Regulation of the mouse medial prefrontal cortical synapses by endogenous estradiol

Progesterone and allopregnanolone facilitate excitatory synaptic transmission in the infralimbic cortex via activation of membrane progesterone receptors

Estrogens and progesterone can have rapid effects on neuronal function and can modify the use of spatial navigation strategies dependent upon the prefrontal cortex, striatum, and hippocampus. Here, we assessed the effects of 17β-estradiol (E2), progesterone, and its metabolite allopregnanolone, on evoked excitatory postsynaptic potentials in the infralimbic region of the female rat prefrontal cortex. Field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSPs) evoked by stimulation of layer I were first characterized by recording responses at multiple depths between the cortical surface and the underlying white matter. Current source density analysis showed that the short-latency negative component was generated by activation of synaptic currents within layer I, and that putative polysynaptic responses were generated in layers III to V. The amplitude of evoked field EPSPs in layer I was not significantly affected by 20 min application of 17β-estradiol (10 nM), but both 100 nM progesterone and 1 µM allopregnanolone caused lasting increases in field EPSP amplitude. The effects of progesterone were not blocked by the nuclear progesterone receptor antagonist RU486 (1 µM). Both progesterone and allopregnanolone are known to activate membrane progesterone receptors, and we found that the membrane progesterone receptor agonist Org OD 02-0 facilitated EPSPs, and also occluded further increases induced by either progesterone or allopregnanolone. These results provide evidence that both progesterone and allopregnanolone facilitate synaptic responses in layer I of the infralimbic cortex by activating membrane progesterone receptors.

Quetiapine Reverses the Behavior and Myelination in Alcohol-Exposed Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Offspring Mice via ERK1/2 Signaling

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a glucose metabolism abnormality that first emerges during pregnancy and may negatively affect the behavioral and neurodevelopmental outcomes of offspring. Quetiapine (QUE) has been shown to promote differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) and protect oligodendrocytes and myelination. To explore the effects of QUE on improving the expression of conditioned place preference (CPP) and myelination in the infralimbic cortex (IL) of the medial prefrontal cortex in alcohol-exposed GDM offspring mice, we evaluated CPP expression in 5-week-old alcohol-exposed GDM offspring and treated them with QUE and the extracellular-regulated protein kinase (ERK) inhibitor U0126. Immunohistochemical staining compared the numbers of mature oligodendrocytes, OPCs, and myelin expression levels. Immunofluorescence staining was employed to examine OPC differentiation and the activation of the ERK1/2 signaling pathway. In GDM offspring, CPP expression increased considerably following alcohol exposure, whereas early treatment with QUE or U0126 significantly decreased CPP expression. Meanwhile, alcohol exposure resulted in substantial activation of the ERK1/2 signaling pathway within OPCs in the IL region, as well as a substantial reduction in OPC differentiation, mature oligodendrocyte count, and myelin expression. QUE or U0126 inhibited the activation of the ERK1/2 signaling pathway within OPCs in the IL region of alcohol-exposed GDM offspring and markedly restored OPC differentiation, mature oligodendrocyte numbers, and myelin expression. Collectively, QUE enhanced the differentiation of OPCs in the IL region of GDM offspring after alcohol exposure by regulating the overactivation of the ERK1/2 signaling pathway, thus partially reversing myelination loss and ultimately improving CPP expression.

Effect of dynamic interaction of estrous cycle and stress on synaptic transmission and neuronal excitability in the lateral habenula

The prevalence of depressive disorders in women has been reported in many countries. However, the cellular mechanisms mediating such sex differences in stress susceptibility remain largely unknown. Previously, we showed that lateral habenula (LHb) neurons are more activated in female mice than in male mice by restraint stress. Given the important role of LHb in depressive disorders, we aimed to investigate the synaptic differences between male and female LHb and to examine the possible impact of the estrous cycle on neurotransmission in LHb. We found that the passive and active properties of LHb neurons differed according to the estrous cycle. Spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents exhibited higher amplitudes during the diestrus stage and lower frequencies in females than in males, whereas inhibitory postsynaptic currents showed no significant differences. Acute stress-induced hyperpolarization of resting membrane potentials (RMP) was observed in both sexes, with notable changes in female silent and tonic neurons. Stress exposure eliminated estrous cycle-dependent RMP differences and introduced cycle-specific excitability changes, especially in the metestrus and diestrus stages, suggesting that the hormonal cycle may set the synaptic tone of the LHb, thus modulating stress responses in females. Our study provides invaluable groundwork for understanding the detailed interaction between the estrous cycle and stress exposure in female LHb.

Antidepressant effects of activation of infralimbic cortex via upregulation of BDNF and β-catenin in an estradiol withdrawal model

RATIONALE

Clinical and preclinical studies have demonstrated that estradiol withdrawal after delivery is one of important factors involved in the pathogenesis of postpartum depression (PPD). The infralimbic cortex (IL) is related to anxiety and mood disorders. Whether IL neurons mediate PPD is still unclear.

OBJECTIVES

This study was to observe the antidepressant effect and expression of BDNF and β-catenin in IL by allopregnanolone (ALLO) treatment or the selective activation or inhibition of IL neurons using a chemogenetic approach in a pseudopregnancy model of PPD.

METHODS

Administration of estradiol combined with progesterone and the abrupt withdrawal of estradiol simulated the pregnancy and early postpartum periods to induce depression in ovariectomized rats. The relative expression levels of β-catenin and BDNF were observed by western blotting.

RESULTS

Immobility time was significantly increased in the forced swim test and open-arm movement was reduced in the elevated plus maze test in the estradiol-withdrawn rats. After ALLO treatment, the immobility time were lower and open-arm traveling times higher than those of the estradiol-withdrawn rats. Meanwhile, the expression level of BDNF or β-catenin in the IL was reduced significantly in estradiol-withdrawn rats, which was prevented by treatment with ALLO. The hM3Dq chemogenetic activation of pyramidal neurons in the IL reversed the immobility and open-arm travel time trends in the estradiol-withdrawal rat model, but chemogenetic inhibition of IL neurons failed to affect this. Upregulated BDNF and β-catenin expression and increased c-Fos in the basolateral amygdala were found following IL neuron excitation in model rats.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrated that pseudopregnancy and estradiol withdrawal produced depressive-like behavior and anxiety. ALLO treatment or specific excitement of IL pyramidal neurons relieved abnormal behaviors and upregulated BDNF and β-catenin expression in the IL in the PPD model, suggesting that hypofunction of IL neurons may be involved in the pathogenesis of PPD.

Increased gene dosage of RFWD2 causes autistic-like behaviors and aberrant synaptic formation and function in mice

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impaired social interactions, communication deficits and repetitive behaviors. A study of autistic human subjects has identified RFWD2 as a susceptibility gene for autism, and autistic patients have 3 copies of the RFWD2 gene. The role of RFWD2 as an E3 ligase in neuronal functions, and its contribution to the pathophysiology of ASD, remain unknown. We generated RFWD2 knockin mice to model the human autistic condition of high gene dosage of RFWD2. We found that heterozygous knockin (Rfwd2+/-) male mice exhibited the core symptoms of autism. Rfwd2+/- male mice showed deficits in social interaction and communication, increased repetitive and anxiety-like behavior, and spatial memory deficits, whereas Rfwd2+/- female mice showed subtle deficits in social communication and spatial memory but were normal in anxiety-like, repetitive, and social behaviors. These autistic-like behaviors in males were accompanied by a reduction in dendritic spine density and abnormal synaptic function on layer II/III pyramidal neurons in the prelimbic area of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), as well as decreased expression of synaptic proteins. Impaired social behaviors in Rfwd2+/- male mice were rescued by the expression of ETV5, one of the major substrates of RFWD2, in the mPFC. These findings indicate an important role of RFWD2 in the pathogenesis of autism.

Association between perimenopausal age and greater posttraumatic stress disorder and depression symptoms in trauma-exposed women

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to determine the relationship between stages of the menopause transition (premenopausal, perimenopausal, and postmenopausal) on symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression in trauma-exposed women.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study conducted between 2005 and 2017 recruited and enrolled an urban community sample (n = 6,093) from nonpsychiatric medical clinic waiting rooms of Grady Memorial Hospital, a public safety net hospital in Atlanta, Georgia. Participants were female, 18 to 65 years old, and predominantly Black/African American.

RESULTS

Of the 6,093 participants, 93.8% were Black/African American, 2.5% were White, and 3.8% were of all other races (Hispanic/Latino, Asian, multiracial). Participants younger than 40 years were categorized as premenopausal (n = 3,166), between 40 and 55 years of age were categorized as perimenopausal (n = 2,127), and older than 55 years were categorized as postmenopausal (n = 790). Menopause status was associated with total PTSD symptom severity ( F2,5416 = 9.61, P < 0.001), symptom severity within all three PTSD symptom clusters (avoidance/numbing symptoms: F2,5416 = 7.10, P < 0.001; intrusive symptoms: F2,5416 = 7.04, P < 0.001; hyperarousal symptoms: F2,5409 = 8.31, P < 0.001), and depression symptom severity ( F2,5148 = 11.4, P < 0.001). Compared with both premenopausal and postmenopausal women, perimenopausal women reported significantly worse total PTSD symptoms, symptoms in the hyperarousal cluster, and depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

The current cross-sectional data show that symptoms of PTSD and depression in women are associated with reproductive age, such that perimenopausal women show higher symptom severity than premenopausal and postmenopausal women. Future longitudinal studies can reveal how changes in hormones over the course of the menopause transition impact the symptoms, neurobiology, and psychophysiology of PTSD.

Sex Differences in Depression and Anxiety

Depression and anxiety disorders carry a tremendous worldwide burden and emerge as a significant cause of disability among western societies. Both disorders are known to disproportionally affect women, as they are twice more likely to be diagnosed and moreover, they are also prone to suffer from female-specific mood disorders. Importantly, the prevalence of these affective disorders has notably risen after the COVID pandemic, especially in women. In this chapter, we describe factors that are possibly contributing to the expression of such sex differences in depression and anxiety. For this, we overview the effect of transcriptomic and genetic factors, the immune system, neuroendocrine aspects, and cognition. Furthermore, we also provide evidence of sex differences in antidepressant response and their causes. Finally, we emphasize the importance to consider sex as a biological variable in preclinical and clinical research, which may facilitate the discovery and development of new and more efficacious antidepressant and anxiolytic pharmacotherapies for both women and men.

The Impacts of Sex Differences and Sex Hormones on Fear Extinction

Fear extinction memories are strongly modulated by sex and hormonal status, but the exact mechanisms are still being discovered. In humans, there are some basal and task-related features in which male and female individuals differ in fear conditioning paradigms. However, analyses considering the effects of sex hormones demonstrate a role for estradiol in fear extinction memory consolidation. Translational studies are taking advantage of the convergent findings between species to understand the brain structures implicated. Nevertheless, the human brain is complex and the transfer of these findings into the clinics remains a challenge. The promising advances in the field together with the standardization of fear extinction methodologies in humans will benefit the design of new personalized therapies.

Estradiol and progesterone in female reward-learning, addiction, and therapeutic interventions

Sex steroid hormones like estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P4) guide the sexual organization and activation of the developing brain and control female reproductive behavior throughout the lifecycle; importantly, these hormones modulate functional activity of not just the endocrine system, but most of the nervous system including the brain reward system. The effects of E2 and P4 can be seen in the processing of and memory for rewarding stimuli and in the development of compulsive reward-seeking behaviors like those seen in substance use disorders. Women are at increased risk of developing substance use disorders; however, the origins of this sex difference are not well understood and therapeutic interventions targeting ovarian hormones have produced conflicting results. This article reviews the contribution of the E2 and P4 in females to functional modulation of the brain reward system, their possible roles in origins of addiction vulnerability, and the development and treatment of compulsive reward-seeking behaviors.

Patchouli alcohol as a selective estrogen receptor β agonist ameliorates AD-like pathology of APP/PS1 model mice

Clinical evidence shows that postmenpausal women are almost twice as likely to develop Alzheimer's disease (AD) as men of the same age, and estrogen is closely related to the occurrence of AD. Estrogen receptor (ER) α is mainly expressed in the mammary gland and other reproductive organs like uterus while ERβ is largely distributed in the hippocampus and cardiovascular system, suggesting that ERβ selective agonist is a valuable drug against neurodegenerative diseases with low tendency in inducing cancers of breast and other reproductive organs. In this study we identified a natural product patchouli alcohol (PTA) as a selective ERβ agonist which improved the cognitive defects in female APP/PS1 mice, and explore the underlying mechanisms. Six-month-old female APP/PS1 mice were administered PTA (20, 40 mg · kg-1 · d-1, i.g.) for 90 days. We first demonstrated that PTA bound to ERβ with a dissociation constant (KD) of 288.9 ± 35.14 nM in microscale thermophoresis. Then we showed that PTA administration dose-dependently ameliorated cognitive defects evaluated in Morris water maze and Y-maze testes. Furthermore, PTA administration reduced amyloid plaque deposition in the hippocampus by promoting microglial phagocytosis; PTA administration improved synaptic integrity through enhancing BDNF/TrkB/CREB signaling, ameliorated oxidative stress by Catalase level, and regulated Bcl-2 family proteins in the hippocampus. The therapeutic effects of PTA were also observed in vitro: PTA (5, 10, 20 μM) dose-dependently increased phagocytosis of o-FAM-Aβ42 in primary microglia and BV2 cells through enhancing ERβ/TLR4 signaling; PTA treatment ameliorated o-Aβ25-35-induced reduction of synapse-related proteins VAMP2 and PSD95 in primary neurons through enhancing ERβ/BDNF/TrkB/CREB pathways; PTA treatment alleviated o-Aβ25-35-induced oxidative stress in primary neurons through targeting ERβ and increasing Catalase expression. Together, this study has addressed the efficacy of selective ERβ agonist in the amelioration of AD and highlighted the potential of PTA as a drug lead compound against the disease.

Cyclic estrogen and progesterone during instrumental acquisition contributes to habit formation in female rats

Habit formation is thought to involve two parallel processes that are mediated by distinct neural substates: one that suppresses goal-directed behavior, and one that facilitates stimulus-response (S-R) learning, which underscores habitual behavior. In previous studies we showed that habitual responding emerges early during instrumental training in gonadally-intact female, compared to male, rats. The present study aimed to determine the role of ovarian hormones during instrumental acquisition in the transition from goal-directed to habitual behavior in female rats. Ovariectomized (OVX) female rats were given subcutaneous silastic capsules that released low levels of 17-β estradiol (E2) to maintain estrogen receptor availability. Rats were assigned to one of three hormone treatment conditions: no additional hormone replacement (Control group), replacement with high E2 (High E2 group), or replacement with high E2 followed by progesterone (High E2 + P4 group). Hormone replacement occurred twice during acquisition to mimic natural hormone fluctuations. At test, the Control and High E2 groups demonstrated responding that was sensitive to devaluation by lithium chloride-induced illness, indicating goal-directed behavior. In contrast, the High E2 + P4 group exhibited a pattern of devaluation-insensitive, habitual responding, that suggested the suppression of goal-directed processes. In a follow-up experiment, similar procedures were conducted, however during acquisition, OVX rats were given cyclic high E2 plus medroxy-progesterone (MPA), a form of progesterone that does not metabolize to neuroactive metabolites. In this group, goal-directed behavior was observed. These data indicate that habit formation is not facilitated in low estrogen states, nor in the presence of cyclic high E2. However, cyclic high E2, together with progesterone during acquisition, appears to facilitate the early emergence of habitual responding. Furthermore, these data suggest that a neuroactive progesterone metabolite, like allopregnanolone, in combination with high cyclic E2, supports this phenomenon.

Sex difference in the vulnerability to hippocampus plasticity impairment after binge-like ethanol exposure in adolescent rat: Is estrogen the key?

Binge drinking during adolescence induces memory impairments, and evidences suggest that females are more vulnerable than males. However, the reason for such a difference is unclear, whereas preclinical studies addressing this question are lacking. Here we tested the hypothesis that endogenous estrogen level (E2) may explain sex differences in the effects of ethanol on hippocampus plasticity, the cellular mechanism of memory. Long-term depression (LTD) in hippocampus slice of pubertal female rats was recorded 24 h after two ethanol binges (3 g/kg, i.p., 9 h apart). Neither the estrous cycle nor ethanol altered LTD. However, if ethanol was administered during proestrus (i.e., at endogenous E2 peak), LTD was abolished 24 h later, whereas NMDA-fEPSPs response to a GluN2B antagonist increased. The abolition of LTD was not observed in adult female rats. Exogenous E2 combined with ethanol replicated LTD abolition in pubertal, prepubertal female, and in pubertal male rats without changes in ethanol metabolism. In male rats, a higher dose of ethanol was required to abolish LTD at 24-h delay. In pubertal female rats, tamoxifen, an antagonist of estrogen receptors, blocked the impairing effects of endogenous and exogenous E2 on LTD, suggesting estrogen interacts with ethanol through changes in gene expression. In addition, tamoxifen prevented LTD abolition at 24 h but not at 48-h delay. In conclusion, estrogen may explain the increased vulnerability to ethanol-induced plasticity impairment seen in females compared with males. This increased vulnerability of female rats is likely due to changes in the GluN2B subunit that represent a common target between ethanol and estrogen.

Sexually divergent cortical control of affective-autonomic integration

Depression and cardiovascular disease reduce quality of life and increase mortality risk. These conditions commonly co-occur with sex-based differences in incidence and severity. However, the biological mechanisms linking the disorders are poorly understood. In the current study, we hypothesized that the infralimbic (IL) prefrontal cortex integrates mood-related behaviors with the cardiovascular burden of chronic stress. In a rodent model, we utilized optogenetics during behavior and in vivo physiological monitoring to examine how the IL regulates affect, social motivation, neuroendocrine-autonomic stress reactivity, and the cardiac consequences of chronic stress. Our results indicate that IL glutamate neurons increase socio-motivational behaviors specifically in males. IL activation also reduced endocrine and cardiovascular stress responses in males, while increasing reactivity in females. Moreover, prior IL stimulation protected males from subsequent chronic stress-induced sympatho-vagal imbalance and cardiac hypertrophy. Our findings suggest that cortical regulation of behavior, physiological stress responses, and cardiovascular outcomes fundamentally differ between sexes.

Neuronal Representation of Locomotion During Motivated Behavior in the Mouse Anterior Cingulate Cortex

The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is located within the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (PFC), and processes and facilitates goal-directed behaviors relating to emotion, reward, and motor control. However, it is unclear how ACC neurons dynamically encode motivated behavior during locomotion. In this study, we examined how information for locomotion and behavioral outcomes is temporally represented by individual and ensembles of ACC neurons in mice during a self-paced locomotor reward-based task. By recording and analyzing the activity of ACC neurons with a microdrive tetrode array while the mouse performed the locomotor task, we found that more than two-fifths of the neurons showed phasic activity relating to locomotion or the reward behavior. Some of these neurons showed significant differences in their firing rate depending on the behavioral outcome. Furthermore, by applying a demixed principal component analysis, the ACC population activity was decomposed into components representing locomotion and the previous/future outcome. These results indicated that ACC neurons dynamically integrate motor and behavioral inputs during goal-directed behaviors.

Dynamic community detection reveals transient reorganization of functional brain networks across a female menstrual cycle

Sex steroid hormones have been shown to alter regional brain activity, but the extent to which they modulate connectivity within and between large-scale functional brain networks over time has yet to be characterized. Here, we applied dynamic community detection techniques to data from a highly sampled female with 30 consecutive days of brain imaging and venipuncture measurements to characterize changes in resting-state community structure across the menstrual cycle. Four stable functional communities were identified, consisting of nodes from visual, default mode, frontal control, and somatomotor networks. Limbic, subcortical, and attention networks exhibited higher than expected levels of nodal flexibility, a hallmark of between-network integration and transient functional reorganization. The most striking reorganization occurred in a default mode subnetwork localized to regions of the prefrontal cortex, coincident with peaks in serum levels of estradiol, luteinizing hormone, and follicle stimulating hormone. Nodes from these regions exhibited strong intranetwork increases in functional connectivity, leading to a split in the stable default mode core community and the transient formation of a new functional community. Probing the spatiotemporal basis of human brain–hormone interactions with dynamic community detection suggests that hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle result in temporary, localized patterns of brain network reorganization.

Sex steroid hormones influence the central nervous system across multiple spatiotemporal scales. Estrogen and progesterone concentrations rise and fall throughout the menstrual cycle, but it remains poorly understood whether day-to-day fluctuations in hormones shape human brain dynamics. Here, we assessed the structure and stability of resting-state brain network connectivity in concordance with serum hormone levels from a female who underwent fMRI and venipuncture for 30 consecutive days. Our results reveal that while network structure is largely stable over the course of a menstrual cycle, temporary reorganization of several large-scale functional brain networks occurs during the ovulatory window. In particular, a default mode subnetwork exhibits increased connectivity with itself and with nodes belonging to the temporoparietal and limbic networks, providing novel perspective into brain-hormone interactions.

Sex and oestrogen receptor β have modest effects on gene expression in the mouse brain posterior cortex

Introduction

Sex differences in brain cortical function affect cognition, behaviour and susceptibility to neural diseases, but the molecular basis of sexual dimorphism in cortical function is still largely unknown. Oestrogen and oestrogen receptors (ERs), specifically ERβ, the most abundant ER in the cortex, may play a role in determining sex differences in gene expression, which could underlie functional sex differences. However, further investigation is needed to address brain region specificity of the effects of sex and ERβ on gene expression. The goal of this study was to investigate sex differences in gene expression in the mouse posterior cortex, where sex differences in transcription have never been examined, and to determine how genetic ablation of ERβ affects transcription.

Methods

In this study, we performed unbiased transcriptomics on RNA from the posterior cortex of adult wild-type and ERβ knockout mice (n = 4/sex/genotype). We used unbiased clustering to analyse whole-transcriptome changes between the groups. We also performed differential expression analysis on the data using DESeq2 to identify specific changes in gene expression.

Results

We found only 27 significantly differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in wild-type (WT) males vs females, of which 17 were autosomal genes. Interestingly, in ERβKO males vs females all the autosomal DEGs were lost. Gene Ontology analysis of the subset of DEGs with sex differences only in the WT cortex revealed a significant enrichment of genes annotated with the function 'cation channel activity'. Moreover, within each sex we found only a few DEGs in ERβKO vs WT mice (8 and 5 in males and females, respectively).

Conclusions

Overall, our results suggest that in the adult mouse posterior cortex there are surprisingly few sex differences in gene expression, and those that exist are mainly related to cation channel activity. Additionally, they indicate that brain region-specific functional effects of ERβ may be largely post-transcriptional.

GABA interneurons are the cellular trigger for ketamine's rapid antidepressant actions

A single subanesthetic dose of ketamine, an NMDA receptor (NMDAR) antagonist, produces rapid and sustained antidepressant actions in depressed patients, addressing a major unmet need for the treatment of mood disorders. Ketamine produces a rapid increase in extracellular glutamate and synaptic formation in the prefrontal cortex, but the initial cellular trigger that initiates this increase and ketamine's behavioral actions has not been identified. To address this question, we used a combination of viral shRNA and conditional mutation to produce cell-specific knockdown or deletion of a key NMDAR subunit, GluN2B, implicated in the actions of ketamine. The results demonstrated that the antidepressant actions of ketamine were blocked by GluN2B-NMDAR knockdown on GABA (Gad1) interneurons, as well as subtypes expressing somatostatin (Sst) or parvalbumin (Pvalb), but not glutamate principle neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Further analysis of GABA subtypes showed that cell-specific knockdown or deletion of GluN2B in Sst interneurons blocked or occluded the antidepressant actions of ketamine and revealed sex-specific differences that are associated with excitatory postsynaptic currents on mPFC principle neurons. These findings demonstrate that GluN2B-NMDARs on GABA interneurons are the initial cellular trigger for the rapid antidepressant actions of ketamine and show sex-specific adaptive mechanisms to GluN2B modulation.

The infralimbic cortex and mGlu5 mediate the effects of chronic intermittent ethanol exposure on fear learning and memory

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) often occur comorbidly. While the incidence of these disorders is increasing, there is little investigation into the interacting neural mechanisms between these disorders. These studies aim to identify cognitive deficits that occur as a consequence of fear and ethanol exposure, implement a novel pharmaceutical intervention, and determine relevant underlying neurocircuitry. Additionally, due to clinical sex differences in PTSD prevalence and alcohol abuse, these studies examine the nature of this relationship in rodent models.

METHODS

Animals were exposed to a model of PTSD+AUD using auditory fear conditioning followed by chronic intermittent ethanol exposure (CIE). Then, rats received extinction training consisting of multiple conditioned stimulus presentations in absence of the shock. Extinction recall and context-induced freezing were measured in subsequent tests. CDPPB, a metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGlu5) positive allosteric modulator, was used to treat these deficits, and region-specific effects were determined using microinjections.

RESULTS

These studies determined that CIE exposure led to deficits in fear extinction learning and heightened context-induced freezing while sex differences emerged in fear conditioning and extinction cue recall tests. Furthermore, using CDPPB, these studies found that enhancement of infralimbic (IfL) mGlu5 activity was able to recover CIE-induced deficits in both males and females.

CONCLUSIONS

These studies show that CIE induces deficits in fear-related behaviors and that enhancement of IfL glutamatergic activity can facilitate learning during extinction. Additionally, we identify novel pharmacological targets for the treatment of individuals who suffer from PTSD and AUD.

The neurobiological basis of sex differences in learned fear and its inhibition

Learning that certain cues or environments predict threat enhances survival by promoting appropriate fear and the resulting defensive responses. Adapting to changing stimulus contingencies by learning that such cues no longer predict threat, or distinguishing between these threat-related and other innocuous stimuli, also enhances survival by limiting fear responding in an appropriate manner to conserve resources. Importantly, a failure to inhibit fear in response to harmless stimuli is a feature of certain anxiety and trauma-related disorders, which are also associated with dysfunction of the neural circuitry underlying learned fear and its inhibition. Interestingly, these disorders are up to twice as common in women, compared to men. Despite this striking sex difference in disease prevalence, the neurobiological factors involved remain poorly understood. This is due in part to the majority of relevant preclinical studies having neglected to include female subjects alongside males, which has greatly hindered progress in this field. However, more recent studies have begun to redress this imbalance and emerging evidence indicates that there are significant sex differences in the inhibition of learned fear and associated neural circuit function. This paper provides a narrative review on sex differences in learned fear and its inhibition through extinction and discrimination, along with the key gonadal hormone and brain mechanisms involved. Understanding the endocrine and neural basis of sex differences in learned fear inhibition may lead to novel insights on the neurobiological mechanisms underlying the enhanced vulnerability to develop anxiety-related disorders that are observed in women.

Learning and the Lifespan: What's Sex Got to Do With It?

Engagement in sexual behavior can impact neurosteroidogenesis, in particular production of the prohormone testosterone (T) and likely its subsequent metabolism to 5α-androstane-3α-17β-Diol (3α-Diol) or aromatization to estradiol (E2). Androgens and their metabolites vary across the lifespan and impact many behaviors, including cognition, anxiety, and sexual behavior. Thus, we hypothesized that mating may alter cognitive performance via androstane neurosteroids in an age- and experience-dependent manner. We first investigated if exposure to mating during memory consolidation could enhance performance in the novel object recognition task (NOR). Male rats were trained in NOR and then immediately exposed to mating-relevant or control stimuli. Following a 4 h inter-trial interval (ITI), male rats were tested for object memory. Male rats that were exposed to a receptive female during the ITI had better performance in NOR. We then investigated if these effects were due to novelty associated with mating. Male rats were exposed to mating-relevant stimuli and identified as sexually responsive (SR) or sexually non-responsive (SNR) based on a median split of engagement in mating with the stimulus female. We found that a brief history (10 min session daily for five consecutive days) of sexual history substantially influenced performance in the NOR task, such that SR males had better performance in the NOR task, but only when presented with the opportunity to mate during the ITI. As T levels substantially decrease with age in male rodents, we investigated whether the effects of long-term sexual experience (10 months) influenced neurosteroids and NOR performance in mid-aged (12 months old) males. Mid-aged SR males maintain neural T; however, they have decreased neural E2 and decreased cognitive performance at 12 months compared to mid-aged SNR rats. In sexually experienced rats, those with better cognitive performance had greater levels of T metabolites (e.g., 3α-Diol in mated SR males, E2 in mid-aged SNR rats). While naïve males that were mated during the ITI had better cognitive performance, T metabolites were decreased compared to controls. These findings suggest that T metabolites, but not the prohormone, may influence learning dependent on sexual proclivity, experience, and proximate opportunity to mate.

Targeted sequencing of the LRRTM gene family in suicide attempters with bipolar disorder

Glutamatergic signaling is the primary excitatory neurotransmission pathway in the brain, and its relationship to neuropsychiatric disorders is of considerable interest. Our previous attempted suicide genome-wide association study, and numerous studies investigating gene expression, genetic variation, and DNA methylation have implicated aberrant glutamatergic signaling in suicide risk. The glutamatergic pathway gene LRRTM4 was an associated gene identified in our attempted suicide genome-wide association study, with association support seen primarily in females. Recent evidence has also shown that glutamatergic signaling is partly regulated by sex-related hormones. The LRRTM gene family encodes neuronal leucine-rich transmembrane proteins that localize to and promote glutamatergic synapse development. In this study, we sequenced the coding and regulatory regions of all four LRRTM gene members plus a large intronic region of LRRTM4 in 476 bipolar disorder suicide attempters and 473 bipolar disorder nonattempters. We identified two male-specific variants, one female- and five male-specific haplotypes significantly associated with attempted suicide in LRRTM4. Furthermore, variants within significant haplotypes may be brain expression quantitative trait loci for LRRTM4 and some of these variants overlap with predicted hormone response elements. Overall, these results provide supporting evidence for a sex-specific association of genetic variation in LRRTM4 with attempted suicide.

The Role of Hormonal and Reproductive Status in the Treatment of Anxiety Disorders in Women

Exposure therapy, a key treatment for anxiety disorders, can be modelled in the laboratory using Pavlovian fear extinction. Understanding the hormonal and neurobiological mechanisms underlying fear extinction in females, who are twice more likely than males to present with anxiety disorders, may aid in optimising exposure therapy outcomes in this population. This chapter will begin by discussing the role of the sex hormones, estradiol and progesterone, in fear extinction in females. We will also propose potential mechanisms by which these hormones may modulate fear extinction. The second half of this chapter will discuss the long-term hormonal, neurological and behavioural changes that arise from pregnancy and motherhood and how these changes may alter the features of fear extinction in females. Finally, we will discuss implications of this research for the treatment of anxiety disorders in women with and without prior reproductive experience.

Diminished Fear Extinction in Adolescents Is Associated With an Altered Somatostatin Interneuron-Mediated Inhibition in the Infralimbic Cortex

BACKGROUND

Rodents and humans show an attenuation of fear extinction during adolescence, which coincides with the onset of several psychiatric disorders. Although the ethological relevance and the underlying mechanism are largely unknown, the suppression of fear extinction during adolescence is associated with a diminished plasticity in the glutamatergic neurons of the infralimbic medial prefrontal cortex, a brain region critical for fear extinction. Given the putative effect of synaptic inhibition on glutamatergic neuron activity, we studied whether gamma-aminobutyric acidergic neurons in the infralimbic medial prefrontal cortex are involved in the suppression of fear extinction during adolescence.

METHODS

We assessed membrane and synaptic properties in parvalbumin-positive interneurons (PVINs) and somatostatin-positive interneurons (SSTINs) in male preadolescent, adolescent, and adult mice. The effect of fear conditioning and extinction on PVIN-pyramidal neuron and SSTIN-pyramidal neuron synapses in male preadolescent, adolescent, and adult mice was evaluated using an optogenetic approach.

RESULTS

The development of the membrane excitability of PVINs is delayed and reaches maturity only by adulthood, while the SSTIN membrane properties are developed early and remain stable during development from preadolescence to adulthood. Although the synaptic inhibition mediated by PVINs undergoes a protracted development, it does not exhibit a fear behavior-specific plasticity. However, the synaptic inhibition mediated by SSTINs undergoes an adolescence-specific enhancement, and this increased inhibition is suppressed by fear learning but is not restored by extinction training. This altered plasticity during adolescence overlapped with a reduction in calcium-permeable glutamate receptors in SSTINs.

CONCLUSIONS

The adolescence-specific plasticity in the SSTINs might play a role in fear extinction suppression during adolescence in mice.

Estradiol potentiates inhibitory synaptic transmission in the oval bed nucleus of the striaterminalis of male and female rats

17ß-Estradiol (E2) is a potent neuromodulator capable of producing changes in inhibitory synaptic transmission by either changing pre-synaptic GABA release or post-synaptic GABA_A receptor function. Physiologically, E2 is important for energy homeostasis, influencing food consumption, body weight, adipose tissue metabolism and energy expenditure. E2 may influence energy homeostasis through estrogen receptor-rich regions such as the oval bed nucleus of the stria-terminalis (ovBNST). However, the neurophysiological effects of estradiol within the ovBNST remain largely unknown. Understanding how E2 affects inhibitory transmission may elucidate the ovBNST's contribution to energy homeostasis. Here, using brain slice electrophysiology, we saw that E2 produced a long-term potentiation (LTP) of GABA_A synaptic transmission (LTP^GABA) in the ovBNST in male rats. E2 acted on estrogen receptors α and G-protein coupled estrogen receptors (GPER), involved protein kinase activation and required an intact endocannabinoid system. The effects of E2 in males were sensitive to 24 h of food deprivation. In females, E2 was 100-fold more potent at producing LTP^GABA ovBNST compared to male rats and involved all three known subtypes of estrogen receptors (ERα, ERß, and GPER). These results demonstrate that E2 is a potent neuromodulator of inhibitory synaptic transmission within the ovBNST of both sexes to potentially regulate energy homeostasis.

Sex differences in fear extinction

Despite the exponential increase in fear research during the last years, few studies have included female subjects in their design. The need to include females arises from the knowledge gap of mechanistic processes underlying the behavioral and neural differences observed in fear extinction. Moreover, the exact contribution of sex and hormones in relation to learning and behavior is still largely unknown. Insights from this field could be beneficial as fear-related disorders are twice as prevalent in women compared to men. Here, we review an up-to-date summary of animal and human studies in adulthood that report sex differences in fear extinction from a structural and functional approach. Furthermore, we describe how these factors could contribute to the observed sex differences in fear extinction during normal and pathological conditions.

Applying a Women's Health Lens to the Study of the Aging Brain

A major challenge in neuroscience is to understand what happens to a brain as it ages. Such insights could make it possible to distinguish between individuals who will undergo typical aging and those at risk for neurodegenerative disease. Over the last quarter century, thousands of human brain imaging studies have probed the neural basis of age-related cognitive decline. "Aging" studies generally enroll adults over the age of 65, a historical precedent rooted in the average age of retirement. A consequence of this research tradition is that it overlooks one of the most significant neuroendocrine changes in a woman's life: the transition to menopause. The menopausal transition is marked by an overall decline in ovarian sex steroid production-up to 90% in the case of estradiol-a dramatic endocrine change that impacts multiple biological systems, including the brain. Despite sex differences in the risk for dementia, the influence that biological sex and sex hormones have on the aging brain is historically understudied, leaving a critical gap in our understanding of the aging process. In this Perspective article, we highlight the influence that endocrine factors have on the aging brain. We devote particular attention to the neural and cognitive changes that unfold in the middle decade of life, as a function of reproductive aging. We then consider emerging evidence from animal and human studies that other endocrine factors occurring earlier in life (e.g., pregnancy, hormonal birth control use) also shape the aging process. Applying a women's health lens to the study of the aging brain will advance knowledge of the neuroendocrine basis of cognitive aging and ensure that men and women get the full benefit of our research efforts.

Deficiency of the palmitoyl acyltransferase ZDHHC7 impacts brain and behavior of mice in a sex-specific manner

The palmitoyl acyltransferase ZDHHC7 belongs to the DHHC family responsible for the covalent attachment of palmitic acid (palmitoylation) to target proteins. Among synaptic proteins, its main targets are sex steroid receptors such as the estrogen receptors. When palmitoylated, these couple to membrane microdomains and elicit non-genomic rapid responses. Such coupling is found particularly in cortico-limbic brain areas which impact structure, function, and behavioral outcomes. Thus far, the functional role of ZDHHC7 has not been investigated in this context. To directly analyze an impact of ZDHHC7 on brain anatomy, microstructure, connectivity, function, and behavior, we generated a mutant mouse in which the Zdhhc7 gene is constitutively inactivated. Male and female Zdhhc7^-/- mice were phenotypically compared with wild-type mice using behavioral tests, electrophysiology, protein analyses, and neuroimaging with diffusion tensor-based fiber tractography. Zdhhc7-deficiency impaired excitatory transmission, synaptic plasticity at hippocampal Schaffer collateral CA1 synapses, and hippocampal structural connectivity in both sexes in similar manners. Effects on both sexes but in different manners appeared in medial prefrontal cortical synaptic transmission and in hippocampal microstructures. Finally, Zdhhc7-deficiency affected anxiety-related behaviors exclusively in females. Our data demonstrated the importance of Zdhhc7 for assembling proper brain structure, function, and behavior on a system level in mice in a sex-related manner. Given the prominent role of sex-specificity also in humans and associated mental disorders, Zdhhc7^-/- mice might provide a promising model for in-depth investigation of potentially underlying sex-specifically altered mechanisms.

Chemogenetic Suppression of Medial Prefrontal-Dorsal Hippocampal Interactions Prevents Estrogenic Enhancement of Memory Consolidation in Female Mice

The importance of the dorsal hippocampus (DH) in mediating the memory-enhancing effects of the sex-steroid hormone 17β-estradiol (E₂) is well established. However, estrogen receptors (ERs) are highly expressed in other brain regions that support memory formation, including the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). The mPFC and DH interact to mediate the formation of several types of memory, and behavioral tasks that recruit the mPFC are enhanced by systemic E₂ administration, making this region a prime candidate for investigating circuit-level questions regarding the estrogenic regulation of memory. Further, infusion of E₂ directly into the DH increases dendritic spine density in both the DH and mPFC, and this effect depends upon rapid activation of cell-signaling pathways in the DH, demonstrating a previously unexplored interaction between the DH and mPFC that led us to question the role of the mPFC in object memory consolidation and the necessity of DH-mPFC interactions in the memory-enhancing effects of E₂. Here, we found that infusion of E₂ directly into the mPFC of ovariectomized mice increased mPFC apical spine density and facilitated object recognition and spatial memory consolidation, demonstrating that E₂ in the mPFC increases spinogenesis and enhances on memory consolidation. Next, chemogenetic suppression of the mPFC blocked the beneficial effects of DH-infused E₂ on memory consolidation, indicating that systems-level DH-mPFC interactions are necessary for the memory-enhancing effects of E₂. Together, these studies provide evidence that E₂ in the mPFC mediates memory formation, and reveal that the DH and mPFC act in concert to support the memory-enhancing effects of E₂ in female mice.

Estrous cycle stage gates sex differences in prefrontal muscarinic control of fear memory formation

The association of a sensory cue and an aversive footshock that are separated in time, as in trace fear conditioning, requires persistent activity in prelimbic cortex during the cue-shock interval. The activation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors has been shown to facilitate persistent firing of cortical cells in response to brief stimulation, and muscarinic antagonists in the prefrontal cortex impair working memory. It is unknown, however, if the acquisition of associative trace fear conditioning is dependent on muscarinic signaling in the prefrontal cortex. Here, we delivered the muscarinic receptor antagonist scopolamine to the prelimbic cortex of rats prior to trace fear conditioning and tested their memories of the cue and training context the following day. The effect of scopolamine on working memory performance was also tested using a spatial delayed non-match to sample task. Male and female subjects were included to examine potential sex differences in the modulation of memory formation, as we have previously observed for pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide signaling in the prefrontal cortex (Kirry et al., 2018). We found that pre-training administration of intra-prelimbic scopolamine impaired the formation of cued and contextual fear memories in males, but not females at a dose that impairs spatial working memory in both sexes. Fear memory formation in females was impaired by a higher dose of scopolamine and this impairment was gated by estrous cycle stage: scopolamine failed to impair memory in rats in the diestrus or proestrus stages of the estrous cycle. These findings add to the growing body of evidence that the prefrontal cortex is sexually dimorphic in learning and memory and additionally suggest that males and females differentially engage prefrontal neuromodulatory systems in support of learning.

Ovarian Cycle Stages Modulate Alzheimer-Related Cognitive and Brain Network Alterations in Female Mice

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) begins several decades before the onset of clinical symptoms, at a time when women may still undergo reproductive cycling. Whether ovarian functions alter substrates of AD pathogenesis is unknown. Here we show that ovarian cycle stages significantly modulate AD-related alterations in neural network patterns, cognitive impairments, and pathogenic protein production in the hAPP-J20 mouse model of AD. Female hAPP mice spent more time in estrogen-dominant cycle stages and these ovarian stages worsened AD-related network dysfunction and cognitive impairments. In contrast, progesterone-dominant stages and gonadectomy attenuated these AD-related deficits. Further studies revealed a direct role for estradiol in stimulating neural network excitability and susceptibility to seizures in hAPP mice and increasing amyloid beta levels. Understanding dynamic effects of the ovarian cycle on the female nervous system in disease, including AD, is of critical importance and may differ from effects on a healthy brain. The pattern of ovarian cycle effects on disease-related networks, cognition, and pathogenic protein expression may be relevant to young women at risk for AD.

Estradiol-induced enhancement of fear extinction in female rats: The role of NMDA receptor activation

Converging cross-species evidence indicates that fear extinction (the laboratory basis of exposure therapy for anxiety disorders) in females is modulated by endogenous and exogenous estradiol. The mechanisms underlying estradiol's influences on fear extinction are largely undefined. However, one likely candidate is the NMDA-receptor (NMDAr), activation of which is necessary for estradiol-mediated enhancements in structural and functional neural plasticity, as well as extinction consolidation in males. Here, we demonstrate that systemic co-administration of the non-competitive NMDAr antagonist, MK801, blocked the enhancement of fear extinction by systemic estradiol in ovariectomized rats. In intact rats, MK801 during diestrus (rising estradiol) prevented the enhancement in extinction recall in rats that received extinction training during proestrus (peak estradiol). Systemic administration of the partial NMDAr agonist D-cycloserine (DCS) prior to extinction training facilitated extinction in ovariectomized rats, mimicking the effects of estradiol. In intact rats, DCS administered on the afternoon of proestrus and the morning of estrus (declining estradiol) facilitated extinction in rats that received extinction training during metestrus (low estradiol). Finally, DCS also facilitated extinction in ovariectomized rats when administered immediately after extinction training. Combined, these findings suggest that endogenous and exogenous estradiol enhance fear extinction via NMDAr-dependent mechanisms. Moreover, these findings raise the possibility that fear extinction deficits during periods of low endogenous estradiol levels can be reversed by increasing NMDAr activation via DCS administration, either well prior to, or immediately after, extinction training.

Repeated abortion in adulthood induces cognition impairment in aged mice

Age-related cognitive decline is one of the major aspects that impede successful aging in humans. Repeated abortion in adulthood can accelerate or aggravate cognitive deficiency during aging. Here we used repeated abortion in female mice adulthood and investigated the consequences of this treatment on cognitive performance during aging. We observed a substantial impairment of learning memory in 15 months old. This cognitive dysfunction was supported by Aβ elevation in CA region. Repeated abortion mice have uniform estrous cycles and decreased ERα expression in hypothalamus and hippocampus. Furthermore, repeated abortion not only significantly increased the HMGB1 expression in hippocampus but also increased the plasma and hippocampal protein levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. Finally, we identified that MPP-induced cell apoptosis and increased HMGB1 expression as well as IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α expression as following Aβ elevation. Taken together, our results identify possible molecular mechanisms underlying cognitive impairment during aging, and demonstrated the repeated abortion in adulthood on cognitive function in aged mice.

17β-Estradiol Potentiates the Reinstatement of Cocaine Seeking in Female Rats: Role of the Prelimbic Prefrontal Cortex and Cannabinoid Type-1 Receptors

Clinical observations imply that female cocaine addicts experience enhanced relapse vulnerability compared with males, an effect tied to elevated estrogen phases of the ovarian hormone cycle. Although estrogens can enhance drug-seeking behavior, they do not directly induce reinstatement on their own. To model this phenomenon, we tested whether an estrogen could augment drug-seeking behavior in response to an ordinarily subthreshold reinstatement trigger. Following cocaine self-administration and extinction, female rats were ovariectomized to isolate estrogen effects on reinstatement. Although neither peak proestrus levels of the primary estrogen 17β-estradiol (E2; 10 μg/kg, i.p., 1-h pretreatment) nor a subthreshold cocaine dose (1.25 mg/kg, i.p.) alone were sufficient to reinstate drug-seeking behavior, pretreatment with E2 potentiated reinstatement to the ordinarily subthreshold cocaine dose. Furthermore, E2 microinfusions revealed that E2 (5 μg/0.3 μl, 15-min pretreatment) acts directly within the prelimbic prefrontal cortex (PrL-PFC) to potentiate reinstatement. As E2 has been implicated in endocannabinoid mobilization, which can disinhibit PrL-PFC projection neurons, we investigated whether cannabinoid type-1 receptor (CB1R) activation is necessary for E2 to potentiate reinstatement. The CB1R antagonist AM251 (1 or 3 mg/kg, i.p., 30-min pretreatment) administered prior to E2 and cocaine suppressed reinstatement in a dose-dependent manner. Finally, PrL-PFC AM251 microinfusions (300 ng/side, 15-min pretreatment) also suppressed E2-potentiated reinstatement. Together, these results suggest that E2 can augment reactivity to an ordinarily subthreshold relapse trigger in a PrL-PFC CB1R activation-dependent manner.

17β-estradiol (E2) promotes growth and stability of new dendritic spines via estrogen receptor β pathway in intact mouse cortex

The steroid hormone 17β-estradiol (E2) remodels neural circuits at the synaptic level in the mammalian hippocampus and cortex. However, the underlying mechanism of synapse dynamics remains unclear. To elucidate the mechanism, we traced individual dendritic spines on layer V pyramidal neurons of the primary sensory cortex in adult female mice under E2 intervention using two-photon in vivo imaging microscopy. We confirmed the increase of the spine density upon E2 treatment in the intact mouse cortex. Furthermore, we found that this increase is due to the promotion of spine formation and the stability of newly formed spines. E2 treatment doesn't alter the elimination rate of pre-existing spines. Our results also indicate that the activation of the estrogen receptor β (ERβ) mimics the effects of E2 administration on spine dynamics. Taken together, our findings suggest that estrogen promotes growth and stability of new dendritic spines via the ERβ pathway in the intact cortex of female mice.

Estradiol shifts interactions between the infralimbic cortex and central amygdala to enhance fear extinction memory in female rats

There is growing evidence that estradiol (E2) enhances fear extinction memory consolidation. However, it is unclear how E2 influences the nodes of the fear extinction network to enhance extinction memory. This study begins to delineate the neural circuits underlying the influence of E2 on fear extinction acquisition and consolidation in female rats. After fear conditioning (day 1), naturally cycling female rats underwent extinction learning (day 2) in a low-E2 state, receiving a systemic administration of either E2 or vehicle prior to extinction training. Extinction memory recall was then tested 24 hr later (day 3). We measured immediate early gene c-fos expression within the extinction network during fear extinction learning and extinction recall. During extinction learning, E2 treatment increased centrolateral amygdala c-fos activity and reduced lateral amygdala activity relative to vehicle. During extinction recall, E2-treated rats exhibited reduced c-fos expression in the centromedial amygdala. There were no group differences in c-fos expression within the medial prefrontal cortex or dorsal hippocampus. Examining c-fos ratios with the infralimbic cortex (IL) revealed that, despite the lack of group differences within the IL, E2 treatment induced greater IL activity relative to both prelimbic cortex and central amygdala (CeA) activity during extinction memory recall. Only the relationship between IL and CeA activity positively correlated with extinction retention. In conclusion, E2 appears to modify interactions between the IL and the CeA in females, shifting from stronger amygdalar modulation of fear during extinction learning to stronger IL control during extinction recall. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

17β-estradiol rescues damages following traumatic brain injury from molecule to behavior in mice

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a public health concern, and causes cognitive dysfunction, emotional disorders, and neurodegeration, as well. The currently available treatments are all symptom-oriented with unsatifying efficacy. It is highly demanded to understand its underlying mechanisms. Controlled cortical impact (CCI) was used to induce TBI in aged female mice subjected to ovariectomy. Brain damages were assessed with neurological severity score, brain infarction and edema. Morris water maze and elevated plus maze were applied to evaluate the levels of anxiety. Apoptosis in the hippocampus was assayed with Fluoro-Jade B staining and TUNEL staining. Western blot was employed to measure the expression of NMDA receptor subunits and phosphorylation of ERK1/2, and biochemical assays were used to estimate oxidative stress. 17beta-Estradiol (E2) was intraperitoneally administered at 10-80 μg/kg once per day for 7 consecutive days before or after CCI. Chronic administration of E2 both before and immediately after CCI conferred neuroprotection, reducing neurological severity score, brain infarction, and edema in TBI mice. Additionally, E2 improved many aspects of deleterious effects of TBI on the hippocampus, including neuronal apoptosis, dysfunction in spatial memory, reduction in NR2B, enhancement of oxidative stress, and activation of ERK1/2 pathway. The present study provides clue for the notion that E2 has therapeutic potential for both prevention and intervention of TBI-induced brain damages.

The functions of estrogen receptor beta in the female brain: A systematic review

Females have unique and additional risk factors for neurological disorders. Among classical estrogen receptors, estrogen receptor beta (ERβ) has been suggested as a therapeutic target. However, little is known about the role of ERβ in the female brain. Six electronic databases were searched for articles evaluating the role of ERβ in the female brain and the influence of age and menopause on ERβ function. After screening 3186 titles and abstracts, 49 articles were included in the review, all of which were animal studies. Of these, 19 focused on cellular signaling, 7 on neuroendocrine pathways, 8 on neurological disorders, 4 on neuroprotection and 19 on psychological and psychiatric outcomes (6 studies evaluated two or more outcomes). Our findings showed that ERβ phosphorylated and activated intracellular second messenger proteins and regulated protein expression of genes involved in neurological functions. It also promoted neurogenesis, modulated the neuroendocrine regulation of stress response, conferred neuroprotection against ischemia and inflammation, and reduced anxiety- and depression-like behaviors. Targeting ERβ may constitute a novel treatment for menopausal symptoms, including anxiety, depression, and neurological diseases. However, to establish potential therapeutic and preventive strategies targeting ERβ, future studies should be conducted in humans to further our understanding of the importance of ERβ in women's mental and cognitive health.

Control of Dendritic Spine Morphological and Functional Plasticity by Small GTPases

Structural plasticity of excitatory synapses is a vital component of neuronal development, synaptic plasticity, and behaviour. Abnormal development or regulation of excitatory synapses has also been strongly implicated in many neurodevelopmental, psychiatric, and neurodegenerative disorders. In the mammalian forebrain, the majority of excitatory synapses are located on dendritic spines, specialized dendritic protrusions that are enriched in actin. Research over recent years has begun to unravel the complexities involved in the regulation of dendritic spine structure. The small GTPase family of proteins have emerged as key regulators of structural plasticity, linking extracellular signals with the modulation of dendritic spines, which potentially underlies their ability to influence cognition. Here we review a number of studies that examine how small GTPases are activated and regulated in neurons and furthermore how they can impact actin dynamics, and thus dendritic spine morphology. Elucidating this signalling process is critical for furthering our understanding of the basic mechanisms by which information is encoded in neural circuits but may also provide insight into novel targets for the development of effective therapies to treat cognitive dysfunction seen in a range of neurological disorders.

Modulation of Fear Extinction by Stress, Stress Hormones and Estradiol: A Review

Fear acquisition and extinction are valid models for the etiology and treatment of anxiety, trauma- and stressor-related disorders. These disorders are assumed to involve aversive learning under acute and/or chronic stress. Importantly, fear conditioning and stress share common neuronal circuits. The stress response involves multiple changes interacting in a time-dependent manner: (a) the fast first-wave stress response [with central actions of noradrenaline, dopamine, serotonin, corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), plus increased sympathetic tone and peripheral catecholamine release] and (b) the second-wave stress response [with peripheral release of glucocorticoids (GCs) after activation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis]. Control of fear during extinction is also sensitive to these stress-response mediators. In the present review, we will thus examine current animal and human data, addressing the role of stress and single stress-response mediators for successful acquisition, consolidation and recall of fear extinction. We report studies using pharmacological manipulations targeting a number of stress-related neurotransmitters and neuromodulators [monoamines, opioids, endocannabinoids (eCBs), neuropeptide Y, oxytocin, GCs] and behavioral stress induction. As anxiety, trauma- and stressor-related disorders are more common in women, recent research focuses on female sex hormones and identifies a potential role for estradiol in fear extinction. We will thus summarize animal and human data on the role of estradiol and explore possible interactions with stress or stress-response mediators in extinction. This also aims at identifying time-windows of enhanced (or reduced) sensitivity for fear extinction, and thus also for successful exposure therapy.

The estrous cycle surpasses sex differences in regulating the transcriptome in the rat medial prefrontal cortex and reveals an underlying role of early growth response 1

Background

Males and females differ in cognitive functions and emotional processing, which in part have been associated with baseline sex differences in gene expression in the medial prefrontal cortex. Nevertheless, a growing body of evidence suggests that sex differences in medial prefrontal cortex-dependent cognitive functions are attenuated by hormonal fluctuations within the menstrual cycle. Despite known genomic effects of ovarian hormones, the interaction of the estrous cycle with sex differences in gene expression in the medial prefrontal cortex remains unclear and warrants further investigations.

Results

We undertake a large-scale characterization of sex differences and their interaction with the estrous cycle in the adult medial prefrontal cortex transcriptome and report that females with high and low ovarian hormone levels exhibited a partly opposed sexually biased transcriptome. The extent of regulation within females vastly exceeds sex differences, and supports a multi-level reorganization of synaptic function across the estrous cycle. Genome-wide analysis of the transcription factor early growth response 1 binding highlights its role in controlling the synapse-related genes varying within females.

Conclusions

We uncover a critical influence of the estrous cycle on the adult rat medial prefrontal cortex transcriptome resulting in partly opposite sex differences in proestrus when compared to diestrus females, and we discovered a direct role for Early Growth Response 1 in this opposite regulation. In addition to illustrating the importance of accounting for the estrous cycle in females, our data set the ground for a better understanding of the female specificities in cognition and emotional processing.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13059-015-0815-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Sex differences in anxiety disorders: Interactions between fear, stress, and gonadal hormones

This article is part of a Special Issue "SBN 2014". Women are more vulnerable to stress- and fear-based disorders, such as anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder. Despite the growing literature on this topic, the neural basis of these sex differences remains unclear, and the findings appear inconsistent. The neurobiological mechanisms of fear and stress in learning and memory processes have been extensively studied, and the crosstalk between these systems is beginning to explain the disproportionate incidence and differences in symptomatology and remission within these psychopathologies. In this review, we discuss the intersect between stress and fear mechanisms and their modulation by gonadal hormones and discuss the relevance of this information to sex differences in anxiety and fear-based disorders. Understanding these converging influences is imperative to the development of more effective, individualized treatments that take sex and hormones into account.

A Role for Estrogen in Schizophrenia: Clinical and Preclinical Findings

Gender differences in schizophrenia have been extensively researched and it is being increasingly accepted that gonadal steroids are strongly attributed to this phenomenon. Of the various hormones implicated, the estrogen hypothesis has been the most widely researched one and it postulates that estrogen exerts a protective effect by buffering females against the development and severity of the illness. In this review, we comprehensively analyse studies that have investigated the effects of estrogen, in particular 17β-estradiol, in clinical, animal, and molecular research with relevance to schizophrenia. Specifically, we discuss the current evidence on estrogen dysfunction in schizophrenia patients and review the clinical findings on the use of estradiol as an adjunctive treatment in schizophrenia patients. Preclinical research that has used animal models and molecular probes to investigate estradiol's underlying protective mechanisms is also substantially discussed, with particular focus on estradiol's impact on the major neurotransmitter systems implicated in schizophrenia, namely, the dopamine, serotonin, and glutamate systems.

Alteration of the Centromedial Amygdala Glutamatergic Synapses by the BDNF Val66Met Polymorphism

Fear expression is mediated by an activation of the centromedial amygdala (CEm), the major output nucleus of the amygdaloid complex. Consistently, fear extinction is associated with an increased synaptic inhibition as well as a suppression of the excitability of the CEm neurons. However, little is known about the role of CEm glutamatergic synapses in fear regulation and anxiety-like behaviors. The BDNF Val66Met, a single-nucleotide polymorphism in the human BDNF gene, impairs fear extinction and leads to anxiety-like symptoms. To determine whether the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism affects the CEm excitatory synapses, we examined basal glutamatergic synaptic transmission and plasticity in the CEm neurons of BDNF Val66Met knock-in (BDNF(Met/Met)) mice. The BDNF Val66Met single-nucleotide polymorphism exerted an opposite effect on non-NMDA and NMDA receptor transmission with a potentiation of the former and a suppression of the latter. In addition, the decay time of NMDA currents was decreased in BDNF(Met/Met) mice, suggesting a modification of NMDA receptor subunit composition. Unlike the wild-type mice that exhibited a potentiation of non-NMDA receptor transmission following fear conditioning and a depotentiation upon fear extinction, BDNF(Met/Met) mice failed to show this experience-dependent synaptic plasticity in the CEm neurons. Our results suggest that the elevated non-NMDA receptor transmission, the suppression of NMDA receptor transmission, and an impairment of synaptic plasticity in the CEm neurons might contribute to the fear extinction deficit and increased anxiety-like symptoms in BDNF Val66Met carriers.

Rapid modulation of synaptogenesis and spinogenesis by 17β-estradiol in primary cortical neurons

In the mammalian forebrain, the majority of excitatory synapses occur on dendritic spines. Changes in the number of these structures is important for brain development, plasticity and the refinement of neuronal circuits. The formation of excitatory synapses involves the coordinated formation of dendritic spines and targeting of multi-protein complexes to nascent connections. Recent studies have demonstrated that the estrogen 17β-estradiol (E2) can rapidly increase the number of dendritic spines, an effect consistent with the ability of E2 to rapidly influence cognitive function. However, the molecular composition of E2-induced spines and whether these protrusions form synaptic connections has not been fully elucidated. Moreover, which estrogen receptor(s) (ER) mediate these spine-morphogenic responses are not clear. Here, we report that acute E2 treatment results in the recruitment of postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD-95) to novel dendritic spines. In addition neuroligin 1 (Nlg-1) and the NMDA receptor subunit GluN1 are recruited to nascent synapses in cortical neurons. The presence of these synaptic proteins at nascent synapses suggests that the machinery to allow pre- and post-synapses to form connections are present in E2-induced spines. We further demonstrate that E2 treatment results in the rapid and transient activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), Akt and the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathways. However, only ERK1/2 and Akt are required for E2-mediated spinogenesis. Using synthetic receptor modulators, we further demonstrate that activation of the estrogen receptor beta (ERβ) but not alpha (ERα) mimics rapid E2-induced spinogenesis and synaptogenesis. Taken together these findings suggest that in primary cortical neurons, E2 signaling via ERβ, but not through ERα, is capable of remodeling neuronal circuits by increasing the number of excitatory synapses.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and addiction: Pathological versus therapeutic effects on drug seeking

Many abused drugs lead to changes in endogenous brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression in neural circuits responsible for addictive behaviors. BDNF is a known molecular mediator of memory consolidation processes, evident at both behavioral and neurophysiological levels. Specific neural circuits are responsible for storing and executing drug-procuring motor programs, whereas other neural circuits are responsible for the active suppression of these "seeking" systems. These seeking-circuits are established as associations are formed between drug-associated cues and the conditioned responses they elicit. Such conditioned responses (e.g. drug seeking) can be diminished either through a passive weakening of seeking- circuits or an active suppression of those circuits through extinction. Extinction learning occurs when the association between cues and drug are violated, for example, by cue exposure without the drug present. Cue exposure therapy has been proposed as a therapeutic avenue for the treatment of addictions. Here we explore the role of BDNF in extinction circuits, compared to seeking-circuits that "incubate" over prolonged withdrawal periods. We begin by discussing the role of BDNF in extinction memory for fear and cocaine-seeking behaviors, where extinction circuits overlap in infralimbic prefrontal cortex (PFC). We highlight the ability of estrogen to promote BDNF-like effects in hippocampal-prefrontal circuits and consider the role of sex differences in extinction and incubation of drug-seeking behaviors. Finally, we examine how opiates and alcohol "break the mold" in terms of BDNF function in extinction circuits.