zero-handling, non-disruptive protocols for detailing cell death mechanisms and proliferation profiles. Additionally, we suggest several methods for mathematically analyzing these data to best utilize the collected kinetic data. Compared to traditional methods of detection and analysis, SPARKL is more sensitive, accurate, and high throughput while substantially eliminating sample processing and providing richer data.

Co-downregulation of GRP78 and GRP94 Induces Apoptosis and Inhibits Migration in Prostate Cancer Cells

Background

Both glucose-regulated protein 78 kDa (GRP78) and glucose-regulated protein 94 kDa (GRP94) are important molecular chaperones that play critical roles in maintaining tumor survival and progression. This study investigated the effects in prostate cancer cells following the downregulation of GRP78 and GRP94.

Methods

RNA interference was used to downregulate GRP78 and GRP94 expression in the prostate cancer cell line, PC-3. The effects on apoptosis and cell migration was examined along with expression of these related proteins.

Results

Small interfering RNAs targeting GRP78 and GRP94 successfully down-regulated their expression. This resulted in the induction of apoptosis and inhibition of cell migration. Preliminary mechanistic studies indicated that caspase-9 (cleaved) and Bax expression levels were upregulated while Bcl-2 and vimentin expression levels were downregulated.

Conclusion

Co-downregulation of GRP78 and GRP94 expression induces apoptosis and inhibits migration in prostate cancer cells.

[Anti-tumor and immune-modulating effect of Jiawei Sijunzi decoction in mice bearing hepatoma H22 tumor]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the antitumor activity of Jiawei Sijunzi decoction and study its liver and kidney toxicity and its effect on the immune system in a tumor-bearing mouse model.

METHODS

Hepatoma H22 tumor-bearing mouse models were randomized into model group, cyclophosphamide (CTX) group, and low-, moderate-, and high-dose Jiawei Sijunzi decoction groups (JW-L, JW-M, and JW-H groups, respectively). The antitumor activity of Jiawei Sijunzi decoction was assessed by calculating the tumor inhibition rate and pathological observation of the tumor tissues. Immunohistochemistry was used to detect the expressions of Bax, Bcl-2, Bax/Bcl-2 and caspase-3 in the tumors. The liver and kidney toxicity of Jiawei Sijunzi decoction was analyzed by evaluating the biochemical indicators of liver and kidney functions. The immune function of the tumor-bearing mice were assessed by calculating the immune organ index, testing peripheral blood routines, and detection of serum IL-2 and TNF-α levels using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

RESULTS

Compared with that in the model group, the tumor mass in CTX, JW-M and JW-H groups were all significantly reduced (P < 0.05) with cell rupture and necrosis in the tumors. Immunohistochemistry revealed obviously up-regulated expressions of Bax and caspase-3 and down- regulated expression of Bcl-2 protein with an increased Bax/Bcl-2 ratio in CTX, JW-M and JW-H groups. Treatment with Jiawei Sijunzi decoction significantly reduced Cr, BUN, AST and ALT levels, improved the immune organ index, increased peripheral blood leukocytes, erythrocytes and hemoglobin levels, and up-regulated the levels of TNF-α and IL-2 in the tumor-bearing mice. These changes were especially significant in JW-H group when compared with the parameters in the model group (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Jiawei Sijunzi decoction has a strong anti-tumor activity and can improve the liver and kidney functions of tumor-bearing mice. Its anti-tumor effect may be attributed to the up-regulation of Bax, caspase-3, TNF-α and IL-2 levels and the down-regulation of Bcl-2 expression as well as the enhancement of the non-specific immune function.

The modulation of Smac/DIABLO on mitochondrial apoptosis induced by LPS in Crassostrea gigas

The mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis is well studied as the major mechanism of physiological cell death in vertebrates. In the present study, a second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases (Smac)/direct inhibitor of apoptosis-binding protein (IAP) with low pI protein (DIABLO) (designated as CgSmac) was identified from oyster Crassostrea gigas. The open reading frame of CgSmac was of 966 bp nucleotides encoding a predicted polypeptide of 321 amino acids with a conserved Smac/DIABLO domain containing a potential IAP-binding motif of VMPV. CgSmac proteins were distributed in hemocytes and co-localized with mitochondria. Western blotting analysis revealed that CgSmac proteins mainly existed in the dimer form in hemocytes, and the monomeric precursors and mature monomers were also detected. After lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation, the mRNA expression of CgSmac in hemocytes was significantly up-regulated and peaked at 6 h (12.26-fold, p < 0.05), and the protein level of its dimers was significantly up-regulated at 6 h, 12 h, 24 h, and 48 h, while that of CgSmac monomers was up-regulated at 6 h, 12 h and down-regulated at 24 h, 48 h. The decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential indicated that the occurrence of early stage of apoptosis in primary cultured hemocytes was induced by LPS, and RNA interference (RNAi) of CgSmac could not rescue this decrease. The caspase-3 activity in primary cultured hemocytes was significantly suppressed after RNAi of CgSmac. Correspondingly, the total apoptotic rate of primary cultured hemocytes was also significantly suppressed in dsCgSmac + LPS group (31.57%) compared to dsEGFP + LPS group (40.27%, p < 0.05), which in turn demonstrated the conserved pro-apoptotic function of CgSmac. Furthermore, the early apoptotic rate (10.4% vs. 8.5%, p < 0.05) was significantly higher in dsCgSmac + LPS group than that of dsEGFP + LPS group, while the necrosis (7.7% vs. 10.0%, p < 0.05) and late apoptotic rates (13.4% vs. 21.9%, p < 0.05) were lower in dsCgSmac + LPS group than those of dsEGFP + LPS group. Collectively, CgSmac could activate mitochondrial apoptosis pathway by promoting caspase-3 activity in oyster hemocytes against exogenous LPS invasion. These results provided new insights on oyster apoptosis and the immune defense mechanisms in invertebrates.

Characterization of mitochondrial proteomes of nonbilaterian animals

Mitochondria require ~1,500 proteins for their maintenance and proper functionality, which constitute the mitochondrial proteome (mt-proteome). Although a few of these proteins, mostly subunits of the electron transport chain complexes, are encoded in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), the vast majority are encoded in the nuclear genome and imported to the organelle. Previous studies have shown a continuous and complex evolution of mt-proteome among eukaryotes. However, there was less attention paid to mt-proteome evolution within Metazoa, presumably because animal mtDNA and, by extension, animal mitochondria are often considered to be uniform. In this analysis, two bioinformatic approaches (Orthologue-detection and Mitochondrial Targeting Sequence prediction) were used to identify mt-proteins in 23 species from four nonbilaterian phyla: Cnidaria, Ctenophora, Placozoa, and Porifera, as well as two choanoflagellates, the closest animal relatives. Our results revealed a large variation in mt-proteome in nonbilaterian animals in size and composition. Myxozoans, highly reduced cnidarian parasites, possessed the smallest inferred mitochondrial proteomes, while calcareous sponges possessed the largest. About 513 mitochondrial orthologous groups were present in all nonbilaterian phyla and human. Interestingly, 42 human mitochondrial proteins were not identified in any nonbilaterian species studied and represent putative innovations along the bilaterian branch. Several of these proteins were involved in apoptosis and innate immunity, two processes known to evolve within Metazoa. Conversely, several proteins identified as mitochondrial in nonbilaterian phyla and animal outgroups were absent in human, representing cases of possible loss. Finally, a few human cytosolic proteins, such as histones and cytosolic ribosomal proteins, were predicted to be targeted to mitochondria in nonbilaterian animals. Overall, our analysis provides the first step in characterization of mt-proteomes in nonbilaterian animals and understanding evolution of animal mt-proteome. © 2018 IUBMB Life, 70(12):1289-1301, 2018.

Origin and Consequences of Necroinflammation

When cells undergo necrotic cell death in either physiological or pathophysiological settings in vivo, they release highly immunogenic intracellular molecules and organelles into the interstitium and thereby represent the strongest known trigger of the immune system. With our increasing understanding of necrosis as a regulated and genetically determined process (RN, regulated necrosis), necrosis and necroinflammation can be pharmacologically prevented. This review discusses our current knowledge about signaling pathways of necrotic cell death as the origin of necroinflammation. Multiple pathways of RN such as necroptosis, ferroptosis, and pyroptosis have been evolutionary conserved most likely because of their differences in immunogenicity. As the consequence of necrosis, however, all necrotic cells release damage associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) that have been extensively investigated over the last two decades. Analysis of necroinflammation allows characterizing specific signatures for each particular pathway of cell death. While all RN-pathways share the release of DAMPs in general, most of them actively regulate the immune system by the additional expression and/or maturation of either pro- or anti-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines. In addition, DAMPs have been demonstrated to modulate the process of regeneration. For the purpose of better understanding of necroinflammation, we introduce a novel classification of DAMPs in this review to help detect the relative contribution of each RN-pathway to certain physiological and pathophysiological conditions.

Divergent mechanisms of metabolic dysfunction drive fibroblast and T-cell senescence

The impact of cellular senescence during ageing is well established, however senescence is now recognised to play a role in a variety of age related and metabolic diseases, such as cancer, autoimmune and cardiovascular diseases. It is therefore crucial to gain a better understanding of the mechanisms that control cellular senescence. In recent years our understanding of the intimate relationship between cell metabolism, cell signalling and cellular senescence has greatly improved. In this review we discuss the differing roles of glucose and protein metabolism in both senescent fibroblast and CD8⁺ T-cells, and explore the impact cellular metabolism has on the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) of these cell types.

Immunological consequences of kidney cell death

Death of renal cells is central to the pathophysiology of acute tubular necrosis, autoimmunity, necrotizing glomerulonephritis, cystic kidney disease, urosepsis, delayed graft function and transplant rejection. By means of regulated necrosis, immunogenic damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and highly reactive organelles such as lysosomes, peroxisomes and mitochondria are released from the dying cells, thereby causing an overwhelming immunologic response. The rupture of the plasma membrane exhibits the "point of no return" for the immunogenicity of regulated cell death, explaining why apoptosis, a highly organized cell death subroutine with long-lasting plasma membrane integrity, elicits hardly any immune response. Ferroptosis, an iron-dependent necrotic type cell death, results in the release of DAMPs and large amounts of lipid peroxides. In contrast, anti-inflammatory cytokines are actively released from cells that die by necroptosis, limiting the DAMP-induced immune response to a surrounding microenvironment, whereas at the same time, inflammasome-associated caspases drive maturation of intracellularly expressed interleukin-1β (IL-1β). In a distinct setting, additionally interleukin-18 (IL-18) is expressed during pyroptosis, initiated by gasdermin-mediated plasma membrane rupture. As all of these pathways are druggable, we provide an overview of regulated necrosis in kidney diseases with a focus on immunogenicity and potential therapeutic interventions.

Regulated Cell Death

In this chapter, the various subroutines of regulated cell death are neatly described by highlighting apoptosis and subforms of regulated necrosis such as necroptosis, ferroptosis, pyroptosis, and NETosis. Typically, all forms of regulated necrosis are defined by finite rupture of the plasma cell membrane. Apoptosis is characterized by an enzymatic machinery that consists of caspases which cause the morphologic features of this type of cell death. Mechanistically, apoptosis can be instigated by two major cellular signalling pathways: an intrinsic pathway that is initiated inside cells by mitochondrial release of pro-apoptotic factors or an extrinsic pathway that is initiated at the cell surface by various death receptors. In necroptosis, the biochemical processes are distinct from those found in apoptosis; in particular, there is no caspase activation. As such, necroptosis is a kinase-mediated cell death that relies on “receptor-interacting protein kinase 3” which mediates phosphorylation of the pseudokinase “mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein.” While ferroptosis is an iron-dependent, oxidative form of regulated necrosis that is biochemically characterized by accumulation of ROS from iron metabolism, oxidase activity, and lipid peroxidation products, pyroptosis is defined as a form of cell death (predominantly of phagocytes) that develops during inflammasome activation and is executed by caspase-mediated cleavage of the pore-forming protein gasdermin D. Finally, NETosis refers to a regulated death of neutrophils that is characterized by the release of chromatin-derived weblike structures released into the extracellular space. The chapter ends up with a discussion on the characteristic feature of regulated necrosis: the passive release of large amounts of constitutive DAMPs as a consequence of final plasma membrane rupture as well as the active secretion of inducible DAMPs earlier during the dying process. Notably, per cell death subroutine, the active secretion of inducible DAMPs varies, thereby determining different immunogenicity of dying cells.

Investigation on tissue specific effects of pro-apoptotic micro RNAs revealed miR-147b as a potential biomarker in ovarian cancer prognosis

The development and progression of cancer can be ascribed to imbalances in gene regulation leading to aberrant cellular behavior. The loss of micro RNAs (miRNAs) exhibiting tumor-suppressive function has been demonstrated to be often causative for uncontrolled cell proliferation, migration or tissue infiltration. The installation of de novo tumor suppressive function by using pro-apoptotic miRNAs might be a promising therapeutic approach. In addition, there is a great demand for novel biomarkers for the prognosis of cancer, which prompted us to transfer a high content miRNA screening initially performed to identify bioprocess relevant miRNAs in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells to human cancer cell lines . Analysis of screened miRNAs exhibiting strongest pro-apoptotic effects discovered globally and cross-species active candidates. The recovery rate of apoptosis inducing miRNAs was highest in the human ovarian carcinoma cell line SKOV3. Focusing on ovarian cell lines miR-1912, miR-147b and miR-3073a showed significant apoptosis induction in cell lines with different genetic background (SKOV3^p53null, OVCAR3^p53R248Q, TOV21G, TOV112D^p53R175H, A2780, A2780-cis^p53K351N) alone and additive effects in combination with carboplatin. While expression analysis revealed a low endogenous expression of miR-1912 and miR-147b in SKOV3, miRNA expression was highly upregulated upon apoptosis induction using chemotherapeutics. Ectopic introduction of these miRNAs lead to enhanced activation of caspase-dependent death signaling and an induction of the pro-apoptotic proteins Bak1 and Bax and a reduced expression of Bcl2 and Bcl-xL. Finally, analysis of The Cancer Genome Atlas data revealed the expression of hsa-miR-147b-5p to show a positive influence on the median survival of ovarian cancer patients.

Regulated Forms of Cell Death in Fungi

Cell death occurs in all domains of life. While some cells die in an uncontrolled way due to exposure to external cues, other cells die in a regulated manner as part of a genetically encoded developmental program. Like other eukaryotic species, fungi undergo programmed cell death (PCD) in response to various triggers. For example, exposure to external stress conditions can activate PCD pathways in fungi. Calcium redistribution between the extracellular space, the cytoplasm and intracellular storage organelles appears to be pivotal for this kind of cell death. PCD is also part of the fungal life cycle, in which it occurs during sexual and asexual reproduction, aging, and as part of development associated with infection in phytopathogenic fungi. Additionally, a fungal non-self-recognition mechanism termed heterokaryon incompatibility (HI) also involves PCD. Some of the molecular players mediating PCD during HI show remarkable similarities to major constituents involved in innate immunity in metazoans and plants. In this review we discuss recent research on fungal PCD mechanisms in comparison to more characterized mechanisms in metazoans. We highlight the role of PCD in fungi in response to exogenic compounds, fungal development and non-self-recognition processes and discuss identified intracellular signaling pathways and molecules that regulate fungal PCD.

Mitochondria response to camptothecin and hydroxycamptothecine-induced apoptosis in Spodoptera exigua cells

Camptothecin (CPT), a natural alkaloid extracted from Camptotheca acuminata Decne, exhibits potential insecticidal activities against various insect species. Our previous studies have showed that CPTs induced apoptosis in Spodoptera exigua Hübner cell line which is mediated preliminarily by the mitochondrial pathway. In this study, changes of mitochondrial morphologic and function were investigated to characterize mitochondrial responses in CPTs induced apoptosis. After incubation IOZCAS-Spex-II cells with CPT and HCPT, mitochondria exhibited obvious changes in the size, morphology and distribution, and ultrastructural alterations characterized by disruption of cristae and membrane. The typical characteristics of apoptosis, including chromatin condensation, nucleus shrivels, and cytoplasmic vacuoles were found. CPT and HCPT induced IOZCAS-Spex-II cell apoptosis accompanied with increased dramatically cytosolic Ca²⁺ and reduced mitochondrial membrane potential in the dose and time-dependent pattern. Cytochrome c release induced by CPT and HCPT was partially reduced in the presence of CsA, which suggested that the opening of mitochondrial permeability transition pore. Taken together, these results suggested the role of mitochondria in regulation of insect cell apoptosis, which provided the basic information for illustrating the apoptosis pathway in insects and for using reasonably CPTs to control insect pests.

Conservation and divergence of mitochondrial apoptosis pathway in the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas

Apoptosis is considered a crucial part of the host defense system in oysters according to previous reports; however, the exact process by which this occurs remains unclear. Besides, mitochondrial apoptosis is the primary method of apoptosis in vertebrate cells, but has been poorly studied in invertebrates and is quite controversial. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanism of mitochondrial apoptosis in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. Notably, we show that most key elements involved in the vertebrate mitochondrial apoptosis pathway – including mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization, cytochrome c release, and caspase activation – are also present in C. gigas. In contrast, the lack of Bcl-2 homology 3-only subfamily members and apoptotic protease activating factor-1 (APAF-1) protein revealed evolutionary diversity from other phyla. Our results support that mitochondrial apoptosis in animals predates the emergence of vertebrates, but suggest that an unexpectedly diverse mitochondrial apoptosis pathway may exist in invertebrates. In addition, our work provided new clues for an improved understanding of how bivalve acclimate themselves to an inconstant environment.

Effective cytotoxic activity of OSW-1 on colon cancer by inducing apoptosis in vitro and in vivo

As a natural compound, Ornithogalum caudatum Ait is primarily used as an anti-inflammatory and antitumor agent in Chinese folk medicine. In 1992, OSW-1 was isolated from this compound, which is a new member of cholestane saponin family. In numerous recent studies, OSW-1 has been shown to have powerful cytotoxic anticancer effects against various malignant cells. However, the therapeutic efficacy of OSW-1 on colon cancer and the underlying mechanism are not understood. To explore the mechanism underlying OSW-1 in antitumor therapy, a therapeutic function analysis of OSW-1 on colon cancer was performed in vitro and in vivo. It was shown that with low toxicity on normal colonic cells, OSW-1 suppresses colon cancer cells in vitro and this inhibition was via the intrinsic apoptotic pathway, which increased cellular calcium, changed mitochondrial membrane potential, disrupted mitochondrial morphology, and led to the release of cytochrome c and the activation of caspase-3. Furthermore, in a nude mouse model, OSW-1 had a powerful effect on suppressing colon tumor proliferation without significant side effects through the apoptosis pathway. Taken together, these results demonstrate that OSW-1 is a potential drug for colon cancer treatment.

Molecular mechanisms of PFOA-induced toxicity in animals and humans: Implications for health risks

As an emerging persistent organic pollutant (POP), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) is one of the most abundant perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) in the environment. This review summarized the molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways of PFOA-induced toxicity in animals and humans as well as their implications for health risks in humans. Traditional PFOA-induced signal pathways such as peroxisome proliferating receptor alpha (PPARα), constitutive androstane receptor (CAR), farnesoid X receptor (FXR), and pregnane-X receptor (PXR) may not be important for PFOA-induced health effects on humans. Instead, pathways including p53/mitochondrial pathway, nuclear lipid hyperaccumulation, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-serine/threonine protein kinase (PI3K-AKT), and tumor necrosis factor-α/nuclear factor κB (TNF-α/NF-κB) may play an important role for PFOA-induced health risks in humans. Both in vivo and in vitro studies are needed to better understand the PFOA-induced toxicity mechanisms as well as the associated health risk in humans.

Controlled detonation: evolution of necroptosis in pathogen defense

Necroptosis is a lytic form of programmed cell death that involves the swelling and rupture of dying cells. Although several necroptosis-inducing stimuli have been defined, in most cells this pathway is kept in check by the action of the pro-apoptotic protease caspase-8 and the IAP ubiquitin ligases. How and when necroptosis is triggered under physiological conditions therefore remains a persistent question. Because necroptosis likely arose as a defensive mechanism against viral infection, exploration of this question requires a consideration of host-pathogen interactions, and how the sensing of infection could sensitize cells to necroptosis. Here, we will discuss the role of necroptosis in the response to viral infection, consider why the necroptotic pathway has been favored during evolution, and describe emerging evidence for death-independent functions of key necroptotic signaling components.

Cloning and functional characterizations of an apoptogenic Hid gene in the Scuttle Fly, Megaselia scalaris (Diptera; Phoridae)

Although the mechanisms of apoptotic cell death have been well studied in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, it is unclear whether such mechanisms are conserved in other distantly related species. Using degenerate primers and PCR, we cloned a proapoptotic gene homologous to Head involution defective (Hid) from the Scuttle fly, Megaselia scalaris (MsHid). MsHid cDNA encodes a 197-amino acid-long polypeptide, which so far is the smallest HID protein. PCR analyses revealed that the MsHid gene consists of four exons and three introns. Ectopic expression of MsHid in various peptidergic neurons and non-neuronal tissues in Drosophila effectively induced apoptosis of these cells. However, deletion of either conserved domain, N-terminal IBM or C-terminal MTS, abolished the apoptogenic activity of MsHID, indicating that these two domains are indispensable. Expression of MsHid was found in all life stages, but more prominently in embryos and pupae. MsHid is actively expressed in the central nervous system (CNS), indicating its important role in CNS development. Together MsHID is likely to be an important cell death inducer during embryonic and post-embryonic development in this species. In addition, we found 2-fold induction of MsHid expression in UV-irradiated embryos, indicating a possible role for MsHid in UV-induced apoptosis.

Involvement of voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC) in dengue infection

During infection, dengue virus (DENV) proteins interact with host cellular constituents promoting the remodeling of the cell to facilitate virus production. While a number of interacting proteins have been identified for DENV non-structural proteins, far fewer interacting partners have been identified for the DENV structural proteins. One protein that has been identified as a DENV E protein interacting protein is the cellular chaperone GRP78. GRP78 has been shown to have a number of cellular interacting partners including the voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC). In this study we confirmed the interactions between GRP78 and DENV E protein and between GRP78 and VDAC. VDAC was shown to be re-localized during DENV infection, with no change in levels of protein expression. VDAC is predominantly located on the outer membrane of mitochondria and our result is consistent with movement of the mitochondria towards the ER during DENV infection. Down regulation of VDAC through siRNA significantly reduced DENV protein expression, as well as the percentage infection and output virus titer. Our results suggest that VDAC plays an important role in DENV infection.