HPV E4 expression and DNA hypermethylation of CADM1, MAL, and miR124-2 genes in cervical cancer and precursor lesions

Targeting HPV for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of cervical cancer

Despite advances in screening and prevention, cervical cancer (CC) remains an unresolved public health issue and poses a significant global challenge, particularly for women in low-income regions. Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, especially with the high-risk strains, is a primary driver of cervical carcinogenesis. Emerging evidence indicates that integrating HPV testing with existing approaches, such as cervical cytology and visual inspection, offers enhanced sensitivity and specificity in CC screening. HPV infection-associated biomarkers, including HPV E6/E7 oncogenes, p16^INK4a, DNA methylation signatures, and non-coding RNAs, offer valuable insights into disease progression and the development of personalized interventions. Preventive and therapeutic vaccination against HPV, along with tertiary prevention strategies such as the use of antiviral and immune-modulating drugs for HPV-related lesions, show great clinical potential. At the mechanistic level, single-cell RNA sequencing analysis and the development of organoid models for HPV infection provide new cellular and molecular insights into HPV-related CC pathogenesis. This review focuses on the crucial roles of HPV in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of CC, with particular emphasis on the latest advancements in screening and disease intervention.

Upregulation of HPV16E1 and E7 expression and FOXO3a mRNA downregulation in high-grade cervical neoplasia

Background

Cervical cancer remains a significant global health concern, ranking as the fourth most prevalent cancer among women worldwide. Human papillomaviruses (HPV) transcribe many genes that might be responsible for cervical cancer development. This study aims to investigate the correlation between the expression of HPV16 early genes and the mRNA expression of human FOXO3a, a tumor suppressor gene, in association with various stages of cervical precancerous lesions.

Methods

Eighty-five positive HPV16 DNA cervical swab samples were recruited and categorized based on cytology stages, i.e., negative for intraepithelial lesion or malignancy (NILM), atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASC-US), low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL), atypical squamous cell cannot exclude HSIL (ASC-H), high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL). RT-qPCR was performed to amplify HPV16E1, E4, E6, E6*I, E7, and human FOXO3a mRNA expression in all samples. The relative expression of those genes was calculated using GAPDH as a control. Detection of FOXO3a mRNA expression in the cervical cancer cell line by RT-qPCR and meta-analysis of FOXO3a expression using the RNA-Seq dataset by GEPIA2 were analyzed to support the conclusions.

Results

Among the cervical samples, HPV16E1 and E7 were significantly increased expression correlating to disease severity. HPV16E4 mRNA expression was 100% detected in all LSIL samples, with a significant increase observed from normal to LSIL stages. Conversely, FOXO3a mRNA expression decreased with disease severity, and the lowest expression was observed in HSIL/squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) samples. In addition, similar results of FOXO3a downregulation were also found in the cervical cancer cell line and RNA-Seq dataset of cervical cancer samples.

Conclusion

HPV16 early mRNA levels, including E1 and E7, increase during cancer progression, and downregulation of FOXO3a mRNA is a characteristic of cervical cancer cells and HSIL/SCC. Additionally, HPV16E4 mRNA expression was consistently detected in all LSIL samples, suggesting the presence of active viral replication. These findings might lead to further investigation into the interplay between HPV gene expression and host cell factors for targeted therapeutic strategies in cervical cancer management.

The Role of microRNA Expression and DNA Methylation in HPV-Related Cervical Cancer: A Systematic Review

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is a major etiologic factor in cervical cancer, a major cause of cancer-related morbidity and mortality among women worldwide. The role of microRNA (miRNA) dysregulation in cervical carcinogenesis is still largely unknown, but epigenetic changes, including DNA methylation and miRNA regulation, are crucial factors. The integration of HPV DNA into the host genome can lead to alterations in DNA methylation patterns and miRNA expression, contributing to the progression from normal epithelium to cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and, ultimately, to cervical cancer. This review aimed to examine the relationship between epigenetic changes in the development and progression of HPV associated with cervical cancer. A systematic literature search was conducted in major databases using predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Studies that investigated the expression, function, and clinical significance of miRNAs, DNA methylation, and the expression of oncoproteins in HPV-related cervical cancer were included. Data extraction, quality assessment, and synthesis were performed to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge. We provide an overview of the studies investigating miRNA expression in relation to cervical cancer progression, highlighting their common outcomes and their weaknesses/strengths. To achieve this, we systematically searched the Pubmed database for all articles published between January 2018 and December 2023. Our systematic review revealed a substantial body of evidence supporting the pivotal role of miRNA dysregulation in the pathogenesis of HPV-related cervical cancer and related oncoproteins. From the 28 studies retrieved, miR-124, FAM194/miR-124-2, and DNA methylation are the most frequently down- or up-regulated in CC progression. Notably, FAM194/miR-124-2 and DNA methylation emerged as a promising molecular marker for distinguishing between cases requiring immediate surgical intervention and those amenable to a more conservative wait-and-see approach. This systematic review underscores the critical involvement of microRNA in the context of HPV-related cervical cancer and sheds light on the potential clinical utility of FAM194/miR-124-2 and DNA methylation as a discriminatory tool for guiding treatment decisions. The identification of patients who may benefit from early surgical intervention versus those suitable for observation has important implications for personalized and targeted management strategies in the era of precision medicine.

Epigenetic alteration in cervical cancer induced by human papillomavirus

The critical role of a subset of Human Papillomavirus in cervical cancer has been widely acknowledged and studied. Despite progress in our understanding of the viral molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis, knowledge of how infection with HPV oncogenic variants progresses from latent infection to incurable cancer has not been completely elucidated. In this paper we reviewed the relationship between HPV infection and epigenetic mechanisms such as histone acetylation and deacetylation, DNA methylation and non-coding RNAs associated with this infection and the carcinogenic process.

MAL expression downregulation through suppressive H3K27me3 marks at the promoter in HPV16-related cervical cancers is prognostically relevant and manifested by the interplay of novel MAL antisense long noncoding RNA AC103563.8, E7 oncoprotein and EZH2

BACKGROUND

MAL (T-lymphocyte maturation-associated protein) is highly downregulated in most cancers, including cervical cancer (CaCx), attributable to promoter hypermethylation. Long noncoding RNA genes (lncGs) play pivotal roles in CaCx pathogenesis, by interacting with human papillomavirus (HPV)-encoded oncoproteins, and epigenetically regulating coding gene expression. Hence, we attempted to decipher the impact and underlying mechanisms of MAL downregulation in HPV16-related CaCx pathogenesis, by interrogating the interactive roles of MAL antisense lncRNA AC103563.8, E7 oncoprotein and PRC2 complex protein, EZH2.

RESULTS

Employing strand-specific RNA-sequencing, we confirmed the downregulated expression of MAL in association with poor overall survival of CaCx patients bearing HPV16, along with its antisense long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) AC103563.8. The strength of positive correlation between MAL and AC103563.8 was significantly high among patients compared to normal individuals. While downregulated expression of MAL was significantly associated with poor overall survival of CaCx patients bearing HPV16, AC103563.8 did not reveal any such association. We confirmed the enrichment of chromatin suppressive mark, H3K27me3 at MAL promoter, using ChIP-qPCR in HPV16-positive SiHa cells. Subsequent E7 knockdown in such cells significantly increased MAL expression, concomitant with decreased EZH2 expression and H3K27me3 marks at MAL promoter. In silico analysis revealed that both E7 and EZH2 bear the potential of interacting with AC103563.8, at the same binding domain. RNA immunoprecipitation with anti-EZH2 and anti-E7 antibodies, respectively, and subsequent quantitative PCR analysis in E7-silenced and unperturbed SiHa cells confirmed the interaction of AC103563.8 with EZH2 and E7, respectively. Apparently, AC103563.8 seems to preclude EZH2 and bind with E7, failing to block EZH2 function in patients. Thereby, enhanced EZH2 expression in the presence of E7 could potentially inactivate the MAL promoter through H3K27me3 marks, corroborating our previous results of MAL expression downregulation in patients.

CONCLUSION

AC103563.8-E7-EZH2 axis, therefore, appears to crucially regulate the expression of MAL, through chromatin inactivation in HPV16-CaCx pathogenesis, warranting therapeutic strategy development.

Serum CXCL8 and CXCR2 as diagnostic biomarkers for noninvasive screening of cervical cancer

BACKGROUND

Cervical cancer (CC) is the fourth most frequently diagnosed cancer and the fourth leading cause of cancer-related death in women. Identifying new biomarkers for the early detection of CC is an essential requirement in this field. CXCL8 was originally discovered because of its role in inflammation by binding to CXCR1 and CXCR2; however, it is now known to play an important role in cancer. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the expression levels of potential biomarkers (CXCL8, CXCR1, and CXCR2) and to explore their diagnostic potential in CC.

METHODS

The expression levels of serum CXCL8, CXCR1, and CXCR2 were investigated by kit method on Immulite-1000 in 30 healthy volunteers, 30 precancerous patients and 70 CC patients.

RESULTS

The results indicated that the expression of CXCL8 and CXCR2 was significantly higher in the serum of CC patients than in healthy volunteers, similar to the well-established tumor marker (squamous-cell cancerantigen [SCC]). Receiver operating characteristic analyses showed that the combination of CXCL8, CXCR2, and SCC had the highest diagnostic sensitivity and area under the curve value. Meanwhile, the positive predictive value and negative predictive value were not very low. Moreover, high concentrations of CXCL8 and CXCR2 are associated with an increased risk of CC.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, our data demonstrated that combined serum CXCL8, CXCR2, and SCC measurements are helpful for CC diagnosis and can be used as potential biomarkers for the early detection of CC. Cytokines, such as CXCL8 and CXCR2, can be easily measured in most university hospital laboratories and in some private laboratories with a routine test.

The Role of Methylation of Host and/or Human Papillomavirus (HPV) DNA in Management of Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia Grade 2 (CIN2) Lesions

Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2 (CIN2) is an intermediate stage between CIN 1, which is a low-grade lesion, and CIN3, which is the immediate precursor of cervical cancer (CC). Traditionally, CIN2 was regarded as a high-grade lesion and was treated with conization or ablative methods. In recent years, there has been a shift in the management of younger patients, who are now more often being managed conservatively due to frequent spontaneous CIN2 regression and possible adverse effects of treatment on future pregnancies. Because the risk of progression to CC still exists with conservative management, a personalized approach is needed to identify patients with a higher probability of progression. In this regard, research has focused on the role of host and human papillomavirus (HPV) gene methylation. This systematic review summarizes the current knowledge regarding conservative CIN2 management focusing on the main methylation markers and its implementation in conservative CIN2 management, and it describes major ongoing longitudinal studies on the subject. The review showed that DNA methylation is an accurate predictor of disease progression and a valid triage tool for HPV-positive women, with CIN2 performing better than triage cytology. Because virtually all CCs are methylation-positive, methylation-negative women at baseline have an extremely low risk of CC.

Expression of E4 Protein and HPV Major Capsid Protein (L1) as A Novel Combination in Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions

We aim to describe the relationship between the immunohistochemical expression patterns of HPV E4 markers and the presence of HPV major capsid protein (L1) in cervical tissues obtained by biopsy of patients with abnormal liquid-based cytology (LBC) results, HR HPV infections, or clinically suspicious cervix. A novel HPV-encoded marker, SILgrade-E4 (XR-E4-1), and an HPV (clone K1H8) antibody were used to demonstrate the expression in terminally differentiated epithelial cells with a productive HPV infection in the material. A semiquantitative analysis was performed based on light microscope images. The level of E4 protein decreased with the disease severity. Patients with LSIL-CIN 1 and HSIL-CIN 2 diagnoses had significantly lower levels of HPV major capsid protein (L1) than those without confirmed cervical lesions. Our analysis confirms a higher incidence of L1 in patients with molecularly diagnosed HPV infections and excluded lesions of LSIL-CIN 1 and HSIL-CIN 2. Further studies on the novel biomarkers might help assess the chances of the remission of lesions such as LSIL-CIN 1 and HSIL-CIN 2. Higher levels of E4 protein and L1 may confirm a greater probability of the remission of lesions and incidental infections. In the cytological verification or HPV-dependent screening model, testing for E4 protein and L1 expression may indicate a group with a lower risk of progression of histopathologically diagnosed lesions.

Methylation-mediated silencing of EDN3 promotes cervical cancer proliferation, migration and invasion

Cervical cancer (CC) remains one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide. However, cervical cancer is preceded by the pre-malignant cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) that can last for up to 20 years before becoming malignant. Therefore, early screening is the key to prevent the progression of cervical lesions into invasive cervical cancer and decrease the incidence. The genes, down-regulated and hypermethylated in cancers, may provide potential drug targets for cervical cancer. In our current study, using the datasets from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) and the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) databases, we found that endothelin 3 (EDN3) was downregulated and hypermethylated in cervical squamous cell carcinoma (CSCC). The further analysis in GSE63514 (n=128) dataset and in our samples (n=221) found that the expression of EDN3 was decreased with the degree of cervical lesions. Pyrosequencing was performed to evaluate 4 CpG sites of the EDN3 promoter region in our samples (n=469). The data indicated that the methylation level of EDN3 was increased with the degree of cervical lesions. EDN3 silencing mediated by methylation can be blocked by 5-Azacytidine (5-Aza), a DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) inhibitor, treatment in cervical cancer cell lines. Ethynyldeoxyuridine (EdU) assay, would-healing assay, clone formation assay and transwell assay were conducted to investigate the biological function of EDN3 in cervical cancer cell lines. The results of these experiments confirmed that overexpression of EDN3 could inhibit the proliferation, clone formation, migration and invasion of cervical cancer cells. EDN3 may provide potential biomarker and therapeutic target for CSCC.

Combined Liquid Biopsy Methylation Analysis of CADM1 and MAL in Cervical Cancer Patients

Cervical cancer is the fourth most common cancer in women, which is associated in >95% with a high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. Methylation of specific genes has been closely associated with the progress of cervical high-grade dysplastic lesions to invasive carcinomas. Therefore, DNA methylation has been proposed as a triage for women infected with high-risk HPV. Methylation analyses of cervical cancer tissue have shown that cell adhesion molecule 1 (CADM1) and myelin and lymphocyte protein (MAL) methylation are present in over 90% of all cervical high-grade neoplasias and invasive cervical cancers. Here, we established a liquid biopsy-based assay to detect MAL and CADM1 methylation in cell free (cf)DNA of cervical cancer. Methylation of the target gene was validated on bisulfite converted smear-DNA from cervical dysplasia patients and afterward applied to cfDNA using quantitative real-time PCR. In 52 smears, a combined analysis of CADM1 and/or MAL (CADM1/MAL) showed methylation in 86.5% of the cases. In cfDNA samples of 24 cervical cancer patients, CADM1/MAL methylation was detected in 83.3% of the cases. CADM1/MAL methylation was detected already in 81.8% of stage I-II patients showing the high sensitivity of this liquid biopsy assay. In combination with a specificity of 95.5% towards healthy donors (HD) and an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.872 in the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis, CADM1/MAL cfDNA methylation detection might represent a novel and promising liquid biopsy marker in cervical cancer.

Performance of HPV E4 and p16INK4a biomarkers in predicting regression of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2 (CIN2): protocol for a historical cohort study

INTRODUCTION

Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2 (CIN2) represents a spectrum of lesions with variable progression and regression. Pathological diagnosis of CIN2 is subjective and poorly reproducible. Accurate diagnosis and identification of different patterns of CIN2 related to outcome are essential to reduce the risks of overtreatment or undertreatment. It is important to explore novel methods for risk stratification of CIN2 to enable targeted treatment of women at high risk of progression or persistent disease and follow-up of women at low risk. The combination of the novel biomarker human papillomavirus (HPV) E4 with p16^INK4a targets steps in the transition from a productive oncogenic HPV infection (CIN1) to a transformed lesion (CIN3) within CIN2. Previous cross-sectional studies suggest that HPV E4 combined with p16^INK4a may be valuable for risk assessment of CIN2. However, data on HPV E4/p16^INK4a as a predictor for CIN2 regression is lacking.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

We will conduct a historical cohort study including 500 women aged 23-40 years with a first CIN2 diagnosis in Aarhus, Denmark during 2000-2010. Women will be eligible if they have undergone active surveillance and have no previous record of hysterectomy, cone biopsy, and CIN2 or worse. Women will be randomly selected through the Danish Pathology Databank. Tissue samples from women included will be sectioned for p16^INK4a and HPV E4 immunohistochemical staining in addition to conventional hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining. A positive result will be defined as HPV E4 positive. Through the Danish Pathology Databank, we will collect results on all subsequent cervical biopsies. Regression will be used as the primary outcome.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The study has been approved by the Ethical Committee in Central Denmark Region (1-10-72-60-20) and registered at the Faculty of Health, Aarhus University. Results will be published in a peer-reviewed journal and presented at scientific meetings.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT05049252.

Epigenetic and Transcriptomic Regulation Landscape in HPV+ Cancers: Biological and Clinical Implications

Human Papillomavirus (HPV) is an oncogenic virus that causes the highest number of viral-associated cancer cases and deaths worldwide, with more than 690,000 new cases per year and 342,000 deaths only for cervical cancer (CC). Although the incidence and mortality rates for CC are declining in countries where screening and vaccination programs have been implemented, other types of cancer in which HPV is involved, such as oropharyngeal cancer, are increasing, particularly in men. Mutational and transcriptional profiles of various HPV-associated neoplasms have been described, and accumulated evidence has shown the oncogenic capacity of E6, E7, and E5 genes of high-risk HPV. Interestingly, transcriptomic analysis has revealed that although a vast majority of the human genome is transcribed into RNAs, only 2% of transcripts are translated into proteins. The remaining transcripts lacking protein-coding potential are called non-coding RNAs. In addition to the transfer and ribosomal RNAs, there are regulatory non-coding RNAs classified according to size and structure in long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), circular RNAs (circRNAs), and small RNAs; such as microRNAs (miRNAs), piwi-associated RNAs (piRNAs), small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) and endogenous short-interfering RNAs. Recent evidence has shown that lncRNAs, miRNAs, and circRNAs are aberrantly expressed under pathological conditions such as cancer. In addition, those transcripts are dysregulated in HPV-related neoplasms, and their expression correlates with tumor progression, metastasis, poor prognosis, and recurrence. Nuclear lncRNAs are epigenetic regulators involved in controlling gene expression at the transcriptional level through chromatin modification and remodeling. Moreover, disruption of the expression profiles of those lncRNAs affects multiple biological processes such as cell proliferation, apoptosis, and migration. This review highlights the epigenetic alterations induced by HPV, from infection to neoplastic transformation. We condense the epigenetic role of non-coding RNA alterations and their potential as biomarkers in transformation's early stages and clinical applications. We also summarize the molecular mechanisms of action of nuclear lncRNAs to understand better their role in the epigenetic control of gene expression and how they can drive the malignant phenotype of HPV-related neoplasia. Finally, we review several chemical and epigenetic therapy options to prevent and treat HPV-associated neoplasms.

FAM19A4/miR124-2 Methylation Testing and Human Papillomavirus (HPV) 16/18 Genotyping in HPV-Positive Women Under the Age of 30 Years

BACKGROUND

High-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSIL) or cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) grade 2/3 lesions in human papillomavirus (HPV)-positive women <30 years of age have high spontaneous regression rates. To reduce overtreatment, biomarkers are needed to delineate advanced CIN lesions that require treatment. We analyzed the FAM19A4/miR124-2 methylation test and HPV16/18 genotyping in HPV-positive women aged <30 years, aiming to identify CIN2/3 lesions in need of treatment.

METHODS

A European multicenter retrospective study was designed evaluating the FAM19A4/miR124-2 methylation test and HPV16/18 genotyping in cervical scrapes of 1061 HPV-positive women aged 15-29 years (690 ≤CIN1, 166 CIN2, and 205 CIN3+). A subset of 62 CIN2 and 103 CIN3 were immunohistochemically characterized by HPV E4 expression, a marker for a productive HPV infection, and p16ink4a and Ki-67, markers indicative for a transforming infection. CIN2/3 lesions with low HPV E4 expression and high p16ink4a/Ki-67 expression were considered as nonproductive, transforming CIN, compatible with advanced CIN2/3 lesions in need of treatment.

RESULTS

FAM19A4/miR124-2 methylation positivity increased significantly with CIN grade and age groups (<25, 25-29, and ≥30 years), while HPV16/18 positivity was comparable across age groups. FAM19A4/miR124-2 methylation positivity was HPV type independent. Methylation-positive CIN2/3 lesions had higher p16ink4a/Ki-67-immunoscores (P = .003) and expressed less HPV E4 (P = .033) compared with methylation-negative CIN2/3 lesions. These differences in HPV E4 and p16ink4a/Ki-67 expression were not found between HPV16/18-positive and non-16/18 HPV-positive lesions.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with HPV16/18 genotyping, the FAM19A4/miR124-2 methylation test detects nonproductive, transforming CIN2/3 lesions with high specificity in women aged <30 years, providing clinicians supportive information about the need for treatment of CIN2/3 in young HPV-positive women.

Role of microRNAs (MiRNAs) as biomarkers of cervical carcinogenesis: a systematic review

We performed a systematic review to identify the role of microRNAs (miRNAs) as biomarkers in the progression of cervical precancerous lesions. A comprehensive search of the Cochrane Controlled Register of Trials, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Embase databases was performed for articles published between January 2010 and June 2020. The following Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) terms were searched: “microRNA” and “cervical” and “lesion.” All study designs that aimed to evaluate the correlation of miRNA expression with different precancerous cervical staging and/ or cervical cancer were included, except for case reports and case series. Approximately 82 individual miRNAs were found to be significant in differentiating the stages of cervical carcinogenesis. Among the miRNAs, miR-21 is the most prevalent, and it is consistently upregulated progressively from normal cervical to worsening cervical lesion stages in both cell and serum samples. miR-205 has been shown to have a higher specificity than human papilloma virus testing in predicting the absence of high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSILs) in exfoliated cell samples. The tumor suppressor miRNAs miR-34, let-7, miR-203 miR-29, and miR-375 were significantly downregulated in low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions, HSILs, and cervical cancer. We found significant dysregulated miRNAs in cervical carcinogenesis with their dynamic expression changes and ability to detect viral persistency, risk prediction of low-grade lesions (cervical intraepithelial neoplasia [CIN] 2) to high-grade lesions (CIN 3), and progression of CIN 3 to cancer. Their ability to discriminate HSILs from non-dysplastic lesions has potential implications in early diagnosis and reducing overtreatment of otherwise regressive early preinvasive lesions.

Characterisation of anal intraepithelial neoplasia and anal cancer in HIV-positive men by immunohistochemical markers p16, Ki-67, HPV-E4 and DNA methylation markers

Human papillomavirus (HPV)-induced anal intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN, graded 1-3) is highly prevalent in HIV-positive (HIV+) men who have sex with men (MSM), but only a minority of lesions progresses to cancer. Our study aimed to characterise comprehensively anal tissue samples from a cross-sectional series (n = 104) of HIV+ MSM and longitudinal series (n = 40) of AIN2/3 progressing to cancer using different biomarkers. The cross-sectional series consisted of 8 normal, 26 AIN1, 45 AIN2, 15 AIN3 and 10 anal squamous cell carcinoma. Tissue sections were immunohistochemically (IHC) stained for p16 (viral transformation marker), Ki-67 (cellular proliferation marker) and HPV-E4 (viral production marker). We evaluated the expression of IHC markers and compared it with DNA methylation, a marker for malignant transformation. E4 positivity decreased, whereas p16 and Ki-67 scores and methylation marker positivity increased (P values < .001) with increasing severity of anal lesions. Within AIN2, a heterogeneous biomarker pattern was observed concerning E4, p16 and methylation status, reflecting the biological heterogeneity of these lesions. In the longitudinal series, all AIN2/3 and carcinomas showed high p16 and Ki-67 expression, strong methylation positivity and occasional E4 positivity. We earlier showed that high methylation levels are associated with progression to cancer. The observed E4 expression in some AIN2/3 during the course of progression to cancer and absence of E4 in a considerable number of AIN1 lesions make the potential clinical significance of E4 expression difficult to interpret. Our data show that IHC biomarkers can help to characterise AIN; however, their prognostic value for cancer risk stratification, next to objective methylation analysis, appears to be limited.

A whole-slide image grading benchmark and tissue classification for cervical cancer precursor lesions with inter-observer variability

The cervical cancer developing from the precancerous lesions caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV) has been one of the preventable cancers with the help of periodic screening. Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) and squamous intraepithelial lesion (SIL) are two types of grading conventions widely accepted by pathologists. On the other hand, inter-observer variability is an important issue for final diagnosis. In this paper, a whole-slide image grading benchmark for cervical cancer precursor lesions is created and the "Uterine Cervical Cancer Database" introduced in this article is the first publicly available cervical tissue microscopy image dataset. In addition, a morphological feature representing the angle between the basal membrane (BM) and the major axis of each nucleus in the tissue is proposed. The presence of papillae of the cervical epithelium and overlapping cell problems are also discussed. Besides that, the inter-observer variability is also evaluated by thorough comparisons among decisions of pathologists, as well as the final diagnosis.

Emerging roles of the nectin family of cell adhesion molecules in tumour-associated pathways

Tumour cells achieve maximum survival by modifying cellular machineries associated with processes such as cell division, migration, survival, and apoptosis, resulting in genetically complex and heterogeneous populations. While nectin and nectin-like cell adhesion molecules control development and maintenance of multicellular organisation in higher vertebrates by mediating cell-cell adhesion and related signalling processes, recent studies indicate that they also critically regulate growth and development of different types of cancers. In this review, we detail current knowledge about the role of nectin family members in various tumours. Furthermore, we also analyse the seemingly opposing roles of some members of nectin family in tumour-associated pathways, as they function as both tumour suppressors and oncogenes. Understanding this functional duality of nectin family in tumours will further our knowledge of molecular mechanisms regulating tumour development and progression, and contribute to the advancement of tumour diagnosis and therapy.

An epigenomic landscape of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and cervical cancer using single-base resolution methylome and hydroxymethylome

BACKGROUND

Cervical cancer (CC) is the second leading cause of cancer death among women worldwide. Epigenetic regulation of gene expression through DNA methylation and hydroxymethylation plays a pivotal role during tumorigenesis. In this study, to analyze the epigenomic landscape and identify potential biomarkers for CCs, we selected a series of samples from normal to cervical intra-epithelial neoplasia (CINs) to CCs and performed an integrative analysis of whole-genome bisulfite sequencing (WGBS-seq), oxidative WGBS, RNA-seq, and external histone modifications profiling data.

RESULTS

In the development and progression of CC, there were genome-wide hypo-methylation and hypo-hydroxymethylation, accompanied by local hyper-methylation and hyper-hydroxymethylation. Hydroxymethylation prefers to distribute in the CpG islands and CpG shores, as displayed a trend of gradual decline from health to CIN2, while a trend of increase from CIN3 to CC. The differentially methylated and hydroxymethylated region-associated genes both enriched in Hippo and other cancer-related signaling pathways that drive cervical carcinogenesis. Furthermore, we identified eight novel differentially methylated/hydroxymethylated-associated genes (DES, MAL, MTIF2, PIP5K1A, RPS6KA6, ANGEL2, MPP, and PAPSS2) significantly correlated with the overall survival of CC. In addition, no any correlation was observed between methylation or hydroxymethylation levels and somatic copy number variations in CINs and CCs.

CONCLUSION

Our current study systematically delineates the map of methylome and hydroxymethylome from CINs to CC, and some differentially methylated/hydroxymethylated-associated genes can be used as the potential epigenetic biomarkers in CC prognosis.

Effect of LHX2 gene methylation level and its function on radiotherapy of cervical cancer

Background

Cervical cancer is the most common malignancy of the female reproductive system, for which radiotherapy is one of the main treatments. Gene methylation in cells is an important factor in tumorigenesis, and radiotherapy can change DNA methylation in cells. At the same time, combined with the clinical effect of radiotherapy, key genes of LIM homeobox 2 (LHX2) significantly related to cervical cancer. The LHX2 are LIM-homeobox genes that play important roles in signal transduction, cell differentiation, tissue-specific differentiation, and body formation.

Methods

In this study, bisulfite genomic sequencing (BSP-Seq) technology was used to analyze the methylation level of LHX2 in patients with cervical cancer before and after radiotherapy. In addition, combined with the clinical effect of radiotherapy, the function of LHX2 in siHA and C33A cells were analyzed with the help of overexpression, small interfering RNA (siRNA), cell invasion, and migration ability. The expression level of the migration- and apoptosis-related genes which were affected by LHX2 were tested with quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR).

Results

Combined with clinical treatment, methylation level difference, and correlation enrichment analysis, it was found that LHX2 genes were closely related to the occurrence and development of cervical cancer. After 5-aza-2’-deoxycytidine (5-Aza-dC) and radiotherapy, the methylation of LHX2 genes in siHA and C33A squamous cell carcinoma cells was decreased, and the messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein expression levels were relatively increased; meanwhile, the LHX2 could accelerate the ability for cell invasion and migration and inhibited the apoptosis of the cell after treatment with radiotherapy.

Conclusions

The methylation and expression levels of LHX2 genes are closely related to cervical cancer. The methylation level of LHX2 was reduced after radiation therapy. The LHX2 gene has a positive effect on cervical cancer through acceleration of the cell invasion and migration ability and inhibition of cell apoptosis after radiotherapy treatment.

Classification of high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia by p16ink4a , Ki-67, HPV E4 and FAM19A4/miR124-2 methylation status demonstrates considerable heterogeneity with potential consequences for management

High‐grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN2 and CIN3) represents a heterogeneous disease with varying cancer progression risks. Biomarkers indicative for a productive human papillomavirus (HPV) infection (HPV E4) and a transforming HPV infection (p16^ink4a, Ki‐67 and host‐cell DNA methylation) could provide guidance for clinical management in women with high‐grade CIN. This study evaluates the cumulative score of immunohistochemical expression of p16^ink4a (Scores 0‐3) and Ki‐67 (Scores 0‐3), referred to as the “immunoscore” (IS), in 262 CIN2 and 235 CIN3 lesions derived from five European cohorts in relation to immunohistochemical HPV E4 expression and FAM19A4/miR124‐2 methylation in the corresponding cervical scrape. The immunoscore classification resulted in 30 lesions within IS group 0‐2 (6.0%), 151 lesions within IS group 3‐4 (30.4%) and 316 lesions within IS group 5‐6 (63.6%). E4 expression decreased significantly from CIN2 to CIN3 (P < .001) and with increasing immunoscore group (P_trend < .001). Methylation positivity increased significantly from CIN2 to CIN3 (P < .001) and with increasing immunoscore group (P_trend < .001). E4 expression was present in 9.8% of CIN3 (23/235) and in 12.0% of IS group 5‐6 (38/316). Notably, in a minority (43/497, 8.7%) of high‐grade lesions, characteristics of both transforming HPV infection (DNA hypermethylation) and productive HPV infection (E4 expression) were found simultaneously. Next, we stratified all high‐grade CIN lesions, based on the presumed cancer progression risk of the biomarkers used, into biomarker profiles. These biomarker profiles, including immunoscore and methylation status, could help the clinician in the decision for immediate treatment or a “wait and see” policy to reduce overtreatment of high‐grade CIN lesions.

What's new?

Treating all high‐grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN2/3) with excisional therapy leads to overtreatment, as these lesions have varying cancer progression risks. Here, the authors evaluated expression patterns of p16^ink4a, Ki‐67 and the HPV E4 protein, and methylation of FAM19A4/miR124‐2 in high‐grade CIN. The biomarker expression patterns revealed the high degree of heterogeneity among CIN2/3 lesions. Biomarker profiles based on the presumed cancer progression risks were established and could guide clinicians in choosing whether to treat immediately or wait and see.

The MAL Protein, an Integral Component of Specialized Membranes, in Normal Cells and Cancer

The MAL gene encodes a 17-kDa protein containing four putative transmembrane segments whose expression is restricted to human T cells, polarized epithelial cells and myelin-forming cells. The MAL protein has two unusual biochemical features. First, it has lipid-like properties that qualify it as a member of the group of proteolipid proteins. Second, it partitions selectively into detergent-insoluble membranes, which are known to be enriched in condensed cell membranes, consistent with MAL being distributed in highly ordered membranes in the cell. Since its original description more than thirty years ago, a large body of evidence has accumulated supporting a role of MAL in specialized membranes in all the cell types in which it is expressed. Here, we review the structure, expression and biochemical characteristics of MAL, and discuss the association of MAL with raft membranes and the function of MAL in polarized epithelial cells, T lymphocytes, and myelin-forming cells. The evidence that MAL is a putative receptor of the epsilon toxin of Clostridium perfringens, the expression of MAL in lymphomas, the hypermethylation of the MAL gene and subsequent loss of MAL expression in carcinomas are also presented. We propose a model of MAL as the organizer of specialized condensed membranes to make them functional, discuss the role of MAL as a tumor suppressor in carcinomas, consider its potential use as a cancer biomarker, and summarize the directions for future research.

Translational Potential of Epigenetic-Based Markers on Fine-Needle Aspiration Thyroid Specimens

The awareness of epigenetic alterations leading to neoplasia attracted the attention of researchers toward its potential use in the management of cancer, from diagnosis to prognosis and prediction of response to therapies. Our group has focused its attention on the epigenomics of thyroid neoplasms. Although most of the epigenetic studies have been applied on histological samples, the fact is that cytology, through fine-needle aspiration, is a primary diagnostic method for many pathologies, of which thyroid nodules are one of the most paradigmatic examples. This has led to an increasing literature report of epigenetic studies using these biological samples over the past decade. In this review, our group aimed to document recent research of epigenetic alterations and its associated assessment techniques, based on cytology material. Our review covers the main epigenetic categories—DNA methylation, histone modification, and RNA-silencing—whose evidence in thyroid cytology samples may represent solid soil for future prospectively designed studies aiming at validating patterns of epigenetic alterations and their potential use in the clinical management of thyroid neoplasms.

Akt regulates RSK2 to alter phosphorylation level of H2A.X in breast cancer

Histone H2AX (H2A.X) is a variant of the histone H2A family. Phosphorylation of H2A.X is a marker of DNA strand breaks and the presence or absence of H2A.X is closely related to tumor susceptibility and drug resistance. The present study found that the activity of the serine/threonine kinase Akt was negatively associated with H2A.X phosphorylated at the Ser16 site (H2A.X S16ph), but the mechanism of the inverse relationship remains elusive. The aim of the present study was to elucidate the mechanism of action between Akt and H2A.X S16ph and the exact role of this mechanism. Western blot analysis was performed to detect the regulatory association between p-Akt and H2A.X S16ph/p-RSK2, and immunoprecipitation and chromatin immunoprecipitation were performed to prove that Akt, RSK2 and H2A.X combine and interact in human breast cancer cells. The changes of cellular proliferation and migration induced by the interaction of Akt, RSK2 and H2A.X was determined by MTT, soft agar colony formation and cell migration experiments. The effect of interaction of Akt, RSK2 and H2A.X on cancer-promoting genes, such as PSAT-1 was determined via reverse transcription-quantitative PCR analysis. The current study indicated that the serine/threonine kinase ribosomal S6 kinase 2 (RSK2) as a kinase of H2A.X could be phosphorylated by Akt at Ser19 site. Moreover, Akt positively regulated the phosphorylation of RSK2 to inhibit phosphorylation of H2A.X, thereby affecting the affinity between RSK2 and substrate histone, promoting the survival and migration of breast cancer cells. In conclusion, Akt-mediated phosphorylation of RSK2 regulated the phosphorylation of H2A.X, thereby promoting oncogenic activity. This finding provides new insights to understand the pathogenesis and treatment mechanisms of breast cancer.

Cervical cancer risk profiling: molecular biomarkers predicting the outcome of hrHPV infection

INTRODUCTION

Cervical cancer affects half a million women worldwide annually. Given the association between high-risk human papillomavirus (hrHPV) infection and carcinogenesis, hrHPV DNA testing became an essential diagnostic tool. However, hrHPV alone does not cause the disease, and, most importantly, many cervical lesions regress to normal in a year because of the host immune system. Hence, the low specificity of hrHPV DNA tests and their inability to predict the outcome of infections have triggered a further search for biomarkers.

AREAS COVERED

We evaluated the latest viral and cellular biomarkers validated for clinical use as primary screening or triage for cervical cancer and assessed their promise for prevention as well as potential use in the future. The literature search focused on effective biomarkers for different stages of the disease, aiming to determine their significance in predicting the outcome of hrHPV infections.

EXPERT OPINION

Biomarkers such as p16/Ki-67, hrHPV genotyping, hrHPV transcriptional status, and methylation patterns have demonstrated promising results. Their eventual implementation in the screening programs may support the prompt diagnosis of hrHPV infection and its progression to cancer. These biomarkers will help in making clinical management decisions on time, thus, saving the lives of hrHPV-infected women, particularly in developing countries.

Characterization of cervical biopsies of women with HIV and HPV co-infection using p16ink4a, ki-67 and HPV E4 immunohistochemistry and DNA methylation

This study aims to characterize cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) in women living with HIV using biomarkers. Immunohistochemical (IHC) staining for human papillomavirus (HPV) E4 protein indicates CIN with productive HPV infection, whereas Ki-67 and p16ink4a indicate CIN with transforming characteristics, which may be further characterized using DNA hypermethylation, indicative for advanced transforming CIN. Cervical biopsies (n = 175) from 102 HPV positive women living with HIV were independently reviewed by three expert pathologists. The consensus CIN grade was used as reference standard. IHC staining patterns were scored for Ki-67 (0-3), p16ink4a (0-3), and E4 (0-2) and correlated to methylation levels of four cellular genes in corresponding cervical scrapes. Reference standards and immunoscores were obtained from 165 biopsies:15 no dysplasia, 91 CIN1, 31 CIN2, and 28 CIN3. Ki-67 and p16ink4a scores increased with increasing CIN grade, while E4 positivity was highest in CIN1 and CIN2 lesions. E4 positive CIN1 lesions had higher Ki-67 and p16ink4a scores and higher methylation levels compared with E4 negative CIN1 lesions. E4 positive biopsies with low cumulative Ki-67/p16 ink4a immunoscores (0-3) had significantly higher methylation levels compared with E4 negative biopsies. No significant differences in Ki-67 and p16ink4a scores and methylation levels were observed between E4 negative and positive CIN2 or CIN3 lesions. The presence of high methylation levels in scrapes of CIN lesions with IHC characteristics of both productive (E4 positive) and transforming infections (increased Ki-67/p16ink4a expression) in women living with HIV might indicate a rapid aggressive course of HPV infections towards cancer in these women.

Role of Viral Ribonucleoproteins in Human Papillomavirus Type 16 Gene Expression

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) depend on the cellular RNA-processing machineries including alternative RNA splicing and polyadenylation to coordinate HPV gene expression. HPV RNA processing is controlled by cis-regulatory RNA elements and trans-regulatory factors since the HPV splice sites are suboptimal. The definition of HPV exons and introns may differ between individual HPV mRNA species and is complicated by the fact that many HPV protein-coding sequences overlap. The formation of HPV ribonucleoproteins consisting of HPV pre-mRNAs and multiple cellular RNA-binding proteins may result in the different outcomes of HPV gene expression, which contributes to the HPV life cycle progression and HPV-associated cancer development. In this review, we summarize the regulation of HPV16 gene expression at the level of RNA processing with focus on the interactions between HPV16 pre-mRNAs and cellular RNA-binding factors.

The use of host cell DNA methylation analysis in the detection and management of women with advanced cervical intraepithelial neoplasia: a review

This paper briefly reviews the role of hypermethylation of host cell genes in cervical carcinogenesis and discusses potential clinical applications of methylation analysis in the management of high-risk HPV (hrHPV) -positive women. We argue that methylation assays can be used: 1. for primary triage of hrHPV-positive women to detect cervical cancer and advanced cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN); 2. as secondary triage for women with minor cytological abnormalities to identify those with the highest risk of CIN3 or worse; 3. as exit test for women leaving the screening programme to identify cervical cancer and advanced CIN; and 4. to support management of CIN. TWEETABLE ABSTRACT: This paper discusses potential clinical applications of DNA methylation analysis in the management of women with a high-risk HPV infection.

The detection of DNA methylation of tumour suppressor genes in cervical high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion: A prospective cytological-histological correlation study of 70 cases

BACKGROUND

DNA methylation has been suggested as one of the epigenetic changes promoting carcinogenesis. The aim of this study was to prospectively evaluate the methylation status of CADM 1, MAL and hsa-miR-124 genes in high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL) liquid-based cytology (LBC) samples with a histological correlation.

METHODS

Seventy histologically confirmed cases of HSIL paired with prior screening LBC diagnosis of HSIL within a 3-month interval were selected. Histologically, the lesions were reviewed and assessed including: (a) number of blocks harbouring dysplastic squamous epithelium; (b) number of blocks containing glandular extension of dysplastic epithelium; and (c) the depth of glandular extension (which was assessed semi-quantitatively as graded 1-3). Human papillomavirus (HPV) subtyping was performed from residual LBC materials using the LINEAR ARRAY HPV Genotyping Test and in-house polymerase chain reaction targeting the HPV E1 gene. The detection of methylation silencing of tumour suppressor genes CADM1, MAL and hsa-miR-124 was performed by multiplex methylation-specific real-time polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

A positive methylation status was detected in 41 cases (58.6%). The number of blocks with HSIL varied from one to 13. Glandular extension was seen in 44 cases with the number of blocks involved ranging from one to 10. The depth of HSIL glandular extension varied.

CONCLUSION

The DNA methylation test allows HSIL lesions to be divided into two distinct groups of methylated HSIL in significantly older patients and unmethylated HSIL in younger patients. This study was not able to prove that methylation status in cervical HSIL correlates with the size of the lesion (measured by the number of blocks involved) or with HSIL propensity for endocervical glandular extension, nor with HPV type or multi-infection.

Expression of p16 and HPV E4 on biopsy samples and methylation of FAM19A4 and miR124-2 on cervical cytology samples in the classification of cervical squamous intraepithelial lesions

The decision to treat a cervical squamous intraepithelial lesion (SIL) by loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP) relies heavily on a colposcopy-directed biopsy showing high-grade (H)SIL. Diagnosis is often supported by p16, an immunohistochemical (IHC) biomarker of high-risk (hr)HPV E7 gene activity. Additional potential markers include methylation of tumor suppressor genes FAM19A4/miR124-2 in cervical cytology for advanced transforming HSIL and the IHC marker HPV E4 for productive, potentially regressing lesions. In 318 women referred for colposcopy, we investigated the relationship between staining patterns of p16 and E4 IHC in the worst biopsy, and the relation of these to FAM19A4/miR124-2 methylation status in cytology. E4-positive staining decreased with increasing SIL/CIN grade from 41% in LSIL to 3% in HSIL/CIN3. E4 positivity increased with grade of p16 when p16 expression was limited to the lower two third of the epithelium (r = 0.378), but fell with expression over. Loss of E4 expression in the worst lesion was associated with the methylation of FAM19A4/miR124-2. We also examined whether these biomarkers can predict the histological outcome of the LEEP biopsy in a subgroup of 119 who underwent LEEP treatment. About 85% of women with ≥lower two third p16 staining/E4-negative HSIL biopsies and 65% with limited p16 staining/E4-positive HSIL biopsies had ≥HSIL in the LEEP specimen (P = .025). p16 expression in a biopsy is related both to viral production and transformation, while decreased E4 expression relates to methylation, indicating advanced HSIL. p16 expression in ≥2/3 of the epithelium and absent E4 indicate likely HSIL on a subsequent LEEP specimen.

Genome-wide DNA methylation profiling identifies two novel genes in cervical neoplasia

DNA methylation analysis may improve risk stratification in cervical screening. We used a pan-epigenomic approach to identify new methylation markers along the continuum of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) to cervical cancer. Physician-collected samples (54 normal, 50 CIN1, 40 CIN2 and 42 CIN3) were randomly selected from women at a single-center colposcopy clinic. Extracted DNA was subjected to Illumina Infinium EPIC array analysis, and methylation was assessed blinded to histopathological and clinical data. CpG sites whose state of methylation correlated with lesion grade were assessed (Spearman correlation), and a weighted methylation score was calculated comparing normal to CIN3. Validation of the top selected genes was performed in an independent cohort (100 normal, 50 CIN1, 50 CIN2, 50 CIN3 and 8 cervical cancers) of new patients, referred for colposcopic examination at three hospitals, using targeted DNA methylation Illumina amplicon sequencing. The relationship between a combined weighted marker score and progression from normal through precancerous lesions and cervical cancer was compared using one-way ANOVA. Our analyses revealed 7,715 CpGs whose methylation level correlated with progression (from normal to CIN1, CIN2 and CIN3), with a significant trend of increased methylation with lesion grade. We shortlisted a bigenic (hyaluronan synthase 1, HAS1 and ATPase phospholipid transporting 10A, ATP10A corresponding to cg03419058 and cg13944175 sites) marker set; r = 0.55, p < 0.0001. Validation of the four most discriminating genes (CA10, DPP10, FMN2 and HAS1) showed a significant correlation between methylation levels and disease progression (p-value < 2.2 × 10^-16 , adjusted R² = 0.952). Translational research of the identified genes to future clinical applications is warranted.

Integrative analysis of DNA methylation and gene expression identified cervical cancer-specific diagnostic biomarkers

Cervical cancer is the leading cause of death among women with cancer worldwide. Here, we performed an integrative analysis of Illumina HumanMethylation450K and RNA-seq data from TCGA to identify cervical cancer-specific DNA methylation markers. We first identified differentially methylated and expressed genes and examined the correlation between DNA methylation and gene expression. The DNA methylation profiles of 12 types of cancers, including cervical cancer, were used to generate a candidate set, and machine-learning techniques were adopted to define the final cervical cancer-specific markers in the candidate set. Then, we assessed the protein levels of marker genes by immunohistochemistry by using tissue arrays containing 93 human cervical squamous cell carcinoma samples and cancer-adjacent normal tissues. Promoter methylation was negatively correlated with the local regulation of gene expression. In the distant regulation of gene expression, the methylation of hypermethylated genes was more likely to be negatively correlated with gene expression, while the methylation of hypomethylated genes was more likely to be positively correlated with gene expression. Moreover, we identified four cervical cancer-specific methylation markers, cg07211381 (RAB3C), cg12205729 (GABRA2), cg20708961 (ZNF257), and cg26490054 (SLC5A8), with 96.2% sensitivity and 95.2% specificity by using the tenfold cross-validation of TCGA data. The four markers could distinguish tumors from normal tissues with a 94.2, 100, 100, and 100% AUC in four independent validation sets from the GEO database. Overall, our study demonstrates the potential use of methylation markers in cervical cancer diagnosis and may boost the development of new epigenetic therapies.

Histomorphologic assessment and distribution of high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) types in cervical high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions with unusual histomorphologic features

In rare cases, equivocal histomorphology ('deceiving dysplasia') does not allow immediate diagnosis of cervical high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL). We studied whether these cases are correlated with specific high-risk human papillomavirus (hr HPV) types. During 2011-2017, 39 cases of p16-positive cervical tissue biopsies with unusual ('deceiving') dysplastic histomorphology were identified and matched with the same number of controls (typical HSIL samples). Histomorphological characteristics were reviewed blindly and HPV testing was performed using the clinically validated RealTime test (Abbott) and Anyplex HPV 28 (Seegene). HPV 16 and HPV 31 were the two most frequent HPV types in both groups, although minimum, proportional, hierarchical and any etiological attribution estimates for HPV 16 were significantly lower in the deceiving group (13.2%, 21.3%, 23.7% and 23.7%) than in the control group (32.4%, 48.1%, 48.6% and 48.6%). In addition, the distribution of other hr HPV types differed between the two study groups, with five HPV types (HPV 56, 58, 59, 73 and 82) detected only in the deceiving group. Histomorphologic review of both groups (regardless of HPV type) confirmed significant differences in nuclear atypia, maximum lesion thickness and cellularity, although these were diminished when cross-comparisons between HPV16/18 and non-HPV16/18 cases pooled from both study groups were evaluated. Different attribution estimates for HPV 16, HPV 16/18 and non-16/18 hr HPV types in deceiving and control groups were observed, in particular for HPV 16. However, an unusual (deceiving) histomorphology may also depend on unknown HPV-related molecular changes.

DNA methylation data-based molecular subtype classification related to the prognosis of patients with cervical cancer

Cervical cancer is one of the leading female health-killers among all types of malignancies globally. Human papillomavirus infection combined with genetic and epigenetic alterations have been indicated to be closely associated with the pathogenesis, progression, and malignant transformation of cervical cancer. Notably, during the complex tumorigenesis process, a series of DNA methylations occurs early and is the most frequent molecular behavior. In this study, to exploit the specific DNA methylation sites influencing the prognosis of patients with cervical cancer, 275 samples were downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas database and further analyzed. As a result, 1253 CpGs were found to have a significant correlation with patient prognosis and were further selected for the consistent clustering of samples into six subgroups. Specifically, the samples in every subgroup were different regarding the following: race, age, tumor stage, receptor status, histological type, metastasis status, and patient prognosis. In addition, we calculated the levels of methylation sites in all subgroups, with 79 methylation sites (corresponding to 81 genes) screened as the intrasubgroup-specific methylation sites. Moreover, signaling pathway enrichment analysis was conducted on the genes of the corresponding promoter regions of the above-described specific methylation sites, revealing that these genes were enriched in biological pathways closely associated with tumors, such as the cyclic guanosine monophosphate-dependent protein kinase and focal adhesion signaling pathways. Finally, the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator algorithm was employed to establish a prognostic prediction model for cervical cancer patients, with training and test sets used for testing and validation, respectively. In summary, the specific DNA methylation site-based classification is able to reflect the heterogeneity of cervical cancer tissue, contributing to the development of personalized therapy and the accurate prediction of patient prognosis.

The use of molecular markers for cervical screening of women living with HIV in South Africa

Supplemental Digital Content is available in the text

To determine the performance of molecular screening strategies for detection of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 3 or worse (CIN3+) in comparison with cytology screening in women living with HIV.

Promoter methylation of SEPT9 as a potential biomarker for early detection of cervical cancer and its overexpression predicts radioresistance

Background

Cervical cancer screening by combined cytology and HPV test has reduced the incidence of cervical cancer, but cytological screening lacks a higher sensitivity while HPV testing possesses a lower specificity. Most patients with invasive cervical cancer are treated with radiotherapy. However, insensitivity to radiotherapy leads to poor efficacy.

Methods

Illumina Methylation EPIC 850k Beadchip was used for genomic screening. We detected methylation of SEPT9 and mRNA expression in different cervical tissues by using methylation-specific PCR and qRT-PCR. Then using CCK8, migration assay, and flow cytometry to detect the biological function and irradiation resistance of SEPT9 in vitro and in vivo. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and co-immunoprecipitation (CoIP) were used to find the interacting gene with SEPT9. Immunostaining of CD206 in cervical cancer and polarization of macrophages (M2) were evaluated by immunofluorescence and WB. The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database was used for screening the potential miRNAs induced by SEPT9.

Results

Hyper-methylation of SEPT9 detects cervical cancer and normal tissues, normal+CIN1 and CIN2+CIN3+cancer with high sensitivity and specificity (AUC = 0.854 and 0.797, respectively, P < 0.001). The mRNA and protein expression of SEPT9 was upregulated in cervical cancer tissues when compared to para-carcinoma tissues. SEPT9 promotes proliferation, invasion, migration, and influences the cell cycle of cervical cancer. SEPT9 interacted with HMGB1-RB axis increases irradiation resistance. Furthermore, SEPT9 mediated miR-375 via the tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) polarization, affecting the resistance to radiotherapy in cervical cancer.

Conclusions

These findings give us the evidence that SEPT9 methylation could be a biomarker for cervical cancer diagnoses. It promotes tumorigenesis and radioresistance of cervical cancer by targeting HMGB1-RB axis and causes polarization of macrophages by mediating miR-375. We suggest SEPT9 could be a potential screening and therapeutic biomarker for cervical cancer.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13148-019-0719-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Human papillomaviruses' proteins with clinical utility

Cervical cancer, the fourth leading cause of cancer-associated deaths among women worldwide, is associated with human papilloma virus (HPV) infection. Despite the prophylactic HPV vaccination and the implementation of cervical and HPV-based screening programs, a significant increase in cervical cancer incidence is estimated by the year 2020. Thus, further development of diagnostic tools that allow detection and risk assesment in genital HPV infection is necessary. A special interest is focused on the HPV viral proteins whose expression might be of use either as primary screening tool or in conjunction with other markers (cellular proteins, HPV DNA, PAP test).

Three-tiered score for Ki-67 and p16ink4a improves accuracy and reproducibility of grading CIN lesions

Aims

To investigate the accuracy and reproducibility of a scoring system for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN1–3) based on immunohistochemical (IHC) biomarkers Ki-67 and p16^ink4a.

Methods

115 cervical tissue specimens were reviewed by three expert gynaecopathologists and graded according to three strategies: (1) CIN grade based on H&E staining only; (2) immunoscore based on the cumulative score of Ki-67 and p16^ink4a only (0–6); and (3) CIN grade based on H&E supported by non-objectified IHC 2 weeks after scoring 1 and 2. The majority consensus diagnosis of the CIN grade based on H&E supported by IHC was used as the Reference Standard. The proportion of test positives (accuracy) and the absolute agreements across pathologists (reproducibility) of the three grading strategies within each Reference Standard category were calculated.

Results

We found that immunoscoring with positivity definition 6 yielded the highest proportion of test positives for Reference Standard CIN3 (95.5%), in combination with the lowest proportion of test positives in samples with CIN1 (1.8%). The proportion of test positives for CIN3 was significantly lower for sole H&E staining (81.8%) or combined H&E and IHC grading (84.8%) with positivity definition ≥CIN3. Immunoscore 6 also yielded high absolute agreements for CIN3 and CIN1, but the absolute agreement was low for CIN2.

Conclusions

The higher accuracy and reproducibility of the immunoscore opens the possibility of a more standardised and reproducible definition of CIN grade than conventional pathology practice, allowing a more accurate comparison of CIN-based management strategies and evaluation of new biomarkers to improve the understanding of progression of precancer from human papillomavirus infection to cancer.