Paris saponin VII, a Hippo pathway activator, induces autophagy and exhibits therapeutic potential against human breast cancer cells

NDR2 kinase: A review of its physiological role and involvement in carcinogenesis

The Hippo kinase, NDR2, plays a key role in the natural history of several human cancers, particularly lung cancer, by regulating processes such as proliferation, apoptosis, migration, invasion, vesicular trafficking, autophagy, ciliogenesis and immune response. To examine the specificity of NDR2's action, interaction and function in physiological or tumoral contexts, we first focus on the structural differences in the amino-acid sequence between NDR1 and NDR2. We then establish a correlation between these NDR1/2 differences and specific post-translational regulation, as well as the distinct action, interactions, and functions of NDR2 in physiological or tumoral paradigms, such as lung cancer. Furthermore, the full set of NDR2 partners and/or substrates remains to be identified. Given that it is hypothesized that NDR2 and its partners may offer new perspectives for anticancer therapies, we emphasize potential clustering or functional enrichment networks among the NDR2-specific interactants. Additionally, we provide an unpublished proteomic comparison of the NDR1 versus NDR2 interactome, focusing on human bronchial epithelial cells (HBEC-3), lung adenocarcinoma cells (H2030), and their brain metastasis-derived counterparts (H2030-BrM3). In conclusion, this study underscores the pivotal role of NDR2 in cancer progression, particularly lung cancer, and helps to better understand their specific functions and interactions in both normal and tumor contexts. The identification of NDR2 partners and substrates remains essential, with the potential to open new avenues for anticancer therapies.

Sculponeatin A induces mitochondrial dysfunction in non-small cell lung cancer through WWP2-mediated degradation of mitochondrial STAT3

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) monomer at S727 promotes its mitochondrial localisation and regulates mitochondrial function, thus exerting a protective effect on tumour cells. However, no inhibitor drugs targeting mitochondrial STAT3 (mitoSTAT3) or S727-STAT3 phosphorylation have been identified. Here, we report a novel diterpenoid extracted from Isodon sculponeatus, sculponeatin A (sptA), induces mitochondrial dysfunction in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) by targeting mitoSTAT3 degradation.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

xCELLigence real-time cell analysis assay and high-content analysis were performed to measure cytotoxicity. Mitochondrial function was assessed by transmission electron microscopy, mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening and Seahorse cellular flux assays. The effects of sptA on the upstream signalling pathway of mitochondrial dysfunction were measured by Western blot, gene alterations and other approaches. Immunofluorescence and live cell imaging were performed to visualise the expression and position of mitoSTAT3. Nude mice and zebrafish were modelled with subcutaneous xenografts. Pharmacokinetics of sptA were examined in rats. Drug toxicity was evaluated in zebrafish.

KEY RESULTS

sptA inhibited mitochondrial respiration in NSCLC cells. sptA induced mitochondrial dysfunction by promoting the degradation of mitoSTAT3. sptA promoted WW domain containing E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 2 (WWP2)-mediated ubiquitination and degradation of mitoSTAT3 through direct binding. sptA inhibited tumour growth in vivo. Evaluation of drug toxicity in zebrafish showed that overdose of sptA may cause heart damage.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

These findings suggest that pharmacological targeting the degradation of mitoSTAT3 by sptA may provide therapeutic benefits against NSCLC.

Paris saponin VII attenuates psoriasiform inflammation by regulating STAT3/NFκB signaling pathway and Caspase-1-induced pyroptosis

Psoriasis is a significant global health challenge due to limited treatment efficacy. Paris saponin VII (PSVII) shows anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative potential but its role in psoriasis is unclear. In this study, PSVII was identified from a library of natural compounds as a therapeutic candidate for psoriasis. In a murine model, PSVII reduced skin lesion severity, epidermal thickness, and inflammatory factor expression, preliminaryly indicating its anti-inflammatory properties. In vitro, PSVII inhibited HaCaT cell hyperproliferation, regulated the cell cycle, induced apoptosis, and modulated reactive oxygen species (ROS). Bioinformatics analyses suggested that signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), cysteine aspartate specific protease 1 (Caspase-1), and the process of pyroptosis are likely targets and mechanisms of PSVII action. PSVII could reduce cell mortality in psoriatic cells and lowered expression levels of NLR Family Pyrin Domain Containing 3 (NLRP3), Caspase-1, Gasdermin D (GSDMD), Interleukins (IL)-18, and IL-1β, underscoring its potential role in modulating pyroptosis within these cells. Mechanistically, PSVII may suppress the STAT3/nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) signaling pathway. Consequently, PSVII plays a significant role in psoriasis management. PSVII could modulate pyroptotic cell death in psoriatic cells by targeting the STAT3/NFκB signaling cascade, leading to anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative effects, and thereby ameliorating psoriasis symptoms.

Characterization of a 4'-O-rhamnosyltransferase and de novo biosynthesis of bioactive steroidal triglycosides from Paris polyphylla

Steroidal saponins in Paris polyphylla featuring complicated sugar chains exhibit notable biological activities, but their sugar-chain biosynthesis is still not fully understood. Here, we identified a 4'-O-rhamnosyltransferase (UGT73DY2) from P. polyphylla, which catalyzes the 4'-O-rhamnosylation of polyphyllins V and VI, producing dioscin and pennogenin 3-O-β-chacotrioside, respectively. UGT73DY2 exhibits strict substrate specificity toward steroidal diglycosides and UDP-rhamnose, and a new steroidal triglycoside can be synthesized through enzyme catalysis. A mutation library was generated based on semi-rational design, identifying three mutants, I358T, A342V, and A132T, which displayed approximately two-fold enhanced enzyme activity. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed that shortened distances between the 4'-OH group of the sugar acceptor and either the crucial residue H20 or the donor UDP-Rha contribute to the enhanced enzyme activity. Moreover, subcellular localization analysis of UGT73DY2 and other biosynthetic enzymes indicated that dioscin biosynthesis predominantly occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum of plant cells. By co-expressing 14 biosynthetic genes in Nicotiana benthamiana, optimizing HMGR subcellular localization and cytochrome P450 gene sets, and engineering UGT73DY2, we successfully established a dioscin biosynthesis system with a yield of 3.12 ± 0.11 μg/g dry weight. This study not only clarifies the 4'-O-rhamnosylation process in steroidal saponin biosynthesis but also presents an alternative approach for the production of steroidal saponins in P. polyphylla through synthetic biology and metabolic engineering.

Gracillin suppresses cancer progression through inducing Merlin/LATS protein-protein interaction and activating Hippo signaling pathway

Gene therapy, epigenetic therapies, natural compounds targeted therapy, photodynamic therapy, nanoparticles, and precision medicines are becoming available to diagnose and treat cancer. Gracillin, a natural steroidal saponin extracted from herbs, has shown potent efficacy against a range of malignancies. In this study, we investigated the molecular anticancer mechanisms of gracillin. We showed that gracillin dose-dependently suppressed proliferation, migration, and invasion in breast cancer, liver cancer, and glioblastoma cells with IC50 values around 1 μM, which were associated with MST-independent activation of Hippo signaling pathway and subsequent decreased YAP activity. We demonstrated that gracillin activated the Hippo signaling by inducing Merlin/LATS protein-protein interaction (PPI). A competitive inhibitory peptide (SP) derived from the binding interface of the PPI, disrupted the interaction, abolishing the anticancer activity of gracillin. In nude mice bearing MDA-MB-231, HCCLM3, or U87MG xenograft tumor, administration of gracillin (5, 10 mg·kg-1·d-1, i.g. for 21 days) dose-dependently suppressed the tumor growth, associated with the induced Merlin/LATS PPI, activated Hippo signaling, as well as decreased YAP activity in tumor tissues. Our data demonstrate that gracillin is an efficacious therapeutic agent for cancer treatment, induction of Merlin/LATS PPI might provide proof-of-concept in developing therapeutic agent for cancer treatment.

Understanding the Anticancer Effects of Phytochemicals: From Molecular Docking to Anticarcinogenic Signaling

As nontraditional nutrients, the biological activity of phytochemicals have been extensively studied for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and apoptosis-promoting effects in various diseases. The general anticancer benefits of phytochemicals have been demonstrated in both basic researches and clinical trials. However, researchers understanding of how phytochemicals target cancer-related signaling pathways is still in its infancy. Molecular docking simulation analyses have yielded a large amount of cellular target molecules of phytochemicals. Herein, we review the potential signaling pathways that may be involved in the phytochemical-driven cancer benefits. We expect these findings to help in the design of potential cancer treatments designed by manipulating the binding modes and sites of these plant chemicals.

Targeting autophagy to enhance chemotherapy and immunotherapy in oral cancer

Oral cancer is a highly malignant disease characterized by recurrence, metastasis, and poor prognosis. Autophagy, a catabolic process induced under stress conditions, has been shown to play a dual role in oral cancer development and therapy. Recent studies have identified that autophagy activation in oral epithelial cells suppresses cancer cell survival by inhibiting key pathways such as the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), while activating the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway. Inducing autophagy promotes degradation of eukaryotic initiation factor 4E, thus reducing metastasis and enhancing the efficacy of chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy. Furthermore, autophagy induction can modulate the tumor immune microenvironment and enhance antitumor immunity. This review comprehensively summarizes the relationship between autophagy and oral cancer, focusing on its mechanisms and therapeutic potential when combined with conventional treatments. While promising, the precise mechanisms and clinical applications of autophagy inducers in oral cancer therapy remain to be elucidated, offering new directions for future research to improve treatment outcomes and reduce recurrence.

Cyclovirobuxine D inhibits triple-negative breast cancer via YAP/TAZ suppression and activation of the FOXO3a/PINK1-Parkin pathway-induced mitophagy

BACKGROUND

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is characterized by its rapid progression and aggressive nature, with limited effective therapeutic interventions currently available. Cyclovirobuxine D (CVB-D), a natural alkaloid extracted from the traditional Chinese herb Buxus sinica, is renowned for its cardioprotective and anti-ischemic effects, demonstrating notable anti-cancer properties. Nevertheless, the anti-tumor effects of CVB-D on TNBC remain unverified.

PURPOSE

This study seeks to investigate the effects of CVB-D on TNBC and to uncover the underlying mechanisms.

STUDY DESIGN

Network pharmacology, SPR, DSF, and cell-based functional assays were conducted on TNBC cells to assess the impact of CVB-D. Findings were further corroborated using xenograft mouse models.

METHODS

Cell Counting Kit-8, 5-Ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine, transwell assays, flow cytometry, wound healing assays, immunofluorescence, and immunoblotting were employed to evaluate CVB-D's influence on TNBC cell lines. SPR, DSF and molecular docking techniques were utilized to assess the binding affinity of CVB-D to Yes-associated protein (YAP). The interaction between CVB-D and autophagy/mitophagy was further analyzed through plasmid transient transfection, JC-1 assay, TUNEL assay, and the use of autophagy inhibitors. The anti-TNBC mechanism of CVB-D was elucidated by overexpressing YAP in MDA-MB-231 cells. Additionally, the in vivo efficacy and safety of CVB-D were assessed in a xenograft mouse model.

RESULTS

In vitro analyses revealed that CVB-D effectively suppressed G1 phase arrest and inhibited TNBC cell proliferation. Moreover, CVB-D induced mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis and reduced cell migration by antagonizing epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Mechanistically, CVB-D exerted its anti-cancer effects by directly binding to YAP, thereby inhibiting the nuclear translocation of YAP/TAZ and suppressing the transcription of downstream oncogenic target genes. Furthermore, CVB-D triggered excessive mitophagy by activating the FOXO3a/PINK1-Parkin axis, promoting apoptosis and leading to mitochondrial dysfunction in TNBC cells. Elevated YAP expression counteracted the effects of CVB-D on TNBC, including the suppression of mitophagy-related protein expression induced by CVB-D, suggesting that YAP modulates mitophagy through the FOXO3a/PINK1-Parkin axis. The anti-tumor efficacy of CVB-D and its underlying mechanisms were further substantiated using a subcutaneous xenograft model.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is the first to demonstrate that CVB-D can directly bind to the YAP target, proposing a novel therapeutic strategy for TNBC. CVB-D may serve both as a YAP/TAZ inhibitor and as an activator of the FOXO3a/PINK1-Parkin axis, leading to excessive mitophagy.

Paris saponin VII induces Caspase-3/GSDME-dependent pyroptosis in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cells by activating ROS/Bax signaling

Objective

Paridis Rhizoma (Chonglou in Chinese), a traditional Chinese herbal medicine, has been shown have strong anti-tumor effects. Paris saponin VII (PSVII), an active constituent isolated from Paridis Rhizoma, was demonstrated to significantly suppress the proliferation of BxPC-3 cells in our previous study. Here, we aimed to elucidate the anti-pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) effect of PSVII and the underlying mechanism.

Methods

Cell viability was determined by CCK-8, colony formation, and cell migration assays. Cell apoptosis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production were measured by flow cytometry with annexin V/propidine iodide (Annexin V/PI) and 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA), respectively. Pyroptosis was evaluated by morphological features, Hoechst 33342/PI staining assay, and release of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). JC-1 fluorescent dye was employed to measure mitochondrial membrane potential. Western blotting and reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) were used to determine the levels of proteins or mRNAs. The effect in vivo was assessed by a xenograft tumor model.

Results

PSVII inhibited the viability of PDAC cells (BxPC-3, PANC-1, and Capan-2 cells) and induced gasdermin E (GSDME) cleavage, as well as the simultaneous cleavage of Caspase-3 and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP). Knockdown of GSDME shifted PSVII-induced pyroptosis to apoptosis. Additionally, the effect of PSVII was significantly attenuated by Z-Asp(OMe)-Glu(OMe)-Val-Asp(OMe)-fluoromethylketone (Z-DEVD-FMK), on the induction of GSDME-dependent pyroptosis. PSVII also elevated intracellular ROS accumulation and stimulated Bax and Caspase-3/GSDME to conduct pyroptosis in PDAC cells. The ROS scavenger N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) suppressed the release of LDH and inhibited Caspase-9, Caspase-3, and GSDME cleavage in PDAC cells, ultimately reversing PSVII-induced pyroptosis. Furthermore, in a xenograft tumor model, PSVII markedly suppressed the growth of PDAC tumors and induced pyroptosis.

Conclusion

These results demonstrated that PSVII exerts therapeutic effects through Caspase-3/GSDME-dependent pyroptosis and may constitute a novel strategy for preventing chemotherapeutic resistance in patients with PDAC in the future.

Steroidal saponins: Natural compounds with the potential to reverse tumor drug resistance (Review)

Steroidal saponins are a type of natural product that have been widely used in Chinese herbal medicine, with a variety of pharmacological activities, such as antitumor, anti-inflammatory and anti-bacterial effects. Cancer has become a growing global health problem, and drug therapy is currently the most important clinical antitumor treatment. However, drug resistance is a major obstacle to the effectiveness of chemotherapy, resulting in >90% of deaths of patients with cancer receiving conventional chemotherapy. It has been found that steroidal saponins may exert an effect on the reversal of drug resistance in tumor cells by regulating apoptosis, autophagy, epithelial-mesenchymal transition and drug efflux through multiple related signaling pathways. The present study reviews the role and mechanism of steroidal saponins in the treatment of tumor drug resistance, aiming to provide a scientific basis and research ideas for the future development and clinical application of natural steroidal saponins.

Targeting programmed cell death via active ingredients from natural plants: a promising approach to cancer therapy

Cancer is a serious public health problem in humans, and prevention and control strategies are still necessary. Therefore, the development of new therapeutic drugs is urgently needed. Targeting programmed cell death, particularly via the induction of cancer cell apoptosis, is one of the cancer treatment approaches employed. Recently, an increasing number of studies have shown that compounds from natural plants can target programmed cell death and kill cancer cells, laying the groundwork for use in future anticancer treatments. In this review, we focus on the latest research progress on the role and mechanism of natural plant active ingredients in different forms of programmed cell death, such as apoptosis, autophagy, necroptosis, ferroptosis, and pyroptosis, to provide a strong theoretical basis for the clinical development of antitumor drugs.

Polyphyllin VII as a potential medication for targeting epithelial mesenchymal transitionin in thyroid cancer

The need for novel anti-thyroid cancer (TC) medications is urgent due to the rising incidence and metastatic rates of malignant TC. In this study, we investigated the effect of Polyphyllin VII (PPVII) to TC cells, and explored their potential mechanism. B-CPAP and TPC-1 cells, were used to analyze the antitumor activity of PPVII by quantifying cell growth and metastasis as well as to study the effect on epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT). The results showed that PPVII dramatically reduced the capacity of B-CPAP and TPC-1 cells to proliferate and migrate in a dose-response manner. Following PPVII treatment of TC cells, the expression levels of E-cadherin progressively increased and were higher than the control group, while the expression levels of EMT-related genes Vimentin, N-cadherin, Slug, Zeb-1, and Foxe1 gradually declined and were lower than the control group. It was proposed that PPVII might prevent TC from undergoing EMT. The Foxe1 gene was shown to be significantly expressed in TC, and a statistically significant variation in Foxe1 expression was observed across clinical stages of the disease, according to a bioinformatics database study. There was a strong link between the expression of the Foxe1 gene and the EMT-related gene. In the meantime, TC cells' expression of Foxe1 can be inhibited by PPVII. In conclusion, our results showed that PPVII may as a potential medication for targeting EMT in thyroid cancer.

G protein pathway suppressor 2 suppresses aerobic glycolysis through RACK1-mediated HIF-1α degradation in breast cancer

Aerobic glycolysis has been recognized as a hallmark of human cancer. G protein pathway suppressor 2 (GPS2) is a negative regulator of the G protein-MAPK pathway and a core subunit of the NCoR/SMRT transcriptional co-repressor complex. However, how its biological properties intersect with cellular metabolism in breast cancer (BC) development remains poorly elucidated. Here, we report that GPS2 is low expressed in BC tissues and negatively correlated with poor prognosis. Both in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrate that GPS2 suppresses malignant progression of BC. Moreover, GPS2 suppresses aerobic glycolysis in BC cells. Mechanistically, GPS2 destabilizes HIF-1α to reduce the transcription of its downstream glycolytic regulators (PGK1, PGAM1, ENO1, PKM2, LDHA, PDK1, PDK2, and PDK4), and then suppresses cellular aerobic glycolysis. Notably, receptor for activated C kinase 1 (RACK1) is identified as a key ubiquitin ligase for GPS2 to promote HIF-1α degradation. GPS2 stabilizes the binding of HIF-1α to RACK1 by directly binding to RACK1, resulting in polyubiquitination and instability of HIF-1α. Amino acid residues 70-92 aa of the GPS2 N-terminus bind RACK1. A 23-amino-acid-long GPS2-derived peptide was developed based on this N-terminal region, which promotes the interaction of RACK1 with HIF-1α, downregulates HIF-1α expression and significantly suppresses BC tumorigenesis in vitro and in vivo. In conclusion, our findings indicate that GPS2 decreases the stability of HIF-1α, which in turn suppresses aerobic glycolysis and tumorigenesis in BC, suggesting that targeting HIF-1α degradation and treating with peptides may be a promising approach to treat BC.

Hernandonine-mediated autophagic cell death in hepatocellular carcinoma: Interplay of p53 and YAP signaling pathways

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), the primary form of liver cancer, is the third leading cause of cancer-related death globally. Hernandonine is a natural alkaloid derived from Hernandia nymphaeifolia that has been shown to exert various biological functions. In a previous study, hernandonine was shown to suppress the proliferation of several solid tumor cell lines without affecting normal human cell lines. However, little is known about the effect of hernandonine on HCC. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effect and mechanism of hernandonine on HCC in relation to autophagy. We found that hernandonine inhibited HCC cell growth in vitro and in vivo. In addition, hernandonine elicited autophagic cell death and DNA damage in HCC cells. RNA-seq analysis revealed that hernandonine upregulated p53 and Hippo signaling pathway-related genes in HCC cells. Small RNA interference of p53 resulted in hernandonine-induced autophagic cell death attenuation. However, inhibition of YAP sensitized HCC cells to hernandonine by increasing the autophagy induction. This is the first study to illustrate the complex involvement of p53 and YAP in the hernandonine-induced autophagic cell death in human HCC cells. Our findings provide novel evidence for the potential of hernandonine as a therapeutic agent for HCC treatment.

Paris saponin VII inhibits triple-negative breast cancer by targeting the MEK/ERK/STMN1 signaling axis

BACKGROUND

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a category of breast cancer characterized with high molecular heterogeneity. Owing to the lack of effective therapeutic strategies, patients with TNBC have a poor prognosis. Paris saponin VII (PSⅦ), a steroidal saponin extracted from the rhizome of Trichillium tschonoskii Maxim, exhibits excellent anti-cancer activity in a variety of solid tumors. However, the role and potential mechanism of PSⅦ against TNBC remain unexplored.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to elucidate the therapeutic effects of PSⅦ against TNBC and explore the potential mechanism of action.

METHODS

We combined the analysis of public single-cell sequencing data with weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) to identity differentially expressed genes (DEGs) that distinguished malignant and normal epithelial cells in TNBC. Subsequently, the biological features of DEGs in TNBC were evaluated. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was used to define potential pathways associated with the DEGs. The pharmacological activity of PSⅦ for TNBC was evidenced via in vitro and in vivo experiments, and molecular docking, molecular dynamics (MD), surface plasmon resonance (SPR) assay and western blotting were employed to confirm the relative mechanisms.

RESULTS

Single-cell sequencing and WGCNA revealed STMN1 as a pivotal biomarker of TNBC. STMN1 overexpression in TNBC was associated with poor patient prognosis. GSEA revealed a significant accumulation of STMN1 within the MAPK signaling pathway. Furthermore, In vitro experiments showed that PSⅦ showed significantly suppressive actions on the proliferation, migration and invasion abilities for TNBC cells, while inducing apoptosis. Molecular docking, MD analysis and SPR assay indicated a robust interaction between PSⅦ and the MEK protein. Western blotting revealed that PSⅦ may inhibit tumor progression by suppressing the phosphorylation of MEK1/2 and the downstream phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and STMN1. Intraperitoneal injection of PSⅦ (10 mg/kg) notably reduced tumor growth by 71.26 % in a 4T1 xenograft model.

CONCLUSION

In our study, the systems biology method was used to identify potential therapeutic targets for TNBC. In vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated PSⅦ suppresses cancer progression by targeting the MEK/ERK/STMN1 signaling axis. For the first time, the inhibition of STMN1 phosphorylation has been indicated as a possible mechanism for the anticancer effects of PSⅦ. These results emphasize the potential value of PSⅦ as a promising anti-cancer drug candidate for further development in the field of TNBC therapeutics.

Molecular Mechanism of Fusarium Fungus Inhibition by Phenazine-1-carboxamide

Fusarium head blight caused by Fusarium graminearum is a devastating disease in wheat that seriously endangers food security and human health. Previous studies have found that the secondary metabolite phenazine-1-carboxamide produced by biocontrol bacteria inhibited F. graminearum by binding to and inhibiting the activity of histone acetyltransferase Gcn5 (FgGcn5). However, the detailed mechanism of this inhibition remains unknown. Our structural and biochemical studies revealed that phenazine-1-carboxamide (PCN) binds to the histone acetyltransferase (HAT) domain of FgGcn5 at its cosubstrate acetyl-CoA binding site, thus competitively inhibiting the histone acetylation function of the enzyme. Alanine substitution of the residues in the binding site shared by PCN and acetyl-CoA not only decreased the histone acetylation level of the enzyme but also dramatically impacted the development, mycotoxin synthesis, and virulence of the strain. Taken together, our study elucidated a competitive inhibition mechanism of Fusarium fungus by PCN and provided a structural template for designing more potent phenazine-based fungicides.

Targeted Screening of Curcumin Derivatives as Pancreatic Lipase Inhibitors Using Computer-Aided Drug Design

Curcumin has demonstrated promising preclinical antiobesity effects, but its low bioavailability makes it difficult to exert its full effect at a suitable dose. The objective of this study was to screen curcumin derivatives with enhanced bioavailability and lipid-lowering activity under the guidance of computer-aided drug design (CADD). CAAD was used to perform virtual assays on curcumin derivatives to assess their pharmacokinetic properties and effects on pancreatic lipase activity. Subsequently, 19 curcumin derivatives containing 5 skeletons were synthesized to confirm the above virtual assay. The in vitro pancreatic lipase inhibition assay was employed to determine the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of these 19 curcumin derivatives. Based on CADD analysis and in vitro pancreatic lipase inhibition, 2 curcumin derivatives outperformed curcumin in both aspects. Microscale thermophoresis (MST) experiments were employed to assess the binding equilibrium constants (K d) of the aforementioned 2 curcumin derivatives, curcumin, and the positive control drug with pancreatic lipase. Through virtual screening utilizing a chemoinformatics database and molecular docking, 6 derivatives of curcumin demonstrated superior solubility, absorption, and pancreatic lipase inhibitory activity compared to curcumin. The IC50 value for 1,7-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)heptane-3,5-dione (C4), which displayed the most effective inhibitory effect, was 42.83 μM, while the IC50 value for 1,7-bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)heptane-3,5-dione (C6) was 98.62 μM. On the other hand, the IC50 value for curcumin was 142.24 μM. The MST experiment results indicated that the K d values of C4, C6, and curcumin were 2.91, 18.20, and 23.53 μM, respectively. The results of the activity assays exhibited a relatively high degree of concordance with the outcomes yielded by CADD screening. Under the guidance of CADD, the targeted screening of curcumin derivatives with excellent properties in this study exhibited high-efficiency and low-cost benefits.

A review on decoding the roles of YAP/TAZ signaling pathway in cardiovascular diseases: Bridging molecular mechanisms to therapeutic insights

Yes-associated protein (YAP) and transcriptional coactivator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ) serve as transcriptional co-activators that dynamically shuttle between the cytoplasm and nucleus, resulting in either the suppression or enhancement of their downstream gene expression. Recent emerging evidence demonstrates that YAP/TAZ is strongly implicated in the pathophysiological processes that contribute to cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). In the cardiovascular system, YAP/TAZ is involved in the orchestration of a range of biological processes such as oxidative stress, inflammation, proliferation, and autophagy. Furthermore, YAP/TAZ has been revealed to be closely associated with the initiation and development of various cardiovascular diseases, including atherosclerosis, pulmonary hypertension, myocardial fibrosis, cardiac hypertrophy, and cardiomyopathy. In this review, we delve into recent studies surrounding YAP and TAZ, along with delineating their roles in contributing to the pathogenesis of CVDs with a link to various physiological processes in the cardiovascular system. Additionally, we highlight the current potential drugs targeting YAP/TAZ for CVDs therapy and discuss their challenges for translational application. Overall, this review may offer novel insights for understanding and treating cardiovascular disorders.

Mitigating phospholipid peroxidation of macrophages in stress-induced tumor microenvironment by natural ALOX15/PEBP1 complex inhibitors

BACKGROUND

The intricate interactions between chronic psychological stress and susceptibility to breast cancer have been recognized, yet the underlying mechanisms remain unexplored. Danzhi Xiaoyao Powder (DZXY), a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formula, has found clinical utility in the treatment of breast cancer. Macrophages, as the predominant immune cell population within the tumor microenvironment (TME), play a pivotal role in orchestrating tumor immunosurveillance. Emerging evidence suggests that lipid oxidation accumulation in TME macrophages, plays a critical role in breast cancer development and progression. However, a comprehensive understanding of the pharmacological mechanisms and active components of DZXY related to its clinical application in the treatment of stress-aggravated breast cancer remains elusive.

PURPOSE

This study sought to explore the plausible regulatory mechanisms and identify the key active components of DZXY contributing to its therapeutic efficacy in the context of breast cancer.

METHODS

Initially, we conducted an investigation into the relationship between the phagocytic capacity of macrophages damaged by psychological stress and phospholipid peroxidation using flow cytometry and LC-MS/MS-based phospholipomics. Subsequently, we evaluated the therapeutic efficacy of DZXY based on the results of the tumor size, tumor weight, the phospholipid peroxidation pathway and phagocytosis of macrophage. Additionally, the target-mediated characterization strategy based on binding of arachidonate 15-lipoxygenase (ALOX15) to phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein-1 (PEBP1), including molecular docking analysis, microscale thermophoresis (MST) assay, co-immunoprecipitation analysis and activity verification, has been further implemented to reveal the key bio-active components in DZXY. Finally, we evaluated the therapeutic efficacy of isochlorogenic acid C (ICAC) based on the results of tumor size, tumor weight, the phospholipid peroxidation pathway, and macrophage phagocytosis in vivo.

RESULTS

The present study demonstrated that phospholipid peroxides, as determined by LC-MS/MS-based phospholipidomics, triggered in macrophages, which in turn compromised their capacity to eliminate tumor cells through phagocytosis. Furthermore, we elucidate the mechanism behind stress-induced PEBP1 to form a complex with ALOX15, thereby mediating membrane phospholipid peroxidation in macrophages. DZXY, demonstrates potent anti-breast cancer therapeutic effects by disrupting the ALOX15/PEBP1 interaction and inhibiting phospholipid peroxidation, ultimately enhancing macrophages' phagocytic capability towards tumor cells. Notably, ICAC emerged as a promising active component in DZXY, which can inhibit the ALOX15/PEBP1 interaction, thereby mitigating phospholipid peroxidation in macrophages.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, our findings elucidate stress increases the susceptibility of breast cancer by driving lipid peroxidation of macrophages and suggest the ALOX15/PEBP1 complex as a promising intervention target for DZXY.

The NDR family of kinases: essential regulators of aging

Aging is defined as a progressive decline of cognitive and physiological functions over lifetime. Since the definition of the nine hallmarks of aging in 2013 by López-Otin, numerous studies have attempted to identify the main regulators and contributors in the aging process. One interesting group of proteins whose participation has been implicated in several aging hallmarks are the nuclear DBF2-related (NDR) family of serine-threonine AGC kinases. They are one of the core components of the Hippo signaling pathway and include NDR1, NDR2, LATS1 and LATS2 in mammals, along with its highly conserved metazoan orthologs; Trc in Drosophila melanogaster, SAX-1 in Caenorhabditis elegans, CBK1, DBF20 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and orb6 in Saccharomyces pombe. These kinases have been independently linked to the regulation of widely diverse cellular processes disrupted during aging such as the cell cycle progression, transcription, intercellular communication, nutrient homeostasis, autophagy, apoptosis, and stem cell differentiation. However, a comprehensive overview of the state-of-the-art knowledge regarding the post-translational modifications of and by NDR kinases in aging has not been conducted. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of the NDR family of kinases, focusing on their relevance to various aging hallmarks, and emphasize the growing body of evidence that suggests NDR kinases are essential regulators of aging across species.

The development of nanocarriers for natural products

Natural bioactive compounds from plants exhibit substantial pharmacological potency and therapeutic value. However, the development of most plant bioactive compounds is hindered by low solubility and instability. Conventional pharmaceutical forms, such as tablets and capsules, only partially overcome these limitations, restricting their efficacy. With the recent development of nanotechnology, nanocarriers can enhance the bioavailability, stability, and precise intracellular transport of plant bioactive compounds. Researchers are increasingly integrating nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems (NDDS) into the development of natural plant compounds with significant success. Moreover, natural products benefit from nanotechnological enhancement and contribute to the innovation and optimization of nanocarriers via self-assembly, grafting modifications, and biomimetic designs. This review aims to elucidate the collaborative and reciprocal advancement achieved by integrating nanocarriers with botanical products, such as bioactive compounds, polysaccharides, proteins, and extracellular vesicles. This review underscores the salient challenges in nanomedicine, encompassing long-term safety evaluations of nanomedicine formulations, precise targeting mechanisms, biodistribution complexities, and hurdles in clinical translation. Further, this study provides new perspectives to leverage nanotechnology in promoting the development and optimization of natural plant products for nanomedical applications and guiding the progression of NDDS toward enhanced efficiency, precision, and safety. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology.

A new insight into material basis of rhizoma Paridis saponins in alleviating pain

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Paris polyphylla, as a traditional Chinese herbal medicine, was often used to relieve inflammation and pain. Rhizoma Paridis saponins (RPS) as the main active components of Paris polyphylla have excellent analgesic effects.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Determine the analgesic material basis of RPS.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

LC-MS/MS was used to analyze RPS, plasma after intravenous injection of RPS, and oral administration of RPS. H22 plantar pain model was established to explore the analgesic material basis of RPS. Moreover, correlation analysis, network pharmacology, RT-PCR and molecular docking were applied in this research.

RESULTS

RPS had dose-dependently analgesic effects in acetic acid- and formalin-induced pain models. LC-MS/MS detection indicated that diosgenin as the metabolite of RPS mainly distributed in brain tissues. The addition of antibiotics increased the anti-tumor effect of RPS, but reduced its analgesic effect. Network pharmacology, RT-PCR and molecular docking showed that diosgenin exerted its analgesic effect through SRC and Rap1 signaling pathway.

CONCLUSION

Diosgenin exhibited analgesic effects, while saponins had good anti-tumor effects in RPS. This discovery provided a better indication for the later application of RPS in anti-tumor and analgesic settings.

Paris saponin VII promotes ferroptosis to inhibit breast cancer via Nrf2/GPX4 axis

Breast cancer (BC) is one of the malignancies threatening the woman's health. Our study aims to explore the underlying mechanism behind the anti-tumor function of Paris saponin VII (PS VII) in BC. Xenografting experiment was conducted to monitor the tumor growth. The Ki67 and 4-HNE expression were analyzed via immunohistochemical assay. After different treatments, the cell viability, proliferation, invasion, and migration capacity of BC cells were measured by the CCK-8, colony formation, transwell, and wound healing assays, respectively. The ratio of GSH/GSSG was measured by the GSH/GSSG ratio detection assay kit. The lipid ROS and Fe2+ levels were quantified by flow cytometry analysis. The expressions of TFR1, ACSL4, Nrf2, and GPX4 were measured via western blotting. Compared with the Ctrl group, the tumor volumes, and Ki67 expression were markedly reduced in PS VII groups, and the BC cell viability was decreased by PS VII treatment in a dose-dependent manner. The colony numbers, invasive cells, and migration rates were also significantly decreased by PS VII treatment. Then, the Nrf2 as well as GPX4 expressions were decreased and TFR1 expression was increased by PS VII treatment in vitro and in vivo, while there was no difference in ACSL4 expression between Ctrl and PS VII groups. Moreover, the above effects of PS VII could not be observed in GPX4 knockdown cells. PS VII can promote ferroptosis to inhibit BC via the Nrf2/GPX4 axis, which innovatively suggests the pro-ferroptosis effect and therapeutic potential of PS VII in BC.

Acetylation of MOB1 mediates polyphyllin II-reduced lysosome biogenesis in breast cancer by promoting the cytoplasmic retention of the YAP/TFEB coactivator complex

BACKGROUND

Autophagy‒lysosome abnormalities are associated with the malignant progression of cancer. Transcription factor EB (TFEB) is the master transcriptional regulator of the autophagy‒lysosome machinery, and its abnormal activity is associated with autophagy-lysosome dysfunction. Polyphyllin II (PPII), an active steroidal saponin isolated from the rhizomes of Paris polyphylla, has been demonstrated to have antitumor activity.

PURPOSE

Here, we explored the antitumor activity of PPII in breast cancer (BC) and further clarified its mechanism.

METHODS

Autophagosome was detected by transmission electron microscopy, an autophagy indicator system, and western blot. The effect of PPII on lysosomal activity was evaluated by flow cytometry, a lysosomal cathepsin activity assay, and acridine orange staining. The effect of PPII on the signaling pathway was evaluated by Western blot, gene expression measurement, gene alterations. The binding of PPII and MOB1 was examined through a drug affinity responsive target stability assay. The pharmacokinetic parameters of PPII were evaluated in Sprague-Dawley rats.

RESULTS

PPII exhibits therapeutic potential in BC by inducing the accumulation of autophagosome. PPII promotes the cytoplasmic retention of YAP/TFEB, which is responsible for the accumulation of autophagosome in BC. PPII activates Hippo signaling to promote cytoplasmic retention of YAP. PPII activates Hippo signaling by accelerating acetylation of MOB1 through a direct binding interaction.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, these results confirm that acetylation of MOB1 mediates PPII-induced autophagosome accumulation in BC by promoting cytoplasmic retention of the YAP/TFEB coactivator complex. PPII is expected to be a drug candidate for the treatment of BC based on lysosomal biosynthesis.

Polyphyllin VII induces autophagy-dependent ferroptosis in human gastric cancer through targeting T-lymphokine-activated killer cell-originated protein kinase

T-lymphokine-activated killer cell-originated protein kinase (TOPK) is a serine-threonine kinase that is overexpressed in gastric cancer (GC) and promotes tumor progression. Polyphyllin VII (PPVII), a pennogenin isolated from the rhizomes of Paris polyphylla, shows anticancer effects. Here, we explored the antitumor activity and mechanism of PPVII in GC. Ferroptosis was detected by transmission electron microscope, malondialdehyde, and iron determination assays. Autophagy and its upstream signaling pathway were detected by Western blot, and gene alterations. The binding of PPVII and TOPK was examined through microscale thermophoresis and drug affinity responsive target stability assays. An in vivo mouse model was performed to evaluate the therapeutic of PPVII. PPVII inhibits GC by inducing autophagy-mediated ferroptosis. PPVII promotes the degradation of ferritin heavy chain 1, which is responsible for autophagy-mediated ferroptosis. PPVII activates the Unc-51-like autophagy-activating kinase 1 (ULK1) upstream of autophagy. PPVII inhibits the activity of TOPK, thereby weakening the inhibition of downstream ULK1. PPVII stabilizes the dimer of the inactive form of TOPK by direct binding. PPVII inhibits tumor growth without causing obvious toxicity in vivo. Collectively, this study suggests that PPVII is a potential agent for the treatment of GC by targeting TOPK to activate autophagy-mediated ferroptosis.

Endophyte-inoculated rhizomes of Paris polyphylla improve polyphyllin biosynthesis and yield: a transcriptomic analysis of the underlying mechanism

Introduction

Polyphyllin from Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis exhibits anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antibacterial, and antiviral properties. However, the current production of polyphyllin can barely meet market demand. To improve the content of polyphyllin produced by P. polyphylla, two endophyte strains, Bacillus cereus LgD2 and Fusarium oxysporum TPB, were isolated from Paris fargesii Franch. and inoculated in the roots of P. polyphylla. Both symbiotic strains significantly promoted the accumulation of saponins in P. polyphylla.

Methods

The content of polyphyllin in rhizomes of P. polyphylla treated with TPB with LgD2 strain was determined using High Performance Liquid Chromatography and the expressed genes were analyzed by RNA-seq. Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes annotations were performed on the differentially expressed genes, a clustering tree of UDP-glycosyltransferase (UGT) and cytochrome P450 (CYP450) gene families was constructed, and UGT and CYP450 involved in the biosynthesis of polyphyllin were predicted using weighted correlation network analysis (WGCNA).

Results

RNA-seq and qRT-PCR analyses showed that endophytic inoculation did not promote polyphyllin accumulation by enhancing the upstream terpene biosynthesis pathway, but probably by up-regulating the downstream CYP450 and UGT genes associated with polyphyllin biosynthesis. Genomes enrichment analyses of differentially expressed genes indicated that inoculation with LgD2 and TPB played a positive role in promoting the defense against pathogenic bacteria, enhancing the biosynthesis of carbohydrates, attenuating the process of nitrogen metabolism, and maintaining the equilibrium of the redox reaction homeostasis, potentially indirectly enhancing the polyphyllin yield of P. polyphylla. By combining differentially expressed genes screening, WGCNA, and phylogenetic tree analyses, 17 CYP450 and 2 UGT candidate genes involved in the biosynthesis of polyphyllin I, polyphyllin II, polyphyllin VII, polyphyllin D, and polyphyllin H were identified. These results suggest that endophytes probably effectively promote the accumulation of polyphyllin by regulating key downstream genes in biosynthetic pathways.

Discussion

This study provides a new approach for investigating the regulatory mechanisms of endophytes that promote the production and accumulation of polyphyllin in P. polyphylla, providing a basis for further elucidating the mechanisms of plant-endophyte interactions.

Membrane phospholipid peroxidation promotes loss of dopaminergic neurons in psychological stress-induced Parkinson's disease susceptibility

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder associated with α-synuclein aggregation and dopaminergic neuron loss in the midbrain. There is evidence that psychological stress promotes PD progression by enhancing glucocorticoids-related oxidative damage, however, the mechanisms involved are unknown. The present study demonstrated that plasma membrane phospholipid peroxides, as determined by phospholipidomics, triggered ferroptosis in dopaminergic neurons, which in turn contributed to stress exacerbated PD-like motor disorder in mice overexpressing mutant human α-synuclein. Using hormonomics, we identified that stress stimulated corticosteroid release and promoted 15-lipoxygenase-1 (ALOX15)-mediated phospholipid peroxidation. ALOX15 was upregulated by α-synuclein overexpression and acted as a fundamental risk factor in the development of chronic stress-induced parkinsonism and neurodegeneration. Further, we demonstrated the mechanism by which corticosteroids activated the PKC pathway and induced phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein-1 (PEBP1) to form a complex with ALOX15, thereby facilitating ALOX15 to locate on the plasma membrane phospholipids. A natural product isolated from herbs, leonurine, was screened with activities of inhibiting the ALOX15/PEBP1 interaction and thereby attenuating membrane phospholipid peroxidation. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that stress increases the susceptibility of PD by driving membrane lipid peroxidation of dopaminergic neurons and suggest the ALOX15/PEBP1 complex as a potential intervention target.

Steroidal Saponins: Naturally Occurring Compounds as Inhibitors of the Hallmarks of Cancer

Cancer is a global health burden responsible for an exponentially growing number of incidences and mortalities, regardless of the significant advances in its treatment. The identification of the hallmarks of cancer is a major milestone in understanding the mechanisms that drive cancer initiation, development, and progression. In the past, the hallmarks of cancer have been targeted to effectively treat various types of cancers. These conventional cancer drugs have shown significant therapeutic efficacy but continue to impose unfavorable side effects on patients. Naturally derived compounds are being tested in the search for alternative anti-cancer drugs. Steroidal saponins are a group of naturally occurring compounds that primarily exist as secondary metabolites in plant species. Recent studies have suggested that steroidal saponins possess significant anti-cancer capabilities. This review aims to summarize the recent findings on steroidal saponins as inhibitors of the hallmarks of cancer and covers key studies published between the years 2014 and 2024. It is reported that steroidal saponins effectively inhibit the hallmarks of cancer, but poor bioavailability and insufficient preclinical studies limit their utilization.

Sculponeatin A promotes the ETS1-SYVN1 interaction to induce SLC7A11/xCT-dependent ferroptosis in breast cancer

BACKGROUND

E26 transformation specificity-1 (ETS1) is a transcription factor that is overexpressed in breast cancer (BC) and promotes tumor progression. Sculponeatin A (stA), a new diterpenoid extracted from Isodon sculponeatus, has no reported antitumor mechanism.

PURPOSE

Here, we explored the antitumor activity of stA in BC and further clarified its mechanism.

METHODS

Ferroptosis was detected by flow cytometric, glutathione, malondialdehyde, and iron determination assays. The effect of stA on the upstream signaling pathway of ferroptosis was detected by Western blot, gene expression, gene alterations and other approaches. The binding of stA and ETS1 was examined through a microscale thermophoresis assay and a drug affinity responsive target stability assay. An in vivo mouse model experiment was performed to evaluate the therapeutic and potential mechanism of stA.

RESULTS

stA exhibits therapeutic potential in BC by inducing SLC7A11/xCT-dependent ferroptosis. stA decreases the expression of ETS1, which is responsible for xCT-dependent ferroptosis in BC. stA inhibits the transcriptional expression of xCT by directly binding to the ETS domain of the ETS1 protein. In addition, stA promotes proteasomal degradation of ETS1 by triggering ubiquitin ligase synoviolin 1 (SYVN1)-mediated ubiquitination. The K318 site of ETS1 mediates ubiquitination of ETS1 by SYVN1. In a mouse model, stA inhibits tumor growth without causing obvious toxicity.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, the results confirm that stA promotes the ETS1-SYVN1 interaction to induce ferroptosis in BC mediated by ETS1 degradation. stA is expected to be used in research of candidate drugs for BC and drug design based on ETS1 degradation.

Towards dual function of autophagy in breast cancer: A potent regulator of tumor progression and therapy response

As a devastating disease, breast cancer has been responsible for decrease in life expectancy of females and its morbidity and mortality are high. Breast cancer is the most common tumor in females and its treatment has been based on employment of surgical resection, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. The changes in biological behavior of breast tumor relies on genomic and epigenetic mutations and depletions as well as dysregulation of molecular mechanisms that autophagy is among them. Autophagy function can be oncogenic in increasing tumorigenesis, and when it has pro-death function, it causes reduction in viability of tumor cells. The carcinogenic function of autophagy in breast tumor is an impediment towards effective therapy of patients, as it can cause drug resistance and radio-resistance. The important hallmarks of breast tumor such as glucose metabolism, proliferation, apoptosis and metastasis can be regulated by autophagy. Oncogenic autophagy can inhibit apoptosis, while it promotes stemness of breast tumor. Moreover, autophagy demonstrates interaction with tumor microenvironment components such as macrophages and its level can be regulated by anti-tumor compounds in breast tumor therapy. The reasons of considering autophagy in breast cancer therapy is its pleiotropic function, dual role (pro-survival and pro-death) and crosstalk with important molecular mechanisms such as apoptosis. Moreover, current review provides a pre-clinical and clinical evaluation of autophagy in breast tumor.

Combination of chloroquine diphosphate and salidroside induces human liver cell apoptosis via regulation of mitochondrial dysfunction and autophagy

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the leading cause of cancer‑associated death in the world. Chemotherapy remains the primary treatment method for HCC. Despite advances in chemotherapy and modalities, recurrence and resistance limit therapeutic success. Salidroside (Sal), a bioactive component extracted from the rhizome of Rhodiola rosea L, exhibits a spectrum of biological activities including antitumor effects. In the present study, it was demonstrated that Sal could induce apoptosis and autophagy of 97H cells by using CCK‑8 assay, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Hoechst33342 staining, MDC staining, western blotting. Pretreatment with Sal enhanced apoptosis and autophagy via upregulation of expression levels of Bax, Caspase‑3, Caspase‑9, light chain (LC)3‑II and Beclin‑1 proteins and downregulation of expression levels of Bcl‑2, LC3‑I and p62 protein in 97H cells. Furthermore, Sal was demonstrated to inhibit activation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway and, when combined with autophagy inhibitor chloroquine diphosphate (CQ), increased phosphorylation of PI3K, Akt and mTOR proteins. The combined treatment with Sal and CQ not only decreased Sal‑induced autophagy, but also accelerated Sal‑induced apoptosis. Therefore, Sal‑induced autophagy might serve a role as a defense mechanism in human liver cancer cells and its inhibition may be a promising strategy for the adjuvant chemotherapy of liver cancer.

Naturally occurring steroidal saponins as potential anticancer agents: Current developments and mechanisms of action

Cancer is claimed as a prevalent cause of mortality throughout the world. Conventional chemotherapy plays a pivotal role in the treatment of cancers, but the multidrug resistance has already become one of the major impediments for efficacious cancer therapy, creating a great demand for the development of novel anticancer drugs. Steroidal saponins, abundantly found in nature, possess extensive structural variability, and some naturally occurring steroidal saponins exhibited profound anticancer properties through a variety of pathways. Hence, naturally occurring steroidal saponins are powerful lead compounds/candidates in the development of novel therapeutic agents. This review article described the recent progress in naturally occurring steroidal saponins as potential anticancer agents, and the mechanisms of action were also discussed, covering articles published between 2017 and 2021.