Gender differences in individual variation in academic grades fail to fit expected patterns for STEM

Divergence in children's gender stereotypes and motivation across STEM fields

STEM disciplines are traditionally stereotyped as being for men and boys. However, in two preregistered studies of Grades 1 to 12 students in the United States (N = 2,765), we find a significant divergence in students' gender stereotypes about different STEM fields. Gender stereotypes about computer science and engineering more strongly favored boys than did gender stereotypes about math and science. These patterns hold across genders, intersections of gender and race/ethnicity, and two geographical regions. This divergence between different STEM fields was evident, although smaller, for children in elementary school compared to adolescents (students in middle school and high school). The divergence in stereotypes predicted students' divergence in motivation for entering these fields. Gender stereotypes on average slightly favored girls in math and were egalitarian or slightly favored girls in science, while boys remained strongly favored for computer science and engineering, with implications for educational equity and targeted interventions.

Correcting for Differences in Measurement Unreliability in Meta-Analysis of Variances

There is a growing interest of researchers in meta-analytic methods for comparing variances as a means to answer questions on between-group differences in variability. When measurements are fallible, however, the variance of an outcome reflects both the variance of the true scores and the error variance. Consequently, effect sizes based on variances, such as the log variability ratio (lnVR) or the log coefficient of variation ratio (lnCVR), may thus not only reflect between-group differences in the true-score variances but also differences in measurement reliability. In this article, we derive formulas to correct the lnVR and lnCVR and their sampling variances for between-group differences in reliability and evaluate their performance in simulation studies. We find that when the goal is to meta-analyze differences between the true-score variances and reliability differs between groups, our proposed corrections lead to accurate estimates of effect sizes and sampling variances in single studies, accurate estimates of the average effect and the between-study variance in random-effects meta-analysis, and adequate type I error rates for the significance test of the average effect. We discuss how to deal with problems arising from missing or imprecise group-specific reliability estimates in meta-analytic data sets and identify questions for further methodological research.

Lifetime History of Head or Traumatic Brain Injury Before Age 9 and School Outcomes: Results From the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study

BACKGROUND

Limited information about school outcomes among children (especially early childhood) with lifetime history of head injury, including traumatic brain injury (TBI), may inhibit efforts to support their academics and physical and mental health.

METHODS

Baseline data (2016-2018) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study were analyzed to describe associations between parent-proxy reported lifetime history of head injury or TBI before age 9 and school outcomes and behavioral challenges among 9- and 10-year-old children.

RESULTS

Having a lifetime history of head injury before age 9 was associated with increased odds of parent-perceived poor school performance (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.44, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.14-1.81), a drop in grades (AOR = 1.28, 95%CI = 1.06-1.54), recent receipt of detentions or suspensions (AOR = 1.29, 95%CI = 1.02-1.65), and receipt of special educational services (AOR = 1.23, 95%CI = 1.08-1.41). Of those with a lifetime history of head injury, males displayed poorer school outcomes and greater behavioral challenges than females. Similar associations were observed between lifetime history of TBI before age 9 and worse school outcomes, with males continuing to demonstrate stronger associations.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings underscore the importance of screening for history of head injury and TBI and providing training for school professionals to help ensure students with a history of head or traumatic brain injury have appropriate supports in place.

Beyond the Gender Binarism: Neural Correlates of Trans Men in a Functional Connectivity-Resting-State fMRI Pilot Study

Introduction: Several studies have investigated the specific neural correlates of trans people, highlighting mixed results. This study aimed to compare the presence of specific functional connectivity and differences in cognitive profile and hormone levels in trans men diagnosed with gender dysphoria (GD), and a homogeneous group of cisgender men and cisgender women. Methods: A total of 42 participants (19 trans men, 11 cisgender men, and 12 cisgender women) underwent a resting state fMRI and were measured for blood levels of testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone. A neuropsychological battery evaluated executive functions, attention, visual-perceptual ability, verbal fluency, manual preference, and general intelligence. Results: Trans men showed weaker functional connectivity in the precentral gyrus, subcallosal cortex, paracingulate gyrus, temporal pole, and cingulate gyrus than cisgender men (p < 0.01). Trans men performed worse than cisgender men in verbal and visuospatial working memory but similarly to cisgender women (p < 0.05). In trans men, functional connectivity of the precentral gyrus correlated positively with testosterone (r = 0.459, p = 0.064) and negatively with estradiol (r = -0.654, p = 0.004) and progesterone blood levels (r = -0.475, p = 0.054). The cluster involving the subcallosal cortex showed a positive correlation with testosterone (r = 0.718, p = 0.001), and a negative correlation with estradiol (r = -0.602, p = 0.011). The functional connectivity from a cluster involving the paracingulate gyrus showed a positive correlation with testosterone (r = 0.592, p = 0.012). Conclusions: This study highlights the importance of overpassing the binary model by underlining the presence of neural pathways that could represent the peculiarity of the neural profile of people with GD.

Evaluating learning outcomes of Christian religious education learners: A comparison of constructive simulation and conventional method

Learning outcomes in Christian Religious Education (CRE) are attributed to the teaching and learning approaches utilized by teachers. In Kenya, conventional methods of teaching are prevalent in classrooms, as teachers often prefer methods that alleviate their workload. Nevertheless, the implementation of learner-centred methods such as constructive simulation enhances learning outcomes. Therefore, this research evaluated the dissimilarity in learning outcomes of CRE learners instructed by constructive simulation, and those instructed with a conventional approach. The research employed a quasi-experimental study with groups under treatment and control, incorporating a pre-test and post-test approach. In total, 90 form two CRE learners from two sub-county secondary schools were purposively selected for the research. Data were collected using the Learner Attainment test in CRE as the assessment tool. The research utilized correlation analysis to establish the similarity scores between the pre-test and post-test assessments. Additionally, the t-test statistical model was employed to test the effectiveness of the two teaching methods. Results revealed a strong positive connection between the two assessment tests of learners taught using constructive simulation (r = 00.0510, p < 0.01) and conventional method (r ═ 0.673, p < 0.01). Notably, constructive simulation (t (49) = - 9.76, n = 50, p < 0.05) significantly outperformed the conventional method of teaching (t (39) = 2.700, n = 40, p < 0.324). These findings implied that constructive simulation was more effective in enhancing learning outcomes as opposed to the conventional method of teaching. The results suggest that when designing curricula and formulating educational policies, educators and policymakers should incorporate constructive simulation as a learner-centred method.

Meta-analysis of the implied distribution of callous-unemotional traits across sampling methods and informant

Callous-unemotional (CU) traits have been measured in a variety of sample-types (e.g., community or forensic) and from the perspective of different informants (e.g., self-report or parent-report) using the inventory of callous-unemotional traits total score (ICU-T). Although the positive association between CU traits and antisocial behavior is uncontroversial, the degree to which sample-types are different from each other has received little attention despite such knowledge being important for generalization and interpretation of research findings. To address this gap in the literature, we estimated the implied distribution of the ICU-T across sample-types, informants, and their interaction using meta-analytic models of sample means and variances. In unconditional models, we found that sample-type significantly moderated mean ICU-T scores but not variance, while informant significantly moderated the variance of ICU-T scores but not means. There was also a significant interaction between sample-type and informant. Mean parent-reported ICU-T scores were significantly lower than self-reported scores in community samples, but not significantly different in samples with elevated levels of antisocial behavior. Implications of our findings include improved research efficiency, the need for different ICU-T norms across informants, and greater understanding of informant biases.

Interactions between the sex of the clinician grader and the sex of the chiropractic student intern on spinal manipulation assessment grade

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this project was to determine if there was any relationship between the sex of the clinician grader and the sex of the chiropractic student intern on student spinal manipulation assessment grades.

METHODS

Twelve thousand six hundred and thirty-one supervised patient adjustments by student interns were analyzed over a 3-year data collection window. Student interns were assessed by multiple male and female clinicians in a teaching clinic using a modified Dreyfus model scoring system on a 1-4 scale (1 = novice, 4 = proficient). A Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare the relationship between grader sex and student grade as well as student sex and student grade.

RESULTS

Sex of the grader had a statistically significant effect on spinal manipulation assessment grade, p < .001, with male clinician graders assigning average scores of 2.81 ± 0.39 (mean ± SD) and female clinician graders scores of 3.01 ± 0.52, r = .18. Sex of the student had a statistically significant but negligible (r = .08) effect on spinal manipulation assessment grade, p < .001, with male students averaging slightly higher scores (2.93 ± 0.47) than females (2.86 ± 0.44) on the modified Dreyfus scale.

CONCLUSION

Male clinicians tended to assign lower grades on spinal manipulation assessments than female clinicians. Male students on average received slightly higher scores than female students on spinal manipulation assessments.

Quantitative evidence synthesis: a practical guide on meta-analysis, meta-regression, and publication bias tests for environmental sciences

Meta-analysis is a quantitative way of synthesizing results from multiple studies to obtain reliable evidence of an intervention or phenomenon. Indeed, an increasing number of meta-analyses are conducted in environmental sciences, and resulting meta-analytic evidence is often used in environmental policies and decision-making. We conducted a survey of recent meta-analyses in environmental sciences and found poor standards of current meta-analytic practice and reporting. For example, only ~ 40% of the 73 reviewed meta-analyses reported heterogeneity (variation among effect sizes beyond sampling error), and publication bias was assessed in fewer than half. Furthermore, although almost all the meta-analyses had multiple effect sizes originating from the same studies, non-independence among effect sizes was considered in only half of the meta-analyses. To improve the implementation of meta-analysis in environmental sciences, we here outline practical guidance for conducting a meta-analysis in environmental sciences. We describe the key concepts of effect size and meta-analysis and detail procedures for fitting multilevel meta-analysis and meta-regression models and performing associated publication bias tests. We demonstrate a clear need for environmental scientists to embrace multilevel meta-analytic models, which explicitly model dependence among effect sizes, rather than the commonly used random-effects models. Further, we discuss how reporting and visual presentations of meta-analytic results can be much improved by following reporting guidelines such as PRISMA-EcoEvo (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses for Ecology and Evolutionary Biology). This paper, along with the accompanying online tutorial, serves as a practical guide on conducting a complete set of meta-analytic procedures (i.e., meta-analysis, heterogeneity quantification, meta-regression, publication bias tests and sensitivity analysis) and also as a gateway to more advanced, yet appropriate, methods.

Factors associated with stress impacting academic success among post-secondary students: A systematic review

Objective: To synthesize peer-reviewed primary research exploring factors associated with perceived stress impacting post-secondary students' academic success. Methods: A systematic review identified research conducted in North America, Europe, and Australia in the last ten years across 12 databases. Results: Of the 6,214 references screened, 14 English articles published between 2011 and 2018 were deemed relevant. Subsequent analysis characterized articles by study design, location, population, factors with a statistically significant relationship with both perceived stress and academic success, and future research directions. Findings reveal a complex relationship among overlapping factors associated with perceived stress on academic success at both the intrapersonal (eg, academic, demographic, psychological, attitudinal, and behavioral characteristics) and interpersonal levels (eg, social capital). Conclusions: Further research should measure the association of the identified factors to inform areas where resources could be targeted within post-secondary institutions to prevent stress from unduly impacting students' educational outcomes.

Predicting academic achievement and student absences in high school: The roles of student and school attributes

The present study aims at examining predictors of high school students' academic achievement from student-level and school-level predictors in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, especially in light of policy mandates on educational reform in accordance with Vision 2030. Participants were 528,854 individuals who took on the Standard Achievement Admission Test (SAAT), along with other demographic variables. The mean age of participants was 19.7 years with an SD = 1.87. There were 234,813 males and 294,041 females. A Multilevel Random Coefficient Modeling (MRCM) model was engaged to identify predictors of academic achievement. Results indicated the positive roles of being a female, having educational parents, being educated in religious schools or large schools, and having small student-to-teacher ratios and the negative roles of student absences, student age, and being educated in new schools. Results are viewed under the lenses of new policy mandates on educational reform in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

On the robustness of gender differences in economic behavior

Because of the importance of economic decisions, researchers have looked into what factors influence them. Gender has received a lot of attention for explaining differences in behavior. But how much can be associated with gender, and how much with an individual's biological sex? We run an experimental online study with cis- and transgender participants that (1) looks into correlational differences between gender and sex for competitiveness, risk-taking, and altruism by comparing decisions across these different subject groups. (2) we prime participants with either a masculine or feminine gender identity to examine causal gender effects on behavior. We hypothesize that if gender is indeed a primary factor for decision-making, (i) individuals of the same gender (but different sex) make similar decisions, and (ii) gender priming changes behavior. Based on 780 observations, we conclude that the role of gender (and sex) is not as decisive for economic behavior as originally thought.

Gender Stereotypes and Peer Selection in STEM Domains Among Children and Adolescents

Gender stereotypes are harmful for girls’ enrollment and performance in science and mathematics. So far, less is known about children’s and adolescents’ stereotypes regarding technology and engineering. In the current study, participants’ (N = 1,206, girls n = 623; 5–17-years-old, M = 8.63, SD = 2.81) gender stereotypes for each of the STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) domains were assessed along with the relation between these stereotypes and a peer selection task in a STEM context. Participants reported beliefs that boys are usually more skilled than are girls in the domains of engineering and technology; however, participants did not report gender differences in ability/performance in science and mathematics. Responses to the stereotype measures in favor of one’s in-group were greater for younger participants than older participants for both boys and girls. Perceptions that boys are usually better than girls at science were related to a greater likelihood of selecting a boy for help with a science question. These findings document the importance of domain specificity, even within STEM, in attempts to measure and challenge gender stereotypes in childhood and adolescence.

Evolution of Medical Students' Perception of the Patient's Right to Privacy

During clinical rotations, medical students experience situations in which the patients' right to privacy may be violated. The aim of this study is to analyze medical students' perception of clinical situations that affect patients' right to privacy, and to look for the influential factors that may contribute to the infringement on their rights, such as the students' age, sex, academic year or parents' educational level. A cross-sectional study was conducted with a survey via "Google Drive". It consisted of 16 questions about personal information, 24 questions about their experience when rotating and 21 questions about their opinion concerning several situations related to the right to privacy. A total of 129 medical students from various Spanish medical schools participated. Only 31% of 3rd-6th year students declared having signed a confidentiality agreement when starting their clinical practice, and most students (52%) reported that doctors "sometimes", "rarely" or "never" introduce themselves and the students when entering the patients' rooms. Additionally, about 50% of all students reported that they would take a picture of a patient's hospitalization report without his/her (consent), which would be useful for an assignment. Important mistakes during medical students' rotations have been observed, as well as a general lack of knowledge regarding patient's right to privacy among Spanish medical students. Men and older students showed better knowledge of current legislation, as well as those whose parents were both university-educated and those in higher academic years.

Sex differences in the human brain: a roadmap for more careful analysis and interpretation of a biological reality

The presence, magnitude, and significance of sex differences in the human brain are hotly debated topics in the scientific community and popular media. This debate is largely fueled by studies containing strong, opposing conclusions: either little to no evidence exists for sex differences in human neuroanatomy, or there are small-to-moderate differences in the size of certain brain regions that are highly reproducible across cohorts (even after controlling for sex differences in average brain size). Our Commentary uses the specific comparison between two recent large-scale studies that adopt these opposing views-namely the review by Eliot and colleagues (2021) and the direct analysis of ~ 40k brains by Williams and colleagues (2021)-in an effort to clarify this controversy and provide a framework for conducting this research. First, we review observations that motivate research on sex differences in human neuroanatomy, including potential causes (evolutionary, genetic, and environmental) and effects (epidemiological and clinical evidence for sex-biased brain disorders). We also summarize methodological and empirical support for using structural MRI to investigate such patterns. Next, we outline how researchers focused on sex differences can better specify their study design (e.g., how sex was defined, if and how brain size was adjusted for) and results (by e.g., distinguishing sexual dimorphisms from sex differences). We then compare the different approaches available for studying sex differences across a large number of individuals: direct analysis, meta-analysis, and review. We stress that reviews do not account for methodological differences across studies, and that this variation explains many of the apparent inconsistencies reported throughout recent reviews (including the work by Eliot and colleagues). For instance, we show that amygdala volume is consistently reported as male-biased in studies with sufficient sample sizes and appropriate methods for brain size correction. In fact, comparing the results from multiple large direct analyses highlights small, highly reproducible sex differences in the volume of many brain regions (controlling for brain size). Finally, we describe best practices for the presentation and interpretation of these findings. Care in interpretation is important for all domains of science, but especially so for research on sex differences in the human brain, given the existence of broad societal gender-biases and a history of biological data being used justify sexist ideas. As such, we urge researchers to discuss their results from simultaneously scientific and anti-sexist viewpoints.

Predicting Math Performance of Middle Eastern Students: The Role of Dispositions

The present research examines the contribution of individual differences in chronotype and self-efficacy to the math performance of male and female students in STEM and no-STEM majors. Questionnaires assessing the selected individual differences were distributed to students of Middle Eastern descent enrolled in math courses of the general education curriculum. Summative assessment indices were used to measure performance comprehensively across the entire semester (course grades) and as a one-time occurrence (final test grades). The contribution of morningness and self-efficacy to both course and test performance of STEM students was sensitive to the interaction of gender and major. Instead, neither factor contributed to no-STEM students’ course and test performance. These findings were used to plan improvements in the instruction and advising of students in STEM majors, thereby complying with a key tenet of action research.

Measuring the Relation between Academic Performance and Emotional Intelligence at the University Level after the COVID-19 Pandemic Using TMMS-24

The outbreak of the global pandemic derived from COVID-19 in early 2020 has represented a huge loss of social contact for most young people. The extent of these effects is still unknown, so it is necessary to ask what the effect of this new, unforeseen, and prolonged situation on the management of emotional intelligence in university students is. This study aims to compare the academic performance, test anxiety (before and during the online exams), and emotional intelligence of 91 students in a university Master’s degree program after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. The emotional intelligence was measured by the TMMS-24, the academic performance was compiled in common subjects, and test anxiety was measured by self-assessment just after finishing each online exam. The comparisons between the variables were made through means difference contrasts using Mann–Whitney U, Kruskal–Wallis, and One-way ANOVA and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient as a non-parametric test for correlational analysis. The results show that the COVID-19 pandemic has not modified how these three variables are related, so it can be concluded that the prolonged social isolation suffered by young people has not had negative repercussions on their emotional intelligence, anxiety before exams, and academic performance.

A meta-analysis of sex differences in animal personality: no evidence for the greater male variability hypothesis

The notion that men are more variable than women has become embedded into scientific thinking. For mental traits like personality, greater male variability has been partly attributed to biology, underpinned by claims that there is generally greater variation among males than females in non-human animals due to stronger sexual selection on males. However, evidence for greater male variability is limited to morphological traits, and there is little information regarding sex differences in personality-like behaviours for non-human animals. Here, we meta-analysed sex differences in means and variances for over 2100 effects (204 studies) from 220 species (covering five broad taxonomic groups) across five personality traits: boldness, aggression, activity, sociality and exploration. We also tested if sexual size dimorphism, a proxy for sex-specific sexual selection, explains variation in the magnitude of sex differences in personality. We found no significant differences in personality between the sexes. In addition, sexual size dimorphism did not explain variation in the magnitude of the observed sex differences in the mean or variance in personality for any taxonomic group. In sum, we find no evidence for widespread sex differences in variability in non-human animal personality.

Effect of absenteeism on the performance of medical sciences students: gender differences

The effects of the learning environment on academic performance can be investigated according to a broad range of factors using a diversity of approaches. Many differences in academic performance have been associated with the sex of the student. Objectives: This study aims to understand the impact of absenteeism on the final grades earned by full-time medical laboratory sciences undergraduate students and whether this is affected by sex. Academic performance was analyzed using students' final grades from two consecutive semesters (January to April and September to December 2019). The differences between male (n = 43) and female (n = 72) students were evaluated by Pearson's correlation. During the semester, all teaching and assessment methods were standardized across both course sections to avoid confounding effects derived from the teaching method. Academic performance was assessed both objectively (multiple-choice questions) and subjectively (short essay questions). The mean scores of male and female students during two semesters were significantly different (p = 0.0180). To correlate marks with absenteeism, the correlation coefficient (r) was negative, which indicates an inverse correlation between absence rate and scores. Interestingly, a statistically significant correlation between absenteeism and final grades was found in the male sample population (p = 0.0011 for the first semester; p = 0.0255 for the second semester) that was not observed for their female counterparts (p = 0.2041; p = 0.1537). The results indicate that academic performance among women is not solely dependent on class attendance but likely involves other factors such as self-learning, and group discussion. The mean scores of female medical sciences students were significantly higher than the male students for two consecutive semesters. Male overall scores seem to be conditional on the instructor's explanation. This sex-based variation in academic performance revealed by taking absenteeism rate into account warrant further investigation.

A multi-year science research or engineering experience in high school gives women confidence to continue in the STEM pipeline or seek advancement in other fields: A 20-year longitudinal study

There remains a large gender imbalance in the science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) workforce deriving from a leaky pipeline where women start losing interest and confidence in science and engineering as early as primary school. To address this disparity, the Science Research & Engineering Program (SREP) at Hathaway Brown School was established in 1998 to engage and expose their all-female high school students to STEM fields through an internship-like multi-year research experience at partnering institutions. We compare data from existing Hathaway Brown School SREP alumnae records from 1998-2018 (n = 495) to Non-SREP students and national datasets (National Center for Educational Statistics, National Science Foundation, and US Census data) to assess how SREP participation may influence persistence in the STEM pipeline and whether SREP alumnae attribute differences in these outcomes to the confidence and skill sets they learned from the SREP experience. The results reveal that women who participate in the SREP are more likely to pursue a major in a STEM field and continue on to a STEM occupation compared to non-SREP students, national female averages, and national subsets. Participants attribute their outcomes to an increase in confidence, establishment of technical and professional skills, and other traits strengthened through the SREP experience. These data suggest that implementing similar experiential programs for women in science and engineering at the high school stage could be a promising way to combat the remaining gender gap in STEM fields.

Detecting Heterogeneity of Intervention Effects Using Analysis and Meta-analysis of Differences in Variance Between Trial Arms

BACKGROUND

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) with continuous outcomes usually only examine mean differences in response between trial arms. If the intervention has heterogeneous effects, then outcome variances will also differ between arms. Power of an individual trial to assess heterogeneity is lower than the power to detect the same size of main effect.

METHODS

We describe several methods for assessing differences in variance in trial arms and apply them to a single trial with individual patient data and to meta-analyses using summary data. Where individual data are available, we use regression-based methods to examine the effects of covariates on variation. We present an additional method to meta-analyze differences in variances with summary data.

RESULTS

In the single trial, there was agreement between methods, and the difference in variance was largely due to differences in prevalence of depression at baseline. In two meta-analyses, most individual trials did not show strong evidence of a difference in variance between arms, with wide confidence intervals. However, both meta-analyses showed evidence of greater variance in the control arm, and in one example, this was perhaps because mean outcome in the control arm was higher.

CONCLUSIONS

Using meta-analysis, we overcame low power of individual trials to examine differences in variance using meta-analysis. Evidence of differences in variance should be followed up to identify potential effect modifiers and explore other possible causes such as varying compliance.

The geography of intergenerational social mobility in Britain

Empirical analysis of social mobility is typically framed by outcomes recorded for only a single, recent generation, ignoring intergenerational preconditions and historical conferment of opportunity. We use the detailed geography of relative deprivation (hardship) to demonstrate that different family groups today experience different intergenerational outcomes and that there is a distinct Great Britain-wide geography to these inequalities. We trace the evolution of these inequalities back in time by coupling family group level data for the entire Victorian population with a present day population-wide consumer register. Further geographical linkage to neighbourhood deprivation data allows us to chart the different social mobility outcomes experienced by every one of the 13,378 long-established family groups. We identify clear and enduring regional divides in England and Scotland. In substantive terms, use of family names and new historical digital census resources are central to recognising that geography is pivotal to understanding intergenerational inequalities.

Effect of Electronic Device Addiction on Sleep Quality and Academic Performance Among Health Care Students: Cross-sectional Study

BACKGROUND

Sleep quality ensures better physical and psychological well-being. It is regulated through endogenous hemostatic, neurogenic, and circadian processes. Nonetheless, environmental and behavioral factors also play a role in sleep hygiene. Electronic device use is increasing rapidly and has been linked to many adverse effects, raising public health concerns.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the impact of electronic device addiction on sleep quality and academic performance among health care students in Saudi Arabia.

METHODS

A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted from June to December 2019 at 3 universities in Jeddah. Of the 1000 students contacted, 608 students from 5 health sciences disciplines completed the questionnaires. The following outcome measures were used: Smartphone Addiction Scale for Adolescents-short version (SAS-SV), Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and grade point average (GPA).

RESULTS

The median age of participants was 21 years, with 71.9% (437/608) being female. Almost all of the cohort used smartphones, and 75.0% (456/608) of them always use them at bedtime. Half of the students (53%) have poor sleep quality, while 32% are addicted to smartphone use. Using multivariable logistic regression, addiction to smartphones (SAS-SV score >31 males and >33 females) was significantly associated with poor sleep quality (PSQI >5) with an odds ratio of 1.8 (1.2-2.7). In addition, male gender and older students (age ≥21 years) were significantly associated with lower GPA (<4.5), with an odds ratio of 1.6 (1.1-2.3) and 2.3 (1.5-3.6), respectively; however, addiction to smartphones and poor sleep quality were not significantly associated with a lower GPA.

CONCLUSIONS

Electronic device addiction is associated with increased risk for poor sleep quality; however, electronic device addiction and poor sleep quality are not associated with increased risk for a lower GPA.

Comparisons of Science Motivational Beliefs of Adolescents in Taiwan, Australia, and the United States: Assessing the Measurement Invariance Across Countries and Genders

This study utilized international, large-scale assessment data to compare science motivational beliefs of adolescents within and between countries and genders. The study focused on the beliefs about science of eighth graders, including their self-concept in science, the intrinsic value they ascribed to science, and their beliefs about the utility of the subject. The study data were derived from the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study in 2019 (TIMSS) that was conducted in Taiwan, Australia, and the United States. To ensure the validity of mean cross-group comparisons, the measurement invariance (MI) of the constructs was first assessed. The multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis and latent factor mean comparisons were applied to the data. The results indicated that the MI of science motivational beliefs across the three countries attained only metric invariance, rendering a latent mean comparison implausible. However, the cross-gender MI within each country attained scalar invariance, supporting the comparison of means across genders. The science motivational beliefs of females were significantly lower than those of males, with the exception of beliefs of US students about their utility value. The findings of this study raise concerns about the validity of current international comparisons of science motivational beliefs of the students while supporting the use of TIMSS data to identify gender differences in science motivation within each country. The implications of MI across countries and genders are discussed, and the importance of establishing MI is highlighted. The findings affirm that gender disparities in science motivational beliefs can be compared using constructs with sound psychometric properties.

Self-Reported School Difficulties and the Use of the School Nurse Services by Adolescent Students

Adolescents are increasingly finding school difficult and physical, mental and social problems increase the risk of exclusion. School health services help to identify problems and prevent them from escalating and the school nurse should be consulted when children are struggling academically. This study explored associations between school difficulties and the use of school health nurse services by 73,680 comprehensive school students with median age of 15.3. The study was based on nationally representative data from the 2017 Finnish School Health Promotion study and analyzed by gender. Difficulties in schooling were common and ranged from 9.9–32.7%. Girls reported difficulties more frequently than boys. Having self-reported difficulties was associated with greater use of school health nurse services, with girls seeking help more often than boys with similar issues and more boys saying they had no need for services. In addition, more self-reported difficulties with schooling were associated with unmet need for school health nurse services. School difficulties were associated with greater use of the school health nurse service use when the data were controlled for background factors. This study highlights shortcomings in access to school health nurse services by children with self-reported school difficulties and that girls were more likely report problems and seek help.

Representation of Women in Diagnostic Radiology Residency Programs: Does National Institutes of Health Program Ranking Matter?

PURPOSE

Women are consistently underrepresented in the radiology workforce. The authors examined recent trends in the gender distribution of residents entering diagnostic radiology residency programs.

METHODS

A retrospective review was performed of residents entering US diagnostic radiology residency programs for graduate medical education years 2009 to 2018. Demographic and program data were obtained from the Association of American Medical Colleges GME Track Resident Survey. National Institutes of Health (NIH) ranking was determined according to the Academy for Radiology & Biomedical Imaging Research. Descriptive statistical analyses were performed to evaluate the gender distribution of residents according to residency program ranking.

RESULTS

The final analytic sample included 11,788 residents who entered diagnostic radiology residency programs during the study period, of whom 3,245 (27.5%) were women and 8,543 (72.5%) were men. A higher percentage of female residents entered programs ranked in NIH rank group 1st to 20th (351 of 1,185 [29.6%]) than entered programs that were ranked lower than 20th or were unranked (1,540 of 5,819 [26.5%]; P = .026).

CONCLUSIONS

The present findings confirm repeated reports that women are underrepresented in radiology. The results indicate a need for further study on why a greater proportion of female residents are entering programs with higher NIH rankings. Better understanding of factors and interventions that led to this rise in the percentage of women in higher ranked programs provides an opportunity to expand gender diversity across the field of radiology.

How are academic achievement and inhibitory control associated with physical fitness, soil-transmitted helminth infections, food insecurity and stunting among South African primary schoolchildren?

BACKGROUND

Cardiovascular fitness has been associated with both executive function and academic achievement in multiple cohort studies including children and adolescents. However, research is scarce among children from low- and middle-income countries. Hence, this paper focuses on South African primary schoolchildren living in marginalized areas and examines if academic achievement and inhibitory control can be explained by children's age, socioeconomic status, soil-transmitted helminth infections, food insecurity, stunting, grip strength, and cardiorespiratory fitness.

METHODS

The sample of this cross-sectional study consisted of 1277 children (48% girls, mean age: 8.3 years). Data were assessed via questionnaires, stool samples, anthropometric measurements, 20 m shuttle run test, grip strength test, Flanker task, and school grades. Data were analysed with mixed linear regression models with random intercepts for school classes, separately for boys and girls.

RESULTS

Higher socioeconomic status was most closely associated with academic achievement among boys (p < 0.05), whereas higher levels of cardiorespiratory fitness and not being stunted explained most variance in academic achievement in girls (p < 0.05). Higher age turned out to be associated with better performance in the Flanker task (p < 0.01). Additionally, in boys, higher grip strength was associated with better information processing and inhibitory control of attention (p < 0.01), whereas in girls, higher cardiorespiratory fitness levels were positively associated with these cognitive abilities (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Academic performance has been shown to be compromised in schoolchildren living in marginalised areas, compared to schoolchildren in less disadvantaged parts of South Africa. The present study suggests that cardiorespiratory fitness and grip strength are two potentially modifiable factors that are associated with children's academic achievement and cognitive performance, and that should be targeted in future school-based interventions.

Gender issues in fundamental physics: A bibliometric analysis

I analyze bibliometric data about fundamental physics worldwide from 1970 to now, extracting quantitative data about gender issues. I do not find significant gender differences in hiring rates, hiring timing, career gaps and slowdowns, abandonment rates, citation, and self-citation patterns. Furthermore, various bibliometric indicators (number of fractionally counted papers, citations, etc.) exhibit a productivity gap at hiring moments, at career level, and without integrating over careers. The gap persists after accounting for confounding factors and manifests as an increasing fraction of male authors going from average to top authors in terms of bibliometric indices, with a quantitative shape that can be fitted by higher male variability.

Perceptions of Barriers to Career Progression for Academic Women in STEM

Gender equity in academia is a long-standing struggle. Although common to all disciplines, the impacts of bias and stereotypes are particularly pronounced in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) disciplines. This paper explores what barriers exist for the career progression of women in academia in STEM disciplines in order to identify key issues and potential solutions. In particular, we were interested in how women perceive the barriers affecting their careers in comparison to their male colleagues. Fourteen focus groups with female-identifying academics showed that there were core barriers to career progression, which spanned countries, disciplines and career stages. Entrenched biases, stereotypes, double standards, bullying and harassment all negatively impact women’s confidence and sense of belonging. Women also face an additional biological burden, often being pushed to choose between having children or a career. Participants felt that their experiences as STEM academics were noticeably different to those of their male colleagues, where many of the commonly occurring barriers for women were simply non-issues for men. The results of this study indicate that some of these barriers can be overcome through networks, mentoring and allies. Addressing these barriers requires a reshaping of the gendered norms that currently limit progress to equity and inclusion.

Assessment of gender divide in scientific communities

Increasing evidence of women’s under-representation in some scientific disciplines is prompting researchers to expand our understanding of this social phenomenon. Moreover, any countermeasures proposed to eliminate this under-representation should be tailored to the actual reasons for this different participation. Here, we take a multi-dimensional approach to assessing gender differences in science by representing scientific communities as social networks, and using data analytics, complexity science methods, and semantic methods to measure gender differences in the context, the attitude and the success of scientists. We apply this approach to four scientific communities in the two fields of computer science and information systems using the network of authors at four different conferences. For each discipline, one conference is based in Italy and attracts mostly Italians, while one conference is international in both location and participants. The present paper provides evidence against common narratives that women’s under-representation is due to women’s limited skills and/or less social centrality.

Impacts of COVID-19 on ecology and evolutionary biology faculty in the United States

We surveyed ecologists and evolutionary biologists in American universities to understand how they are coping with the COVID-19 pandemic. Female respondents, assistant professors, and those who care for at least one child or teenager, were significantly more dissatisfied with their work-life balance during this pandemic than others, and further expected these negative impacts to be long lived. Online teaching support, relaxed expectations on publications, the possibility of pausing the tenure clock, and an acknowledgment of "no business as usual" by administrators were thought to be effective policies in mitigating these negative impacts. This survey serves as a manifesto to what our professional community is currently experiencing, and should be used to inform academic policies directed at improving faculty productivity and welfare.

Men, women and STEM: Why the differences and what should be done?

It is a well-known and widely lamented fact that men outnumber women in a number of fields in STEM (science, technology, engineering and maths). The most commonly discussed explanations for the gender gaps are discrimination and socialization, and the most common policy prescriptions target those ostensible causes. However, a great deal of evidence in the behavioural sciences suggests that discrimination and socialization are only part of the story. The purpose of this paper is to highlight other aspects of the story: aspects that are commonly overlooked or downplayed. More precisely, the paper has two main aims. The first is to examine the evidence that factors other than workplace discrimination contribute to the gender gaps in STEM. These include relatively large average sex differences in career and lifestyle preferences, and relatively small average differences in cognitive aptitudes – some favouring males, others favouring females – which are associated with progressively larger differences the further above the average one looks. The second aim is to examine the evidence suggesting that these sex differences are not purely a product of social factors but also have a substantial biological (i.e. inherited) component. A more complete picture of the causes of the unequal sex ratios in STEM may productively inform policy discussions.

Transformation of the media landscape: Infotainment versus expository narrations for communicating science in online videos

Society is undergoing a transformation in the way people consume media: increasingly we are using online on-demand videos, with the fastest growing segment of online videos about science being user-generated content that uses an infotainment style of delivery, in contrast to the traditional expository narrations of professionally generated content. In this study, we produced two otherwise identical videos about climate change to test the effects of an infotainment or expository narration. A total of 870 survey participants (419 English; 451 Spanish) were randomly presented with either an infotainment or expository version of the video. The expository narration was liked and believed more, and this held irrespective of language, age, sex or online viewing habits. However, the infotainment version was liked more by viewers without a university education and, further, viewers were better able to recall information from it, suggesting that user-generated content with infotainment-style narrations may actually be good for increasing public understanding of science.

Gender-affirming hormone treatment and cognitive function in transgender young adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have examined whether steroid hormone treatment in transgender individuals may affect cognitive function; yet, their limited power does not allow firm conclusions to be drawn. We leveraged data from to-date literature aiming to explore the effect of gender-affirming hormone administration on cognitive function in transgender individuals.

METHODS

A search strategy of MEDLINE was developed (through June 1, 2019) using the key terms transgender, hormone therapy and cognitive function. Eligible were (i) cohort studies examining the longitudinal effect of hormone therapy on cognition, and (ii) cross-sectional studies comparing the cognitive function between treated and non-treated individuals. Standardized mean differences (Hedges' g) were pooled using random-effects models. Study quality was evaluated using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale.

OUTCOMES

Ten studies (seven cohort and three cross-sectional) were eligible representing 234 birth-assigned males (aM) and 150 birth-assigned females (aF). The synthesis of cohort studies (n = 5) for visuospatial ability following hormone treatment showed a statistically significant enhancement among aF (g = 0.55, 95% confidence intervals [CI]: 0.29, 0.82) and an improvement with a trend towards statistical significance among aM (g = 0.28, 95%CI: -0.01, 0.58). By contrast, no adverse effects of hormone administration were shown. No heterogeneity was evident in most meta-analyses.

INTERPRETATION

Current evidence does not support an adverse impact of hormone therapy on cognitive function, whereas a statistically significant enhancing effect on visuospatial ability was shown in aF. New longitudinal studies with longer follow-up should explore the long-term effects of hormone therapy, especially the effects on younger individuals, where there is greater scarcity of data.

Illustrating the importance of meta-analysing variances alongside means in ecology and evolution

Meta-analysis is increasingly used in biology to both quantitatively summarize available evidence for specific questions and generate new hypotheses. Although this powerful tool has mostly been deployed to study mean effects, there is untapped potential to study effects on (trait) variance. Here, we use a recently published data set as a case study to demonstrate how meta-analysis of variance can be used to provide insights into biological processes. This data set included 704 effect sizes from 89 studies, covering 56 animal species, and was originally used to test developmental stress effects on a range of traits. We found that developmental stress not only negatively affects mean trait values, but also increases trait variance, mostly in reproduction, showcasing how meta-analysis of variance can reveal previously overlooked effects. Furthermore, we show how meta-analysis of variance can be used as a tool to help meta-analysts make informed methodological decisions, even when the primary focus is on mean effects. We provide all data and comprehensive R scripts with detailed explanations to make it easier for researchers to conduct this type of analysis. We encourage meta-analysts in all disciplines to move beyond the world of means and start unravelling secrets of the world of variance.

Positive Impact of Multiple-Choice Question Authoring and Regular Quiz Participation on Student Learning

We previously developed an online multiple-choice question authoring, learning, and self-assessment tool that we termed Quizzical. Here we report statistical analyses over two consecutive years of Quizzical use in a large sophomore-level introductory molecular biology course. Students were required to author two questions during the term and were also afforded opportunities to earn marks for quiz participation. We found that students whose final grade was "A," "B," or "C" exhibited similar patterns of Quizzical engagement. The degree to which students participated was positively associated with performance on formal exams, even if prior academic performance was considered as a covariable. During both terms investigated, students whose Quizzical engagement increased from one exam to the next earned statistically significant higher scores on the subsequent exam, and students who attempted Quizzical questions from earlier in the term scored higher, on average, on the cumulative portion of the final exam. We conclude that the structure and value of the assignment, and the utility of Quizzical as a discipline-independent active-learning and self-assessment tool, enabled students to better master course topics.

Children's evaluations of deviant peers in the context of science and technology: The role of gender group norms and status

•

Boys negatively evaluate peers who challenge group norms related to computing.

•

Children expect groups to negatively evaluate challenges to science gender norms.

•

Perceptions of group evaluation predict how boys individually evaluate their peers.

Women are drastically underrepresented within computer science, which is in part informed by societal ideas of who can and should belong in the sciences. Less is known about how children evaluate their peers who challenge gendered expectations of who can and should take part in computer science. The current study asked children (N = 213; 110 girls) in middle childhood (M_age = 8.71 years; n = 108) and late childhood (M_age = 10.56 years; n = 105) to evaluate a gender-matched peer who challenged a group norm related to either computer science (male-gendered domain) or biology (less male-gendered domain). Male participants most negatively evaluated a peer who wanted to take part in a biology activity when the rest of the group wanted to do a programming activity. Furthermore, male participants expected their group to negatively evaluate this deviant peer in the programming condition. Mediation analysis revealed that for boys in the computer science condition, perceived group evaluation predicted individual evaluation. Female participants, in contrast, did not negatively evaluate someone who challenged a STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) peer group norm. This study demonstrates that male peer groups may perpetuate the idea that computer science is for men through negative evaluation of in-group members who challenge those ideas and, in turn, maintain their dominant position as the high-status group. Achieving equity in the computer science field will require a greater understanding of these peer group norms.

Measurement Invariance and Differential Item Functioning Across Gender Within a Latent Class Analysis Framework: Evidence From a High-Stakes Test for University Admission in Saudi Arabia

The main aim of the present study was to investigate the presence of Differential Item Functioning (DIF) using a latent class (LC) analysis approach. Particularly, we examined potential sources of DIF in relation to gender. Data came from 6,265 Saudi Arabia students, who completed a high-stakes standardized admission test for university entrance. The results from a Latent Class Analysis (LCA) revealed a three-class solution (i.e., high, average, and low scorers). Then, to better understand the nature of the emerging classes and the characteristics of the people who comprise them, we applied a new stepwise approach, using the Multiple Indicator Multiple Causes (MIMIC) model. The model identified both uniform and non-uniform DIF effects for several items across all scales of the test, although, for the majority of them, the DIF effect sizes were negligible. Findings from this study have important implications for both measurement quality and interpretation of the results. Particularly, results showed that gender is a potential source of DIF for latent class indicators; thus, it is important to include those direct effects in the latent class regression model, to obtain unbiased estimates not only for the measurement parameters but also of the structural parameters. Ignoring these effects might lead to misspecification of the latent classes in terms of both the size and the characteristics of each class, which in turn, could lead to misinterpretations of the obtained latent class results. Implications of the results for practice are discussed.

STEM gender stereotypes from early childhood through adolescence at informal science centers

Stereotypes about science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) are associated with reduced STEM engagement amongst girls and women. The present study examined these stereotypes from early childhood through adolescence within informal science learning sites (ISLS; science museums, zoos, aquariums). Further, the study explored whether interactions with male or female educators influenced STEM stereotypes. Participants (n = 997, female = 572) were ISLS visitors in the UK and USA who either interacted with an educator, or no educator. With age participants were more likely to report that “both boys and girls” are “usually”, “should” be, and “can” be good at STEM. Independent of age, male participants reported that their own gender group “should” be good at STEM. Educator interactions did not influence stereotype responses. These results highlight early childhood as a key developmental window in which to challenge ideas about who can and should be proficient in STEM.

•

Gender stereotypes about science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) ability emerge in early childhood

•

Adolescents are more likely to say that both boys and girls should, can and usually are good at STEM

•

Boys are more likely than girls to say that their own gender group ‘should’ be good at STEM

•

Stereotypes do not change based on an interaction with an educator (male or female) in an informal science learning site

Research performance and age explain less than half of the gender pay gap in New Zealand universities

We use a globally unique dataset that scores every individual academic's holistic research performance in New Zealand to test several common explanations for the gender pay gap in universities. We find a man's odds of being ranked professor or associate professor are more than double a woman's with similar recent research score, age, field, and university. We observe a lifetime gender pay gap of ~NZ$400,000, of which research score and age explain less than half. Our ability to examine the full spectrum of research performance allows us to reject the 'male variability hypothesis' theory that the preponderance of men amongst the 'superstars' explains the lifetime performance pay gap observed. Indeed women whose research career trajectories resemble men's still get paid less than men. From 2003-12, women at many ranks improved their research scores by more than men, but moved up the academic ranks more slowly. We offer some possible explanations for our findings, and show that the gender gap in universities will never disappear in most academic fields if current hiring practices persist.

Sex differences in brain correlates of STEM anxiety

Anxiety is known to dysregulate the salience, default mode, and central executive networks of the human brain, yet this phenomenon has not been fully explored across the STEM learning experience, where anxiety can impact negatively academic performance. Here, we evaluated anxiety and large-scale brain connectivity in 101 undergraduate physics students. We found sex differences in STEM-related and clinical anxiety, with longitudinal increases in science anxiety observed for both female and male students. Sex-specific relationships between STEM anxiety and brain connectivity emerged, with male students exhibiting distinct inter-network connectivity for STEM and clinical anxiety, and female students demonstrating no significant within-sex correlations. Anxiety was negatively correlated with academic performance in sex-specific ways at both pre- and post-instruction. Moreover, math anxiety in male students mediated the relation between default mode-salience connectivity and course grade. Together, these results reveal complex sex differences in the neural mechanisms driving how anxiety is related to STEM learning.

Can Test Anxiety Interventions Alleviate a Gender Gap in an Undergraduate STEM Course?

Gender gaps in exam scores or final grades are common in introductory college science and engineering classrooms, with women underperforming relative to men with the same admission test scores or college grade point averages. After failing to close a historically documented gender gap in a large introductory biology course using interventions targeted at training a growth mindset, we implemented interventions designed to reduce student test anxiety. We combined evidence-based exercises based on expressive writing and on reappraising physiological arousal. We also used a valid measure to quantify test anxiety at the start and end of the course. This instrument measures an individual's self-declared or perceived test anxiety-also called trait anxiety-but not the immediate or "state" anxiety experienced during an actual exam. Consistent with previous reports in the literature, we found that women in this population declared much higher test anxiety than men and that students who declared higher test anxiety had lower exam scores than students who declared lower test anxiety. Although the test anxiety interventions had no impact on the level of self-declared trait anxiety, they did significantly increase student exam performance. The treatment benefits occurred in both men and women. These data suggest that 1) a combination of interventions based on expressive writing and reappraising physiological arousal can be a relatively easy manner to boost exam performance in a large-enrollment science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) course and encourage emotion regulation; 2) women are more willing than men to declare that they are anxious about exams, but men and women may actually experience the same level of anxiety during the exam itself; and 3) women are underperforming in STEM courses for reasons other than gender-based differences in mindset or test anxiety.