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Carter T, Iqbal M. The Influenza A Virus Replication Cycle: A Comprehensive Review. Viruses 2024; 16:316. [PMID: 38400091 PMCID: PMC10892522 DOI: 10.3390/v16020316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) is the primary causative agent of influenza, colloquially called the flu. Each year, it infects up to a billion people, resulting in hundreds of thousands of human deaths, and causes devastating avian outbreaks with worldwide losses worth billions of dollars. Always present is the possibility that a highly pathogenic novel subtype capable of direct human-to-human transmission will spill over into humans, causing a pandemic as devastating if not more so than the 1918 influenza pandemic. While antiviral drugs for influenza do exist, they target very few aspects of IAV replication and risk becoming obsolete due to antiviral resistance. Antivirals targeting other areas of IAV replication are needed to overcome this resistance and combat the yearly epidemics, which exact a serious toll worldwide. This review aims to summarise the key steps in the IAV replication cycle, along with highlighting areas of research that need more focus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toby Carter
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, UK;
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2
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Chang YY, Valenzuela C, Lensen A, Lopez-Montero N, Sidik S, Salogiannis J, Enninga J, Rohde J. Microtubules provide force to promote membrane uncoating in vacuolar escape for a cyto-invasive bacterial pathogen. Nat Commun 2024; 15:1065. [PMID: 38316786 PMCID: PMC10844605 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-45182-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Intracellular bacterial pathogens gain entry to mammalian cells inside a vacuole derived from the host membrane. Some of them escape the bacteria-containing vacuole (BCV) and colonize the cytosol. Bacteria replicating within BCVs coopt the microtubule network to position it within infected cells, whereas the role of microtubules for cyto-invasive pathogens remains obscure. Here, we show that the microtubule motor cytoplasmic dynein-1 and specific activating adaptors are hijacked by the enterobacterium Shigella flexneri. These host proteins were found on infection-associated macropinosomes (IAMs) formed during Shigella internalization. We identified Rab8 and Rab13 as mediators of dynein recruitment and discovered that the Shigella effector protein IpaH7.8 promotes Rab13 retention on moving BCV membrane remnants, thereby facilitating membrane uncoating of the Shigella-containing vacuole. Moreover, the efficient unpeeling of BCV remnants contributes to a successful intercellular spread. Taken together, our work demonstrates how a bacterial pathogen subverts the intracellular transport machinery to secure a cytosolic niche.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuen-Yan Chang
- Dynamics of Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Institut Pasteur, and CNRS UMR 3691 Université de Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Division of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Camila Valenzuela
- Dynamics of Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Institut Pasteur, and CNRS UMR 3691 Université de Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Arthur Lensen
- Dynamics of Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Institut Pasteur, and CNRS UMR 3691 Université de Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Noelia Lopez-Montero
- Dynamics of Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Institut Pasteur, and CNRS UMR 3691 Université de Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Saima Sidik
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - John Salogiannis
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD, USA
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, University of Vermont, Burlington, USA
| | - Jost Enninga
- Dynamics of Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Institut Pasteur, and CNRS UMR 3691 Université de Paris Cité, Paris, France.
| | - John Rohde
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada.
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3
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Song MS, Lee DK, Lee CY, Park SC, Yang J. Host Subcellular Organelles: Targets of Viral Manipulation. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:1638. [PMID: 38338917 PMCID: PMC10855258 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25031638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Viruses have evolved sophisticated mechanisms to manipulate host cell processes and utilize intracellular organelles to facilitate their replication. These complex interactions between viruses and cellular organelles allow them to hijack the cellular machinery and impair homeostasis. Moreover, viral infection alters the cell membrane's structure and composition and induces vesicle formation to facilitate intracellular trafficking of viral components. However, the research focus has predominantly been on the immune response elicited by viruses, often overlooking the significant alterations that viruses induce in cellular organelles. Gaining a deeper understanding of these virus-induced cellular changes is crucial for elucidating the full life cycle of viruses and developing potent antiviral therapies. Exploring virus-induced cellular changes could substantially improve our understanding of viral infection mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Seok Song
- Department of Physiology and Convergence Medical Science, Institute of Medical Science, College of Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52727, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Kun Lee
- Department of Physiology and Convergence Medical Science, Institute of Medical Science, College of Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52727, Republic of Korea
| | - Chung-Young Lee
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41944, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Cheol Park
- Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Laboratory, Myongji Hospital, Goyang 10475, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinsung Yang
- Department of Biochemistry and Convergence Medical Science, Institute of Medical Science, College of Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52727, Republic of Korea
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Vale-Costa S, Etibor TA, Brás D, Sousa AL, Ferreira M, Martins GG, Mello VH, Amorim MJ. ATG9A regulates the dissociation of recycling endosomes from microtubules to form liquid influenza A virus inclusions. PLoS Biol 2023; 21:e3002290. [PMID: 37983294 PMCID: PMC10695400 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3002290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023] Open
Abstract
It is now established that many viruses that threaten public health establish condensates via phase transitions to complete their lifecycles, and knowledge on such processes may offer new strategies for antiviral therapy. In the case of influenza A virus (IAV), liquid condensates known as viral inclusions, concentrate the 8 distinct viral ribonucleoproteins (vRNPs) that form IAV genome and are viewed as sites dedicated to the assembly of the 8-partite genomic complex. Despite not being delimited by host membranes, IAV liquid inclusions accumulate host membranes inside as a result of vRNP binding to the recycling endocytic marker Rab11a, a driver of the biogenesis of these structures. We lack molecular understanding on how Rab11a-recycling endosomes condensate specifically near the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) exit sites upon IAV infection. We show here that liquid viral inclusions interact with the ER to fuse, divide, and slide. We uncover that, contrary to previous indications, the reported reduction in recycling endocytic activity is a regulated process rather than a competition for cellular resources involving a novel role for the host factor ATG9A. In infection, ATG9A mediates the removal of Rab11a-recycling endosomes carrying vRNPs from microtubules. We observe that the recycling endocytic usage of microtubules is rescued when ATG9A is depleted, which prevents condensation of Rab11a endosomes near the ER. The failure to produce viral inclusions accumulates vRNPs in the cytosol and reduces genome assembly and the release of infectious virions. We propose that the ER supports the dynamics of liquid IAV inclusions, with ATG9A facilitating their formation. This work advances our understanding on how epidemic and pandemic influenza genomes are formed. It also reveals the plasticity of recycling endosomes to undergo condensation in response to infection, disclosing new roles for ATG9A beyond its classical involvement in autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sílvia Vale-Costa
- Cell Biology of Viral Infection Lab (CBV), Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência (IGC)—Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Temitope Akhigbe Etibor
- Cell Biology of Viral Infection Lab (CBV), Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência (IGC)—Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Daniela Brás
- Cell Biology of Viral Infection Lab (CBV), Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência (IGC)—Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Ana Laura Sousa
- Electron Microscopy Facility (EMF), Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência (IGC)—Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Mariana Ferreira
- Advanced Imaging Facility (AIF), Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência (IGC)—Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Gabriel G. Martins
- Advanced Imaging Facility (AIF), Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência (IGC)—Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Victor Hugo Mello
- Living Physics, Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência (IGC)—Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Maria João Amorim
- Cell Biology of Viral Infection Lab (CBV), Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência (IGC)—Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Oeiras, Portugal
- Cell Biology of Viral Infection Lab (CBV), Católica Biomedical Research Centre (CBR), Católica Medical School—Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Lisboa, Portugal
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Etibor TA, O’Riain A, Alenquer M, Diwo C, Vale-Costa S, Amorim MJ. Challenges in Imaging Analyses of Biomolecular Condensates in Cells Infected with Influenza A Virus. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:15253. [PMID: 37894933 PMCID: PMC10607852 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242015253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Biomolecular condensates are crucial compartments within cells, relying on their material properties for function. They form and persist through weak, transient interactions, often undetectable by classical biochemical approaches. Hence, microscopy-based techniques have been the most reliable methods to detail the molecular mechanisms controlling their formation, material properties, and alterations, including dissolution or phase transitions due to cellular manipulation and disease, and to search for novel therapeutic strategies targeting biomolecular condensates. However, technical challenges in microscopy-based analysis persist. This paper discusses imaging, data acquisition, and analytical methodologies' advantages, challenges, and limitations in determining biophysical parameters explaining biomolecular condensate formation, dissolution, and phase transitions. In addition, we mention how machine learning is increasingly important for efficient image analysis, teaching programs what a condensate should resemble, aiding in the correlation and interpretation of information from diverse data sources. Influenza A virus forms liquid viral inclusions in the infected cell cytosol that serve as model biomolecular condensates for this study. Our previous work showcased the possibility of hardening these liquid inclusions, potentially leading to novel antiviral strategies. This was established using a framework involving live cell imaging to measure dynamics, internal rearrangement capacity, coalescence, and relaxation time. Additionally, we integrated thermodynamic characteristics by analysing fixed images through Z-projections. The aforementioned paper laid the foundation for this subsequent technical paper, which explores how different modalities in data acquisition and processing impact the robustness of results to detect bona fide phase transitions by measuring thermodynamic traits in fixed cells. Using solely this approach would greatly simplify screening pipelines. For this, we tested how single focal plane images, Z-projections, or volumetric analyses of images stained with antibodies or live tagged proteins altered the quantification of thermodynamic measurements. Customizing methodologies for different biomolecular condensates through advanced bioimaging significantly contributes to biological research and potential therapeutic advancements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Temitope Akhigbe Etibor
- Cell Biology of Viral Infection Lab (CBV), Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência (IGC), Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, R. Quinta Grande, 6, 2780-156 Oeiras, Portugal; (T.A.E.); (A.O.); (M.A.); (C.D.); (S.V.-C.)
| | - Aidan O’Riain
- Cell Biology of Viral Infection Lab (CBV), Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência (IGC), Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, R. Quinta Grande, 6, 2780-156 Oeiras, Portugal; (T.A.E.); (A.O.); (M.A.); (C.D.); (S.V.-C.)
| | - Marta Alenquer
- Cell Biology of Viral Infection Lab (CBV), Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência (IGC), Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, R. Quinta Grande, 6, 2780-156 Oeiras, Portugal; (T.A.E.); (A.O.); (M.A.); (C.D.); (S.V.-C.)
- Cell Biology of Viral Infection Lab (CBV), Católica Biomedical Research Centre (CBR), Católica Medical School, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Palma de Cima, 1649-023 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Christian Diwo
- Cell Biology of Viral Infection Lab (CBV), Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência (IGC), Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, R. Quinta Grande, 6, 2780-156 Oeiras, Portugal; (T.A.E.); (A.O.); (M.A.); (C.D.); (S.V.-C.)
| | - Sílvia Vale-Costa
- Cell Biology of Viral Infection Lab (CBV), Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência (IGC), Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, R. Quinta Grande, 6, 2780-156 Oeiras, Portugal; (T.A.E.); (A.O.); (M.A.); (C.D.); (S.V.-C.)
| | - Maria João Amorim
- Cell Biology of Viral Infection Lab (CBV), Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência (IGC), Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, R. Quinta Grande, 6, 2780-156 Oeiras, Portugal; (T.A.E.); (A.O.); (M.A.); (C.D.); (S.V.-C.)
- Cell Biology of Viral Infection Lab (CBV), Católica Biomedical Research Centre (CBR), Católica Medical School, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Palma de Cima, 1649-023 Lisboa, Portugal
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Xie E, Ahmad S, Smyth RP, Sieben C. Advanced fluorescence microscopy in respiratory virus cell biology. Adv Virus Res 2023; 116:123-172. [PMID: 37524480 DOI: 10.1016/bs.aivir.2023.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Respiratory viruses are a major public health burden across all age groups around the globe, and are associated with high morbidity and mortality rates. They can be transmitted by multiple routes, including physical contact or droplets and aerosols, resulting in efficient spreading within the human population. Investigations of the cell biology of virus replication are thus of utmost importance to gain a better understanding of virus-induced pathogenicity and the development of antiviral countermeasures. Light and fluorescence microscopy techniques have revolutionized investigations of the cell biology of virus infection by allowing the study of the localization and dynamics of viral or cellular components directly in infected cells. Advanced microscopy including high- and super-resolution microscopy techniques available today can visualize biological processes at the single-virus and even single-molecule level, thus opening a unique view on virus infection. We will highlight how fluorescence microscopy has supported investigations on virus cell biology by focusing on three major respiratory viruses: respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), Influenza A virus (IAV) and SARS-CoV-2. We will review our current knowledge of virus replication and highlight how fluorescence microscopy has helped to improve our state of understanding. We will start by introducing major imaging and labeling modalities and conclude the chapter with a perspective discussion on remaining challenges and potential opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enyu Xie
- Nanoscale Infection Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Shazeb Ahmad
- Helmholtz Institute for RNA-based Infection Research, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Redmond P Smyth
- Helmholtz Institute for RNA-based Infection Research, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Würzburg, Germany; Faculty of Medicine, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Christian Sieben
- Nanoscale Infection Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany; Institute of Genetics, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany.
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Capturing the start point of the virus-cell interaction with high-speed 3D single-virus tracking. Nat Methods 2022; 19:1642-1652. [PMID: 36357694 PMCID: PMC10154077 DOI: 10.1038/s41592-022-01672-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The early stages of the virus-cell interaction have long evaded observation by existing microscopy methods due to the rapid diffusion of virions in the extracellular space and the large three-dimensional cellular structures involved. Here we present an active-feedback single-particle tracking method with simultaneous volumetric imaging of the live cell environment called 3D-TrIm to address this knowledge gap. 3D-TrIm captures the extracellular phase of the infectious cycle in what we believe is unprecedented detail. We report what are, to our knowledge, previously unobserved phenomena in the early stages of the virus-cell interaction, including skimming contact events at the millisecond timescale, orders of magnitude change in diffusion coefficient upon binding and cylindrical and linear diffusion modes along cellular protrusions. Finally, we demonstrate how this method can move single-particle tracking from simple monolayer culture toward more tissue-like conditions by tracking single virions in tightly packed epithelial cells. This multiresolution method presents opportunities for capturing fast, three-dimensional processes in biological systems.
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Moran SJ, Puckett S, Ornelles DA, Macosko JC, Holzwarth G, Lyles DS. Dynamic Actin Filament Traps Mediate Active Diffusion of Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Ribonucleoproteins. J Virol 2022; 96:e0093422. [PMID: 36135365 PMCID: PMC9555154 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00934-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A recently developed variational Bayesian analysis using pattern recognition and machine learning of single viral ribonucleoprotein (RNP) particle tracks in the cytoplasm of living cells provides a quantitative molecular explanation for active diffusion, a concept previously "explained" largely by hypothetical models based on indirect analyses such as continuum microrheology. Machine learning shows that vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) RNP particles are temporarily confined to dynamic traps or pores made up of cytoskeletal elements. Active diffusion occurs when the particles escape from one trap to a nearby trap. In this paper, we demonstrate that actin filament disruption increased RNP mobility by increasing trap size. Inhibition of nonmuscle myosin II ATPase decreased mobility by decreasing trap size. Trap sizes were observed to fluctuate with time, dependent on nonmuscle myosin II activity. This model for active diffusion is likely to account for the dominant motion of other viral and cellular elements. IMPORTANCE RNA virus ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) are too large to freely diffuse in the host cytoplasm, yet their dominant motions consist of movements in random directions that resemble diffusion. We show that vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) RNPs overcome limitations on diffusion in the host cytoplasm by hopping between traps formed in part by actin filaments and that these traps expand and contract by nonmuscle myosin II ATPase activity. ATP-dependent random motion of cellular particles has been termed "active diffusion." Thus, these mechanisms are applicable to active diffusion of other cellular and viral elements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven J. Moran
- Department of Biochemistry, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Shelby Puckett
- Department of Biochemistry, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - David A. Ornelles
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jed C. Macosko
- Department of Physics, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - George Holzwarth
- Department of Physics, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Douglas S. Lyles
- Department of Biochemistry, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, USA
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Cook KC, Tsopurashvili E, Needham JM, Thompson SR, Cristea IM. Restructured membrane contacts rewire organelles for human cytomegalovirus infection. Nat Commun 2022; 13:4720. [PMID: 35953480 PMCID: PMC9366835 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-32488-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Membrane contact sites (MCSs) link organelles to coordinate cellular functions across space and time. Although viruses remodel organelles for their replication cycles, MCSs remain largely unexplored during infections. Here, we design a targeted proteomics platform for measuring MCS proteins at all organelles simultaneously and define functional virus-driven MCS alterations by the ancient beta-herpesvirus human cytomegalovirus (HCMV). Integration with super-resolution microscopy and comparisons to herpes simplex virus (HSV-1), Influenza A, and beta-coronavirus HCoV-OC43 infections reveals time-sensitive contact regulation that allows switching anti- to pro-viral organelle functions. We uncover a stabilized mitochondria-ER encapsulation structure (MENC). As HCMV infection progresses, MENCs become the predominant mitochondria-ER contact phenotype and sequentially recruit the tethering partners VAP-B and PTPIP51, supporting virus production. However, premature ER-mitochondria tethering activates STING and interferon response, priming cells against infection. At peroxisomes, ACBD5-mediated ER contacts balance peroxisome proliferation versus membrane expansion, with ACBD5 impacting the titers of each virus tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katelyn C Cook
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, 08544, US
| | - Elene Tsopurashvili
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, 08544, US
| | - Jason M Needham
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, US
| | - Sunnie R Thompson
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, US
| | - Ileana M Cristea
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, 08544, US.
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Cosentino G, Marougka K, Desquesnes A, Welti N, Sitterlin D, Gault E, Rameix-Welti MA. Respiratory syncytial virus ribonucleoproteins hijack microtubule Rab11 dependent transport for intracellular trafficking. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010619. [PMID: 35797399 PMCID: PMC9262236 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the primary cause of severe respiratory infection in infants worldwide. Replication of RSV genomic RNA occurs in cytoplasmic inclusions generating viral ribonucleoprotein complexes (vRNPs). vRNPs then reach assembly and budding sites at the plasma membrane. However, mechanisms ensuring vRNPs transportation are unknown. We generated a recombinant RSV harboring fluorescent RNPs allowing us to visualize moving vRNPs in living infected cells and developed an automated imaging pipeline to characterize the movements of vRNPs at a high throughput. Automatic tracking of vRNPs revealed that around 10% of the RNPs exhibit fast and directed motion compatible with transport along the microtubules. Visualization of vRNPs moving along labeled microtubules and restriction of their movements by microtubule depolymerization further support microtubules involvement in vRNPs trafficking. Approximately 30% of vRNPs colocalize with Rab11a protein, a marker of the endosome recycling (ER) pathway and we observed vRNPs and Rab11-labeled vesicles moving together. Transient inhibition of Rab11a expression significantly reduces vRNPs movements demonstrating Rab11 involvement in RNPs trafficking. Finally, Rab11a is specifically immunoprecipitated with vRNPs in infected cells suggesting an interaction between Rab11 and the vRNPs. Altogether, our results strongly suggest that RSV RNPs move on microtubules by hijacking the ER pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gina Cosentino
- Université Paris-Saclay, Université de Versailles St. Quentin, UMR 1173 (2I), INSERM, Versailles, France
| | - Katherine Marougka
- Université Paris-Saclay, Université de Versailles St. Quentin, UMR 1173 (2I), INSERM, Versailles, France
| | - Aurore Desquesnes
- Université Paris-Saclay, Université de Versailles St. Quentin, UMR 1173 (2I), INSERM, Versailles, France
| | - Nicolas Welti
- Université Paris-Saclay, Université de Versailles St. Quentin, UMR 1173 (2I), INSERM, Versailles, France
| | - Delphine Sitterlin
- Université Paris-Saclay, Université de Versailles St. Quentin, UMR 1173 (2I), INSERM, Versailles, France
| | - Elyanne Gault
- Université Paris-Saclay, Université de Versailles St. Quentin; UMR 1173 (2I), INSERM; Assistance Publique des Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Ambroise Paré, Laboratoire de Microbiologie, DMU15; Versailles, France
| | - Marie-Anne Rameix-Welti
- Université Paris-Saclay, Université de Versailles St. Quentin; UMR 1173 (2I), INSERM; Assistance Publique des Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Ambroise Paré, Laboratoire de Microbiologie, DMU15; Versailles, France
- * E-mail:
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lncRNA KCNQ1OT1 Promotes EMT, Angiogenesis, and Stemness of Pituitary Adenoma by Upregulation of RAB11A. JOURNAL OF ONCOLOGY 2022; 2022:4474476. [PMID: 35432529 PMCID: PMC9010184 DOI: 10.1155/2022/4474476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2021] [Revised: 02/20/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
This study is aimed at investigating the effect and mechanism of long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) KCNQ1OT1 on pituitary adenoma (PA). The KCNQ1OT1 expression in invasive and noninvasive PA tissues was detected by real-time fluorescence quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). The effects of KCNQ1OT1 on the proliferation of PA cells, namely, GH3 and HP75, were detected by CCK-8 experiment. The Transwell assay detected the effect of KCNQ1OT1 on the invasion of GH3 and HP75 cells. The effect of KCNQ1OT1 on the clonal formation ability was detected by clonal formation experiment. The double luciferase reporter assay and the miRNA pull down assay verified the binding of KCNQ1OT1 to miR-140-5p. Meanwhile, the regulatory effect of miR-140-5p on RAB11A was verified. qPCR results showed that KCNQ1OT1 was significantly increased in invasive PA compared with noninvasive PA tissues. Knockdown KCNQ1OT1 inhibited PA cell stemness, angiogenesis, and EMT. In addition, knockdown KCNQ1OT1 inhibited the proliferation, invasion, and clonal formation of PA. miR-140-5p is the target gene of KCNQ1OT1. miR-140-5p targets RAB11A directly. RAB11A can mediate the biological effects of KCNQ1OT1. Meanwhile, lncRNA KCNQ1OT1 can promote the EMT and cellular stemness of PA. Its mechanism of action is realized by inhibiting miR-140-5p. This result can provide a molecular basis for the further study of PA.
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12
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The C-terminal domains of the PB2 subunit of the influenza A virus RNA polymerase directly interact with cellular GTPase Rab11a. J Virol 2022; 96:e0197921. [PMID: 35019720 PMCID: PMC8906434 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01979-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) contains a segmented RNA genome that is transcribed and replicated by the viral RNA polymerase in the cell nucleus. Replicated RNA segments are assembled with viral polymerase and oligomeric nucleoprotein into viral ribonucleoprotein (vRNP) complexes which are exported from the nucleus and transported across the cytoplasm to be packaged into progeny virions. Host GTPase Rab11a associated with recycling endosomes is believed to contribute to this process by mediating the cytoplasmic transport of vRNPs. However, how vRNPs interact with Rab11a remains poorly understood. In this study, we utilised a combination of biochemical, proteomic, and biophysical approaches to characterise the interaction between the viral polymerase and Rab11a. Using pull-down assays we show that vRNPs but not cRNPs from infected cell lysates bind to Rab11a. We also show that the viral polymerase directly interacts with Rab11a and that the C-terminal two thirds of the PB2 polymerase subunit (PB2-C) comprising the cap-binding, mid-link, 627 and nuclear localization signal (NLS) domains mediate this interaction. Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) experiments confirmed that PB2-C associates with Rab11a in solution forming a compact folded complex with a 1:1 stoichiometry. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the switch I region of Rab11a, that has been shown to be important for binding Rab11 family interacting proteins (Rab11-FIPs), is also important for PB2-C binding suggesting that IAV polymerase and Rab11-FIPs compete for the same binding site. Our findings expand our understanding of the interaction between the IAV polymerase and Rab11a in the cytoplasmic transport of vRNPs. Importance The influenza virus RNA genome segments are replicated in the cell nucleus and are assembled into viral ribonucleoprotein (vRNP) complexes with viral RNA polymerase and nucleoprotein (NP). Replicated vRNPs need to be exported from the nucleus and trafficked across the cytoplasm to the cell membrane where virion assembly takes place. The host GTPase Rab11a plays a role in vRNP trafficking. In this study we show that the viral polymerase directly interacts with Rab11a mediating the interaction between vRNPs and Rab11a. We map this interaction to the C-terminal domains of the PB2 polymerase subunit and the switch I region of Rab11a. Identifying the exact site of Rab11a binding on the viral polymerase could uncover a novel target site for the development of an influenza antiviral drug.
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13
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Li F, Liu J, Yang J, Sun H, Jiang Z, Wang C, Zhang X, Yu Y, Zhao C, Pu J, Sun Y, Chang KC, Liu J, Sun H. H9N2 virus-derived M1 protein promotes H5N6 virus release in mammalian cells: Mechanism of avian influenza virus inter-species infection in humans. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1010098. [PMID: 34860863 PMCID: PMC8641880 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
H5N6 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) clade 2.3.4.4 not only exhibits unprecedented intercontinental spread in poultry, but can also cause serious infection in humans, posing a public health threat. Phylogenetic analyses show that 40% (8/20) of H5N6 viruses that infected humans carried H9N2 virus-derived internal genes. However, the precise contribution of H9N2 virus-derived internal genes to H5N6 virus infection in humans is unclear. Here, we report on the functional contribution of the H9N2 virus-derived matrix protein 1 (M1) to enhanced H5N6 virus replication capacity in mammalian cells. Unlike H5N1 virus-derived M1 protein, H9N2 virus-derived M1 protein showed high binding affinity for H5N6 hemagglutinin (HA) protein and increased viral progeny particle release in different mammalian cell lines. Human host factor, G protein subunit beta 1 (GNB1), exhibited strong binding to H9N2 virus-derived M1 protein to facilitate M1 transport to budding sites at the cell membrane. GNB1 knockdown inhibited the interaction between H9N2 virus-derived M1 and HA protein, and reduced influenza virus-like particles (VLPs) release. Our findings indicate that H9N2 virus-derived M1 protein promotes avian H5N6 influenza virus release from mammalian, in particular human cells, which could be a major viral factor for H5N6 virus cross-species infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangtao Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Jiyu Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Jizhe Yang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Haoran Sun
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Zhimin Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Chenxi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Yinghui Yu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Chuankuo Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Juan Pu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Yipeng Sun
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Kin-Chow Chang
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, United Kingdom
| | - Jinhua Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- * E-mail: (JL); (HS)
| | - Honglei Sun
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- * E-mail: (JL); (HS)
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14
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Staller E, Barclay WS. Host Cell Factors That Interact with Influenza Virus Ribonucleoproteins. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2021; 11:a038307. [PMID: 32988980 PMCID: PMC8559542 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a038307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Influenza viruses hijack host cell factors at each stage of the viral life cycle. After host cell entry and endosomal escape, the influenza viral ribonucleoproteins (vRNPs) are released into the cytoplasm where the classical cellular nuclear import pathway is usurped for nuclear translocation of the vRNPs. Transcription takes place inside the nucleus at active host transcription sites, and cellular mRNA export pathways are subverted for export of viral mRNAs. Newly synthesized RNP components cycle back into the nucleus using various cellular nuclear import pathways and host-encoded chaperones. Replication of the negative-sense viral RNA (vRNA) into complementary RNA (cRNA) and back into vRNA requires complex interplay between viral and host factors. Progeny vRNPs assemble at the host chromatin and subsequently exit from the nucleus-processes orchestrated by sets of host and viral proteins. Finally, several host pathways appear to play a role in vRNP trafficking from the nuclear envelope to the plasma membrane for egress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ecco Staller
- Department of Infectious Disease, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St. Mary's Campus, London W2 1NY, United Kingdom
| | - Wendy S Barclay
- Department of Infectious Disease, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St. Mary's Campus, London W2 1NY, United Kingdom
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15
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Boonyoung G, Panrat T, Phongdara A, Wanna W. Evaluation of the relationship between the 14-3-3ε protein and LvRab11 in the shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei during WSSV infection. Sci Rep 2021; 11:19188. [PMID: 34584112 PMCID: PMC8478922 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-97828-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The 14-3-3 proteins interact with a wide variety of cellular proteins for many diverse functions in biological processes. In this study, a yeast two-hybrid assay revealed that two 14-3-3ε isoforms (14-3-3ES and 14-3-3EL) interacted with Rab11 in the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei (LvRab11). The interaction of 14-3-3ε and LvRab11 was confirmed by a GST pull-down assay. The LvRab11 open reading frame was 645 bp long, encoding a protein of 214 amino acids. Possible complexes of 14-3-3ε isoforms and LvRab11 were elucidated by in silico analysis, in which LvRab11 showed a better binding energy score with 14-3-3EL than with 14-3-3ES. In shrimp challenged with the white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), the mRNA expression levels of LvRab11 and 14-3-3ε were significantly upregulated at 48 h after challenge. To determine whether LvRab11 and binding between 14-3-3ε and LvRab11 are active against WSSV infection, an in vivo neutralization assay and RNA interference were performed. The results of in vivo neutralization showed that LvRab11 and complexes of 14-3-3ε/LvRab11 delayed mortality in shrimp challenged with WSSV. Interestingly, in the RNAi experiments, the silencing effect of LvRab11 in WSSV-infected shrimp resulted in decreased ie-1 mRNA expression and WSSV copy number. Whereas suppression of complex 14-3-3ε/LvRab11 increased WSSV replication. This study has suggested two functions of LvRab11 in shrimp innate immunity; (1) at the early stage of WSSV infection, LvRab11 might play an important role in WSSV infection processes and (2) at the late stage of infection, the 14-3-3ε/LvRab11 interaction acquires functions that are involved in immune response against WSSV invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guson Boonyoung
- grid.7130.50000 0004 0470 1162Division of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, 90110 Thailand
| | - Tanate Panrat
- grid.7130.50000 0004 0470 1162Prince of Songkla University International College, Hat Yai Campus, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, 90110 Thailand
| | - Amornrat Phongdara
- grid.7130.50000 0004 0470 1162Center for Genomics and Bioinformatics Research, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, 90110 Thailand
| | - Warapond Wanna
- grid.7130.50000 0004 0470 1162Division of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, 90110 Thailand ,grid.7130.50000 0004 0470 1162Center for Genomics and Bioinformatics Research, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, 90110 Thailand
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16
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Ganti K, Han J, Manicassamy B, Lowen AC. Rab11a mediates cell-cell spread and reassortment of influenza A virus genomes via tunneling nanotubes. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009321. [PMID: 34473799 PMCID: PMC8443049 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus [IAV] genomes comprise eight negative strand RNAs packaged into virions in the form of viral ribonucleoproteins [vRNPs]. Rab11a plays a crucial role in the transport of vRNPs from the nucleus to the plasma membrane via microtubules, allowing assembly and virus production. Here, we identify a novel function for Rab11a in the inter-cellular transport of IAV vRNPs using tunneling nanotubes [TNTs]as molecular highways. TNTs are F-Actin rich tubules that link the cytoplasm of nearby cells. In IAV-infected cells, Rab11a was visualized together with vRNPs in these actin-rich intercellular connections. To better examine viral spread via TNTs, we devised an infection system in which conventional, virion-mediated, spread was not possible. Namely, we generated HA-deficient reporter viruses which are unable to produce progeny virions but whose genomes can be replicated and trafficked. In this system, vRNP transfer to neighboring cells was observed and this transfer was found to be dependent on both actin and Rab11a. Generation of infectious virus via TNT transfer was confirmed using donor cells infected with HA-deficient virus and recipient cells stably expressing HA protein. Mixing donor cells infected with genetically distinct IAVs furthermore revealed the potential for Rab11a and TNTs to serve as a conduit for genome mixing and reassortment in IAV infections. These data therefore reveal a novel role for Rab11a in the IAV life cycle, which could have significant implications for within-host spread, genome reassortment and immune evasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ketaki Ganti
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Julianna Han
- Department of Microbiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Balaji Manicassamy
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa School of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Anice C. Lowen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- Emory-UGA Centers of Excellence for Influenza Research and Surveillance [CEIRS]
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17
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Jones JE, Le Sage V, Padovani GH, Calderon M, Wright ES, Lakdawala SS. Parallel evolution between genomic segments of seasonal human influenza viruses reveals RNA-RNA relationships. eLife 2021; 10:66525. [PMID: 34448455 PMCID: PMC8523153 DOI: 10.7554/elife.66525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The influenza A virus (IAV) genome consists of eight negative-sense viral RNA (vRNA) segments that are selectively assembled into progeny virus particles through RNA-RNA interactions. To explore putative intersegmental RNA-RNA relationships, we quantified similarity between phylogenetic trees comprising each vRNA segment from seasonal human IAV. Intersegmental tree similarity differed between subtype and lineage. While intersegmental relationships were largely conserved over time in H3N2 viruses, they diverged in H1N1 strains isolated before and after the 2009 pandemic. Surprisingly, intersegmental relationships were not driven solely by protein sequence, suggesting that IAV evolution could also be driven by RNA-RNA interactions. Finally, we used confocal microscopy to determine that colocalization of highly coevolved vRNA segments is enriched over other assembly intermediates at the nuclear periphery during productive viral infection. This study illustrates how putative RNA interactions underlying selective assembly of IAV can be interrogated with phylogenetics. The viruses responsible for influenza evolve rapidly during infection. Changes typically emerge in two key ways: through random mutations in the genetic sequence of the virus, or by reassortment. Reassortment can occur when two or more strains infect the same cell. Once in a cell, viral particles ‘open up’ to release their genetic material so it can make copies of itself using the cell’s machinery. The new copies of the genetic material of the virus are used to make new viral particles, which then envelop the genetic material and are released from the cell to infect other cells. If several strains of a virus infect the same cell, a new viral particle may pick up genetic segments from each of the infecting strains, creating a new strain via reassortment. Several factors are known to affect the success of the reassortment process. For example, if the new strain acquires a genetic defect that hinders its replication cycle, it is likely to die out quickly. Other times, this trading of genetic information can create a strain that is more resistant to the human immune system, allowing it to sweep across the globe and cause a deadly pandemic. However, a key part of the reassortment process that still remains unclear is how genome segments from two different influenza strains recognize each other before merging together to create hybrid daughter viruses. To explore this further, Jones et al. used a technique called fluorescence microscopy. They found that genome segments that evolved along similar paths were more likely to cluster in the same area inside infected cells, and therefore, more likely to be reassorted together into a new strain during assembly of daughter viruses. This suggests that assembly may guide the evolutionary path taken by individual genomic segments. Jones et al. also looked at the evolution of different genome segments collected from patients suffering from seasonal influenza, and found that these segments had a distinct evolutionary path to those in pandemic-causing strains. This research provides new insights into the role of reassortment in the evolution of influenza viruses during infection. In particular, it suggests that how the genome segments interact with one another may have a previously unknown and important role in guiding this evolution. These insights could be used to predict future reassortment events based on evolutionary relationships between influenza virus genomic segments, and may in the future be used as part of risk assessment tools to predict the emergence of new pandemic strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer E Jones
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, United States.,Center for Evolutionary Biology and Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, United States.,Center for Vaccine Research, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, United States
| | - Valerie Le Sage
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, United States.,Center for Vaccine Research, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, United States
| | - Gabriella H Padovani
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, United States.,Center for Vaccine Research, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, United States
| | - Michael Calderon
- Department of Cell Biology, Center for Biologic Imaging, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, United States
| | - Erik S Wright
- Center for Evolutionary Biology and Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, United States.,Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, United States
| | - Seema S Lakdawala
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, United States.,Center for Vaccine Research, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, United States
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18
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Moreira EA, Yamauchi Y, Matthias P. How Influenza Virus Uses Host Cell Pathways during Uncoating. Cells 2021; 10:1722. [PMID: 34359892 PMCID: PMC8305448 DOI: 10.3390/cells10071722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza is a zoonotic respiratory disease of major public health interest due to its pandemic potential, and a threat to animals and the human population. The influenza A virus genome consists of eight single-stranded RNA segments sequestered within a protein capsid and a lipid bilayer envelope. During host cell entry, cellular cues contribute to viral conformational changes that promote critical events such as fusion with late endosomes, capsid uncoating and viral genome release into the cytosol. In this focused review, we concisely describe the virus infection cycle and highlight the recent findings of host cell pathways and cytosolic proteins that assist influenza uncoating during host cell entry.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yohei Yamauchi
- Faculty of Life Sciences, School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK;
| | - Patrick Matthias
- Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, 4058 Basel, Switzerland;
- Faculty of Sciences, University of Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland
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19
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Host factor Rab11a is critical for efficient assembly of influenza A virus genomic segments. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009517. [PMID: 33970958 PMCID: PMC8136845 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well documented that influenza A viruses selectively package 8 distinct viral ribonucleoprotein complexes (vRNPs) into each virion; however, the role of host factors in genome assembly is not completely understood. To evaluate the significance of cellular factors in genome assembly, we generated a reporter virus carrying a tetracysteine tag in the NP gene (NP-Tc virus) and assessed the dynamics of vRNP localization with cellular components by fluorescence microscopy. At early time points, vRNP complexes were preferentially exported to the MTOC; subsequently, vRNPs associated on vesicles positive for cellular factor Rab11a and formed distinct vRNP bundles that trafficked to the plasma membrane on microtubule networks. In Rab11a deficient cells, however, vRNP bundles were smaller in the cytoplasm with less co-localization between different vRNP segments. Furthermore, Rab11a deficiency increased the production of non-infectious particles with higher RNA copy number to PFU ratios, indicative of defects in specific genome assembly. These results indicate that Rab11a+ vesicles serve as hubs for the congregation of vRNP complexes and enable specific genome assembly through vRNP:vRNP interactions, revealing the importance of Rab11a as a critical host factor for influenza A virus genome assembly. The influenza A virus (IAV) genome is composed of 8 distinct RNA segments. It has remained unclear how these 8 individual RNA segments are assembled together to form infectious virus particles. Our study shows that Rab11a+ vesicles serve as platforms for the congregation and assembly of 8 individual viral RNA segments needed to form infectious virus particles. However, in cells lacking Rab11a, viral RNA segments fail to congregate together, resulting in increased production of defective virus particles, likely due to misassembling of viral RNA segments. Thus, our study reveals the important role for Rab11a in influenza virus genome assembly and production of infectious virus particles.
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20
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Wu J, Gu J, Shen L, Jia X, Yin Y, Chen Y, Wang S, Mao L. The role of host cell Rab GTPases in influenza A virus infections. Future Microbiol 2021; 16:445-452. [PMID: 33847136 DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2020-0092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) is a crucial cause of respiratory infections in humans worldwide. Therefore, studies should clarify adaptation mechanisms of IAV and critical factors of the viral pathogenesis in human hosts. GTPases of the Rab family are the largest branch of the Ras-like small GTPase superfamily, and they regulate almost every step during vesicle-mediated trafficking. Evidence has shown that Rab proteins participate in the lifecycle of IAV. In this mini-review, we outline the regulatory mechanisms of different Rab proteins in the lifecycle of IAV. Understanding the role of Rab proteins in IAV infections is important to develop broad-spectrum host-targeted antiviral strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Wu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Affiliated People's Hospital, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China.,Department of Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Jiaqi Gu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Affiliated People's Hospital, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China.,Department of Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Li Shen
- Clinical Laboratory, Zhenjiang Center for Disease Control & Prevention, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaonan Jia
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Affiliated People's Hospital, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China.,Department of Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Yiqian Yin
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Affiliated People's Hospital, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China.,Department of Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Yiwen Chen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Affiliated People's Hospital, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China.,Department of Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Shengjun Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Affiliated People's Hospital, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China.,Department of Immunology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Lingxiang Mao
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Affiliated People's Hospital, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
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21
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Etibor TA, Yamauchi Y, Amorim MJ. Liquid Biomolecular Condensates and Viral Lifecycles: Review and Perspectives. Viruses 2021; 13:366. [PMID: 33669141 PMCID: PMC7996568 DOI: 10.3390/v13030366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Viruses are highly dependent on the host they infect. Their dependence triggers processes of virus-host co-adaptation, enabling viruses to explore host resources whilst escaping immunity. Scientists have tackled viral-host interplay at differing levels of complexity-in individual hosts, organs, tissues and cells-and seminal studies advanced our understanding about viral lifecycles, intra- or inter-species transmission, and means to control infections. Recently, it emerged as important to address the physical properties of the materials in biological systems; membrane-bound organelles are only one of many ways to separate molecules from the cellular milieu. By achieving a type of compartmentalization lacking membranes known as biomolecular condensates, biological systems developed alternative mechanisms of controlling reactions. The identification that many biological condensates display liquid properties led to the proposal that liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) drives their formation. The concept of LLPS is a paradigm shift in cellular structure and organization. There is an unprecedented momentum to revisit long-standing questions in virology and to explore novel antiviral strategies. In the first part of this review, we focus on the state-of-the-art about biomolecular condensates. In the second part, we capture what is known about RNA virus-phase biology and discuss future perspectives of this emerging field in virology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Temitope Akhigbe Etibor
- Cell Biology of Viral Infection Lab, Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, 2780-156 Oeiras, Portugal;
| | - Yohei Yamauchi
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TL, UK;
| | - Maria João Amorim
- Cell Biology of Viral Infection Lab, Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, 2780-156 Oeiras, Portugal;
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22
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Touizer E, Sieben C, Henriques R, Marsh M, Laine RF. Application of Super-Resolution and Advanced Quantitative Microscopy to the Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Influenza Virus Replication. Viruses 2021; 13:233. [PMID: 33540739 PMCID: PMC7912985 DOI: 10.3390/v13020233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
With an estimated three to five million human cases annually and the potential to infect domestic and wild animal populations, influenza viruses are one of the greatest health and economic burdens to our society, and pose an ongoing threat of large-scale pandemics. Despite our knowledge of many important aspects of influenza virus biology, there is still much to learn about how influenza viruses replicate in infected cells, for instance, how they use entry receptors or exploit host cell trafficking pathways. These gaps in our knowledge are due, in part, to the difficulty of directly observing viruses in living cells. In recent years, advances in light microscopy, including super-resolution microscopy and single-molecule imaging, have enabled many viral replication steps to be visualised dynamically in living cells. In particular, the ability to track single virions and their components, in real time, now allows specific pathways to be interrogated, providing new insights to various aspects of the virus-host cell interaction. In this review, we discuss how state-of-the-art imaging technologies, notably quantitative live-cell and super-resolution microscopy, are providing new nanoscale and molecular insights into influenza virus replication and revealing new opportunities for developing antiviral strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Touizer
- Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London WC1E 6AE, UK;
- MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK; (R.H.); (M.M.)
| | - Christian Sieben
- Department of Cell Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany;
| | - Ricardo Henriques
- MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK; (R.H.); (M.M.)
- The Francis Crick Institute, London NW1 1AT, UK
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, 2780-156 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Mark Marsh
- MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK; (R.H.); (M.M.)
| | - Romain F. Laine
- MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK; (R.H.); (M.M.)
- The Francis Crick Institute, London NW1 1AT, UK
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Jones JE, Le Sage V, Lakdawala SS. Viral and host heterogeneity and their effects on the viral life cycle. Nat Rev Microbiol 2020; 19:272-282. [PMID: 33024309 PMCID: PMC7537587 DOI: 10.1038/s41579-020-00449-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Traditionally, the viral replication cycle is envisioned as a single, well-defined loop with four major steps: attachment and entry into a target cell, replication of the viral genome, maturation of viral proteins and genome packaging into infectious progeny, and egress and dissemination to the next target cell. However, for many viruses, a growing body of evidence points towards extreme heterogeneity in each of these steps. In this Review, we reassess the major steps of the viral replication cycle by highlighting recent advances that show considerable variability during viral infection. First, we discuss heterogeneity in entry receptors, followed by a discussion on error-prone and low-fidelity polymerases and their impact on viral diversity. Next, we cover the implications of heterogeneity in genome packaging and assembly on virion morphology. Last, we explore alternative egress mechanisms, including tunnelling nanotubes and host microvesicles. In summary, we discuss the implications of viral phenotypic, morphological and genetic heterogeneity on pathogenesis and medicine. This Review highlights common themes and unique features that give nuance to the viral replication cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer E Jones
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Valerie Le Sage
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Seema S Lakdawala
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. .,Center for Vaccine Research, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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24
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Mascheroni L, Scherer KM, Manton JD, Ward E, Dibben O, Kaminski CF. Combining sample expansion and light sheet microscopy for the volumetric imaging of virus-infected cells with super-resolution. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 11:5032-5044. [PMID: 33014598 PMCID: PMC7510880 DOI: 10.1364/boe.399404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Expansion microscopy is a sample preparation technique that enables the optical imaging of biological specimens at super-resolution owing to their physical magnification, which is achieved through water-absorbing polymers. The technique uses readily available chemicals and does not require sophisticated equipment, thus offering super-resolution to laboratories that are not microscopy-specialised. Here we present a protocol combining sample expansion with light sheet microscopy to generate high-contrast, high-resolution 3D reconstructions of whole virus-infected cells. The results are superior to those achievable with comparable imaging modalities and reveal details of the infection cycle that are not discernible before expansion. An image resolution of approximately 95 nm could be achieved in samples labelled in 3 colours. We resolve that the viral nucleoprotein is accumulated at the membrane of vesicular structures within the cell cytoplasm and how these vesicles are positioned relative to cellular structures. We provide detailed guidance and a video protocol for the optimal application of the method and demonstrate its potential to study virus-host cell interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Mascheroni
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- These authors contributed equally
| | - Katharina M Scherer
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- These authors contributed equally
| | | | - Edward Ward
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Oliver Dibben
- Flu-MSAT, Biopharmaceutical Development, R&D, AstraZeneca, Liverpool, UK
| | - Clemens F Kaminski
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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25
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Genoyer E, Kulej K, Hung CT, Thibault PA, Azarm K, Takimoto T, Garcia BA, Lee B, Lakdawala S, Weitzman MD, López CB. The Viral Polymerase Complex Mediates the Interaction of Viral Ribonucleoprotein Complexes with Recycling Endosomes during Sendai Virus Assembly. mBio 2020; 11:e02028-20. [PMID: 32843550 PMCID: PMC7448285 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02028-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Paramyxoviruses are negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses that comprise many important human and animal pathogens, including human parainfluenza viruses. These viruses bud from the plasma membrane of infected cells after the viral ribonucleoprotein complex (vRNP) is transported from the cytoplasm to the cell membrane via Rab11a-marked recycling endosomes. The viral proteins that are critical for mediating this important initial step in viral assembly are unknown. Here, we used the model paramyxovirus, murine parainfluenza virus 1, or Sendai virus (SeV), to investigate the roles of viral proteins in Rab11a-driven virion assembly. We previously reported that infection with SeV containing high levels of copy-back defective viral genomes (DVGs) (DVG-high SeV) generates heterogenous populations of cells. Cells enriched in full-length (FL) virus produce viral particles containing standard or defective viral genomes, while cells enriched in DVGs do not, despite high levels of defective viral genome replication. Here, we took advantage of this heterogenous cell phenotype to identify proteins that mediate interaction of vRNPs with Rab11a. We examined the roles of matrix protein and nucleoprotein and determined that their presence is not sufficient to drive interaction of vRNPs with recycling endosomes. Using a combination of mass spectrometry and comparative analyses of protein abundance and localization in DVG-high and FL-virus-high (FL-high) cells, we identified viral polymerase complex component protein L and, specifically, its cofactor C as interactors with Rab11a. We found that accumulation of L and C proteins within the cell is the defining feature that differentiates cells that proceed to viral egress from cells containing viruses that remain in replication phases.IMPORTANCE Paramyxoviruses are members of a family of viruses that include a number of pathogens imposing significant burdens on human health. In particular, human parainfluenza viruses are an important cause of pneumonia and bronchiolitis in children for which there are no vaccines or directly acting antivirals. These cytoplasmic replicating viruses bud from the plasma membrane and co-opt cellular endosomal recycling pathways to traffic viral ribonucleoprotein complexes from the cytoplasm to the membrane of infected cells. The viral proteins required for viral engagement with the recycling endosome pathway are still not known. Here, we used the model paramyxovirus Sendai virus, or murine parainfluenza virus 1, to investigate the role of viral proteins in this initial step of viral assembly. We found that the viral polymerase components large protein L and accessory protein C are necessary for engagement with recycling endosomes. These findings are important in identifying viral proteins as potential targets for development of antivirals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle Genoyer
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Katarzyna Kulej
- Division of Protective Immunity and Division of Cancer Pathobiology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Chuan Tien Hung
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Patricia A Thibault
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Kristopher Azarm
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Toru Takimoto
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Benjamin A Garcia
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Epigenetics Institute, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Benhur Lee
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Seema Lakdawala
- Department of Microbiology & Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Matthew D Weitzman
- Division of Protective Immunity and Division of Cancer Pathobiology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Epigenetics Institute, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Carolina B López
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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26
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Zheng J, Xu Y, Fan L, Qin S, Li H, Sang M, Li R, Chen H, Yuan Z, Li B. A Bioresponsive Near-Infrared Fluorescent Probe for Facile and Persistent Live-Cell Tracking. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2020; 16:e2002211. [PMID: 32686298 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202002211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 05/31/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Molecular imaging significantly transforms the field of biomedical science and facilitates the visualization, characterization, and quantification of biologic processes. However, it is still challenging to monitor cell localization in vivo, which is essential to the study of tumor metastasis and in the development of cell-based therapies. While most conventional small-molecule fluorescent probes cannot afford durable cell labeling, transfection of cells with fluorescent proteins is limited by their fixed fluorescence, poor tissue penetration, and interference of autofluorescence background. Here, a bioresponsive near-infrared fluorescent probe is reported as facile and reliable tool for real-time cell tracking in vivo. The design of this probe relies on a new phenomenon observed upon fluorobenzene-conjugated fluorescent dyes, which can form complexes with cytosolic glutathione and actively translocates to lysosomes, exhibiting enhanced and stable cell labeling. Fluorobenzene-coupled hemicyanine, a near-infrared fluorophore manifests to efficiently staining tumor cells without affecting their invasive property and enables persistent monitoring of cell migration in metastatic tumor murine models at high resolution for one week. The method of fluorobenzene functionalization also provides a simple and universal "add-on" strategy to render ordinary fluorescent probes suitable for long-term live-cell tracking, for which currently there is a deficit of suitable molecular tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinrong Zheng
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjia Lane, Gulou District, Nanjing, 210009, China
- Sanyi Biotechnology Co., Ltd., 228 East Tianyuan Road, Jiangning District, Nanjing, 211100, China
| | - Yue Xu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjia Lane, Gulou District, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Lixue Fan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjia Lane, Gulou District, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Shuheng Qin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjia Lane, Gulou District, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Hua Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjia Lane, Gulou District, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Mangmang Sang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjia Lane, Gulou District, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Ruixi Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjia Lane, Gulou District, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Haiyan Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjia Lane, Gulou District, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Zhenwei Yuan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjia Lane, Gulou District, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Bowen Li
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
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