The MiDAC histone deacetylase complex is essential for embryonic development and has a unique multivalent structure

Novel 5-(Trifluoromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole-Based Pyrimidin-4-ether Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors for Controlling Rust Disease: Design, Synthesis, Activity, and Structure-Activity Relationship

Rust disease, an important plant pathogen, can lead to reduced crop or fruit production. Trifluoromethyloxadiazole (TFMO) is a class of histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACs). Herein, a series of 5-(trifluoromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole (TFMO)-based pyrimidin-4-ether derivatives were designed and synthesized. Antirust bioassay results of TFMOs showed that some of them possessed excellent activities against plant rust pathogens, such as Puccinia sorghi, Phakopsora pachyrhizi, and Puccinia rubigo. The most active compound, 3-(5-(((6-(difluoromethyl)pyrimidin-4-yl)oxy)methyl)thiophen-2-yl)-5-(trifluoromethyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole (XII6), exhibited 50% control against P. pachyrhizi at 0.780 mg/L, which was significantly better than the commercial fungicide azoxystrobin (0%) at the same concentration. The field trial results indicated that the compound exhibited an excellent control effect against P. rubigo at 116 g a.i./ha. The acute toxic results indicated that compound XII6 has low toxicity. Furthermore, the enzyme activity results showed that compound XII6 is a strong, nonselective HDAC inhibitor. Finally, the structure-activity relationship was established, and the compound XII6-HDAC binding mode was carried out based on the crystal structure of hHDAC1, hHDAC4, and hHDAC6. This work provided an excellent fungicide against rust for further optimization.

Circular Engineered Sortase for Interrogating Histone H3 in Chromatin

Reversible modification of the histone H3 N-terminal tail is critical in regulating the chromatin structure, gene expression, and cell states, while its dysregulation contributes to disease pathogenesis. Understanding the crosstalk between H3 tail modifications in nucleosomes constitutes a central challenge in epigenetics. Here, we describe an engineered sortase transpeptidase, cW11, that displays highly favorable properties for introducing scarless H3 tails onto nucleosomes. This approach significantly accelerates the production of both symmetrically and asymmetrically modified nucleosomes. We demonstrate the utility of asymmetrically modified nucleosomes produced in this way in dissecting the impact of multiple modifications on eraser enzyme processing and molecular recognition by a reader protein. Moreover, we show that cW11 sortase is very effective at cutting and tagging histone H3 tails from endogenous histones, facilitating multiplex "cut-and-paste" middle-down proteomics with tandem mass tags. This cut-and-paste proteomics approach permits the quantitative analysis of histone H3 modification crosstalk after treatment with different histone deacetylase inhibitors. We propose that these chemoenzymatic tail isolation and modification strategies made possible with cW11 sortase will broadly power epigenetic discovery and therapeutic development.

Histone deacetylase complexes: Structure, regulation and function

Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are key epigenetic regulators, and transcriptional complexes with deacetylase function are among the epigenetic corepressor complexes in the nucleus that target the epigenome. HDAC-bearing corepressor complexes such as the Sin3 complex, NuRD complex, CoREST complex, and SMRT/NCoR complex are common in biological systems. These complexes activate the otherwise inactive HDACs in a solitary state. HDAC complexes play vital roles in the regulation of key biological processes such as transcription, replication, and DNA repair. Moreover, deregulated HDAC complex function is implicated in human diseases including cancer. Therapeutic strategies targeting HDAC complexes are being sought actively. Thus, illustration of the nature and composition of HDAC complexes is vital to understanding the molecular basis of their functions under physiologic and pathologic conditions, and for designing targeted therapies. This review presents key aspects of large multiprotein HDAC-bearing complexes including their structure, function, regulatory mechanisms, implication in disease development, and role in therapeutics.

Discovery of a novel hybrid coumarin-hydroxamate conjugate targeting the HDAC1-Sp1-FOSL2 signaling axis for breast cancer therapy

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer is one of the most lethal cancers in women. Despite significant advances in the diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer, many patients still succumb to this disease, and thus, novel effective treatments are urgently needed. Natural product coumarin has been broadly investigated since it reveals various biological properties in the medicinal field. Accumulating evidence indicates that histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACIs) are promising novel anti-breast cancer agents. However, most current HDACIs exhibit only moderate effects against solid tumors and are associated with severe side effects. Thus, to develop more effective HDACIs for breast cancer therapy, hydroxamate of HDACIs was linked to coumarin core, and coumarin-hydroxamate hybrids were designed and synthesized.

METHODS

A substituted coumarin moiety was incorporated into the classic hydroxamate HDACIs by the pharmacophore fusion strategy. ZN444B was identified by using the HDACI screening kit and cell viability assay. Molecular docking was performed to explore the binding mode of ZN444B with HDAC1. Western blot, immunofluorescent staining, cell viability, colony formation and cell migration and flow cytometry assays were used to analyze the anti-breast cancer effects of ZN444B in vitro. Orthotopic studies in mouse models were applied for preclinical evaluation of efficacy and toxicity in vivo. Proteomic analysis, dual-luciferase reporter assay, chromatin immunoprecipitation, co-immunoprecipitation, immunofluorescent staining assays along with immunohistochemical (IHC) analysis were used to elucidate the molecular basis of the actions of ZN444B.

RESULTS

We synthesized and identified a novel coumarin-hydroxamate conjugate, ZN444B which possesses promising anti-breast cancer activity both in vitro and in vivo. A molecular docking model showed that ZN444B binds to HDAC1 with high affinity. Further mechanistic studies revealed that ZN444B specifically decreases FOS-like antigen 2 (FOSL2) mRNA levels by inhibiting the deacetylase activity of HDAC1 on Sp1 at K703 and abrogates the binding ability of Sp1 to the FOSL2 promoter. Furthermore, FOSL2 expression positively correlates with breast cancer progression and metastasis. Silencing FOSL2 expression decreases the sensitivity of breast cancer cells to ZN444B treatment. In addition, ZN444B shows no systemic toxicity in mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings highlight the potential of FOSL2 as a new biomarker and therapeutic target for breast cancer and that targeting the HDAC1-Sp1-FOSL2 signaling axis with ZN444B may be a promising therapeutic strategy for breast cancer.

ELM2-SANT Domain-Containing Scaffolding Protein 1 Regulates Differentiation and Maturation of Cardiomyocytes Derived From Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

BACKGROUND

ELMSAN1 (ELM2-SANT domain-containing scaffolding protein 1) is a newly identified scaffolding protein of the MiDAC (mitotic deacetylase complex), playing a pivotal role in early embryonic development. Studies on Elmsan1 knockout mice showed that its absence results in embryo lethality and heart malformation. However, the precise function of ELMSAN1 in heart development and formation remains elusive. To study its potential role in cardiac lineage, we employed human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) to model early cardiogenesis and investigated the function of ELMSAN1.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We generated ELMSAN1-deficient hiPSCs through knockdown and knockout techniques. During cardiac differentiation, ELMSAN1 depletion inhibited pluripotency deactivation, decreased the expression of cardiac-specific markers, and reduced differentiation efficiency. The impaired expression of genes associated with contractile sarcomere structure, calcium handling, and ion channels was also noted in ELMSAN1-deficient cardiomyocytes derived from hiPSCs. Additionally, through a series of structural and functional assessments, we found that ELMSAN1-null hiPSC cardiomyocytes are immature, exhibiting incomplete sarcomere Z-line structure, decreased calcium handling, and impaired electrophysiological properties. Of note, we found that the cardiac-specific role of ELMSAN1 is likely associated with histone H3K27 acetylation level. The transcriptome analysis provided additional insights, indicating maturation reduction with the energy metabolism switch and restored cell proliferation in ELMSAN1 knockout cardiomyocytes.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we address the significance of the direct involvement of ELMSAN1 in the differentiation and maturation of hiPSC cardiomyocytes. We first report the impact of ELMSAN1 on multiple aspects of hiPSC cardiomyocyte generation, including cardiac differentiation, sarcomere formation, calcium handling, electrophysiological maturation, and proliferation.

HDAC1/2 and HDAC3 play distinct roles in controlling adult Meibomian gland homeostasis

PURPOSE

To investigate the roles of HDAC1/2 and HDAC3 in adult Meibomian gland (MG) homeostasis.

METHODS

HDAC1/2 or HDAC3 were inducibly deleted in MG epithelial cells of adult mice. The morphology of MG was examined. Proliferation, apoptosis, and expression of MG acinus and duct marker genes, meibocyte differentiation genes, and HDAC target genes, were analyzed via immunofluorescence, TUNEL assay, and RNA in situ hybridization.

RESULTS

Co-deletion of HDAC1/2 in MG epithelium caused gradual loss of acini and formation of cyst-like structures in the central duct. These phenotypes required homozygous deletion of both HDAC1 and HDAC2, indicating that they function redundantly in the adult MG. Short-term deletion of HDAC1/2 in MG epithelium had little effect on meibocyte maturation but caused decreased proliferation of acinar basal cells, excessive DNA damage, ectopic apoptosis, and increased p53 acetylation and p16 expression in the MG. By contrast, HDAC3 deletion in MG epithelium caused dilation of central duct, atrophy of acini, defective meibocyte maturation, increased acinar basal cell proliferation, and ectopic apoptosis and DNA damage. Levels of p53 acetylation and p21 expression were elevated in HDAC3-deficient MGs, while the expression of the differentiation regulator PPARγ and the differentiation markers PLIN2 and FASN was downregulated.

CONCLUSIONS

HDAC1 and HDAC2 function redundantly in adult Meibomian gland epithelial progenitor cells and are essential for their proliferation and survival, but not for acinar differentiation, while HDAC3 is required to limit acinar progenitor cell proliferation and permit differentiation. HDAC1/2 and HDAC3 have partially overlapping roles in maintaining survival of MG cells.

Mitotic deacetylase complex (MiDAC) recognizes the HIV-1 core promoter to control activated viral gene expression

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) integrates into the host genome forming latent cellular reservoirs that are an obstacle for cure or remission strategies. Viral transcription is the first step in the control of latency and depends upon the hijacking of the host cell RNA polymerase II (Pol II) machinery by the 5' HIV LTR. Consequently, "block and lock" or "shock and kill" strategies for an HIV cure depend upon a full understanding of HIV transcriptional control. The HIV trans-activating protein, Tat, controls HIV latency as part of a positive feed-forward loop that strongly activates HIV transcription. The recognition of the TATA box and adjacent sequences of HIV essential for Tat trans-activation (TASHET) of the core promoter by host cell pre-initiation complexes of HIV (PICH) has been shown to be necessary for Tat trans-activation, yet the protein composition of PICH has remained obscure. Here, DNA-affinity chromatography was employed to identify the mitotic deacetylase complex (MiDAC) as selectively recognizing TASHET. Using biophysical techniques, we show that the MiDAC subunit DNTTIP1 binds directly to TASHET, in part via its CTGC DNA motifs. Using co-immunoprecipitation assays, we show that DNTTIP1 interacts with MiDAC subunits MIDEAS and HDAC1/2. The Tat-interacting protein, NAT10, is also present in HIV-bound MiDAC. Gene silencing revealed a functional role for DNTTIP1, MIDEAS, and NAT10 in HIV expression in cellulo. Furthermore, point mutations in TASHET that prevent DNTTIP1 binding block the reactivation of HIV by latency reversing agents (LRA) that act via the P-TEFb/7SK axis. Our data reveal a key role for MiDAC subunits DNTTIP1, MIDEAS, as well as NAT10, in Tat-activated HIV transcription and latency. DNTTIP1, MIDEAS and NAT10 emerge as cell cycle-regulated host cell transcription factors that can control activated HIV gene expression, and as new drug targets for HIV cure strategies.

Structures and dynamics of Rpd3S complex bound to nucleosome

The Rpd3S complex plays a pivotal role in facilitating local histone deacetylation in the transcribed regions to suppress intragenic transcription initiation. Here, we present the cryo-electron microscopy structures of the budding yeast Rpd3S complex in both its apo and three nucleosome-bound states at atomic resolutions, revealing the exquisite architecture of Rpd3S to well accommodate a mononucleosome without linker DNA. The Rpd3S core, containing a Sin3 Lobe and two NB modules, is a rigid complex and provides three positive-charged anchors (Sin3_HCR and two Rco1_NIDs) to connect nucleosomal DNA. In three nucleosome-bound states, the Rpd3S core exhibits three distinct orientations relative to the nucleosome, assisting the sector-shaped deacetylase Rpd3 to locate above the SHL5-6, SHL0-1, or SHL2-3, respectively. Our work provides a structural framework that reveals a dynamic working model for the Rpd3S complex to engage diverse deacetylation sites.

A di-acetyl-decorated chromatin signature couples liquid condensation to suppress DNA end synapsis

Appropriate DNA end synapsis, regulated by core components of the synaptic complex including KU70-KU80, LIG4, XRCC4, and XLF, is central to non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) repair of chromatinized DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). However, it remains enigmatic whether chromatin modifications can influence the formation of NHEJ synaptic complex at DNA ends, and if so, how this is achieved. Here, we report that the mitotic deacetylase complex (MiDAC) serves as a key regulator of DNA end synapsis during NHEJ repair in mammalian cells. Mechanistically, MiDAC removes combinatorial acetyl marks on histone H2A (H2AK5acK9ac) around DSB-proximal chromatin, suppressing hyperaccumulation of bromodomain-containing protein BRD4 that would otherwise undergo liquid-liquid phase separation with KU80 and prevent the proper installation of LIG4-XRCC4-XLF onto DSB ends. This study provides mechanistic insight into the control of NHEJ synaptic complex assembly by a specific chromatin signature and highlights the critical role of H2A hypoacetylation in restraining unscheduled compartmentalization of DNA repair machinery.

Revealing chromatin-specific functions of histone deacylases

Histone deacylases are erasers of Nε-acyl-lysine post-translational modifications and have been targeted for decades for the treatment of cancer, neurodegeneration and other disorders. Due to their relatively promiscuous activity on peptide substrates in vitro, it has been challenging to determine the individual targets and substrate identification mechanisms of each isozyme, and they have been considered redundant regulators. In recent years, biochemical and biophysical studies have incorporated the use of reconstituted nucleosomes, which has revealed a diverse and complex arsenal of recognition mechanisms by which histone deacylases may differentiate themselves in vivo. In this review, we first present the peptide-based tools that have helped characterize histone deacylases in vitro to date, and we discuss the new insights that nucleosome tools are providing into their recognition of histone substrates within chromatin. Then, we summarize the powerful semi-synthetic approaches that are moving forward the study of chromatin-associated factors, both in vitro by detailed single-molecule mechanistic studies, and in cells by live chromatin modification. We finally offer our perspective on how these new techniques would advance the study of histone deacylases. We envision that such studies will help elucidate the role of individual isozymes in disease and provide a platform for the development of the next generation of therapeutics.

Development of Potent Dual BET/HDAC Inhibitors via Pharmacophore Merging and Structure-Guided Optimization

Bromodomain and extra-terminal domain (BET) proteins and histone deacetylases (HDACs) are prime targets in cancer therapy. Recent research has particularly focused on the development of dual BET/HDAC inhibitors for hard-to-treat tumors, such as pancreatic cancer. Here, we developed a new series of potent dual BET/HDAC inhibitors by choosing starting scaffolds that enabled us to optimally merge the two functionalities into a single compound. Systematic structure-guided modification of both warheads then led to optimized binders that were superior in potency to both parent compounds, with the best molecules of this series binding to both BRD4 bromodomains as well as HDAC1/2 with EC50 values in the 100 nM range in cellular NanoBRET target engagement assays. For one of our lead molecules, we could also show the selective inhibition of HDAC1/2 over all other zinc-dependent HDACs. Importantly, this on-target activity translated into promising efficacy in pancreatic cancer and NUT midline carcinoma cells. Our lead molecules effectively blocked histone H3 deacetylation in pancreatic cancer cells and upregulated the tumor suppressor HEXIM1 and proapoptotic p57, both markers of BET inhibition. In addition, they have the potential to downregulate the oncogenic drivers of NUT midline carcinoma, as demonstrated for MYC and TP63 mRNA levels. Overall, this study expands the portfolio of available dual BET/class I HDAC inhibitors for future translational studies in different cancer models.

Histone deacetylases maintain expression of the pluripotent gene network via recruitment of RNA polymerase II to coding and noncoding loci

Histone acetylation is a dynamic modification regulated by the opposing actions of histone acetyltransferases (HATs) and histone deacetylases (HDACs). Deacetylation of histone tails results in chromatin tightening, and therefore, HDACs are generally regarded as transcriptional repressors. Counterintuitively, simultaneous deletion of Hdac1 and Hdac2 in embryonic stem cells (ESCs) reduces expression of the pluripotency-associated transcription factors Pou5f1, Sox2, and Nanog (PSN). By shaping global histone acetylation patterns, HDACs indirectly regulate the activity of acetyl-lysine readers, such as the transcriptional activator BRD4. Here, we use inhibitors of HDACs and BRD4 (LBH589 and JQ1, respectively) in combination with precision nuclear run-on and sequencing (PRO-seq) to examine their roles in defining the ESC transcriptome. Both LBH589 and JQ1 cause a marked reduction in the pluripotent gene network. However, although JQ1 treatment induces widespread transcriptional pausing, HDAC inhibition causes a reduction in both paused and elongating polymerase, suggesting an overall reduction in polymerase recruitment. Using enhancer RNA (eRNA) expression to measure enhancer activity, we find that LBH589-sensitive eRNAs are preferentially associated with superenhancers and PSN binding sites. These findings suggest that HDAC activity is required to maintain pluripotency by regulating the PSN enhancer network via the recruitment of RNA polymerase II.

Histone acetylation and deacetylation - Mechanistic insights from structural biology

Histones are subject to a diverse array of post-translational modifications. Among them, lysine acetylation is not only the most pervasive and dynamic modification but also highly consequential for regulating gene transcription. Although enzymes responsible for the addition and removal of acetyl groups were discovered almost 30 years ago, high-resolution structures of the enzymes in the context of their native complexes are only now beginning to become available, thanks to revolutionary technologies in protein structure determination and prediction. Here, we will review our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms of acetylation and deacetylation engendered by chromatin-modifying complexes, compare and contrast shared features, and discuss some of the pressing questions for future studies.

Structure of the complete Saccharomyces cerevisiae Rpd3S-nucleosome complex

Acetylation of histones is a key post-translational modification that guides gene expression regulation. In yeast, the class I histone deacetylase containing Rpd3S complex plays a critical role in the suppression of spurious transcription by removing histone acetylation from actively transcribed genes. The S. cerevisiae Rpd3S complex has five subunits (Rpd3, Sin3, Rco1, Eaf3, and Ume1) but its subunit stoichiometry and how the complex engages nucleosomes to achieve substrate specificity remains elusive. Here we report the cryo-EM structure of the complete Rpd3S complex bound to a nucleosome. Sin3 and two copies of subunits Rco1 and Eaf3 encircle the deacetylase subunit Rpd3 and coordinate the positioning of Ume1. The Rpd3S complex binds both trimethylated H3 tails at position lysine 36 and makes multiple additional contacts with the nucleosomal DNA and the H2A-H2B acidic patch. Direct regulation via the Sin3 subunit coordinates binding of the acetylated histone substrate to achieve substrate specificity.

Essential role of the Pax5 C-terminal domain in controlling B cell commitment and development

The B cell regulator Pax5 consists of multiple domains whose function we analyzed in vivo by deletion in Pax5. While B lymphopoiesis was minimally affected in mice with homozygous deletion of the octapeptide or partial homeodomain, both sequences were required for optimal B cell development. Deletion of the C-terminal regulatory domain 1 (CRD1) interfered with B cell development, while elimination of CRD2 modestly affected B-lymphopoiesis. Deletion of CRD1 and CRD2 arrested B cell development at an uncommitted pro-B cell stage. Most Pax5-regulated genes required CRD1 or both CRD1 and CRD2 for their activation or repression as these domains induced or eliminated open chromatin at Pax5-activated or Pax5-repressed genes, respectively. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments demonstrated that the activating function of CRD1 is mediated through interaction with the chromatin-remodeling BAF, H3K4-methylating Set1A-COMPASS, and H4K16-acetylating NSL complexes, while its repressing function depends on recruitment of the Sin3-HDAC and MiDAC complexes. These data provide novel molecular insight into how different Pax5 domains regulate gene expression to promote B cell commitment and development.

Structure of the complete S. cerevisiae Rpd3S-nucleosome complex

Acetylation of histones is a key post-translational modification that guides gene expression regulation. In yeast, the class I histone deacetylase containing Rpd3S complex plays a critical role in the suppression of spurious transcription by removing histone acetylation from actively transcribed genes. The Saccharomyces cerevisiae Rpd3S complex has five subunits (Rpd3, Sin3, Rco1, Eaf3, and Ume1) but its subunit stoichiometry and how the complex engages nucleosomes to achieve substrate specificity remains elusive. Here we report the cryo-EM structure of the complete Rpd3S complex bound to a nucleosome. Sin3 and two copies of subunits Rco1 and Eaf3 encircle the deacetylase subunit Rpd3 and coordinate the binding of Ume1. The Rpd3S complex binds both trimethylated H3 tails at position lysine 36 and makes multiple additional contacts with the nucleo-somal DNA, the H2A-H2B acidic patch, and histone H3. Direct regulation via the Sin3 subunit coordinates binding of the acetylated histone substrate to achieve substrate specificity.

Diverse modes of H3K36me3-guided nucleosomal deacetylation by Rpd3S

Context-dependent dynamic histone modifications constitute a key epigenetic mechanism in gene regulation1-4. The Rpd3 small (Rpd3S) complex recognizes histone H3 trimethylation on lysine 36 (H3K36me3) and deacetylates histones H3 and H4 at multiple sites across transcribed regions5-7. Here we solved the cryo-electron microscopy structures of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Rpd3S in its free and H3K36me3 nucleosome-bound states. We demonstrated a unique architecture of Rpd3S, in which two copies of Eaf3-Rco1 heterodimers are asymmetrically assembled with Rpd3 and Sin3 to form a catalytic core complex. Multivalent recognition of two H3K36me3 marks, nucleosomal DNA and linker DNAs by Eaf3, Sin3 and Rco1 positions the catalytic centre of Rpd3 next to the histone H4 N-terminal tail for deacetylation. In an alternative catalytic mode, combinatorial readout of unmethylated histone H3 lysine 4 and H3K36me3 by Rco1 and Eaf3 directs histone H3-specific deacetylation except for the registered histone H3 acetylated lysine 9. Collectively, our work illustrates dynamic and diverse modes of multivalent nucleosomal engagement and methylation-guided deacetylation by Rpd3S, highlighting the exquisite complexity of epigenetic regulation with delicately designed multi-subunit enzymatic machineries in transcription and beyond.

A potential histone-chaperone activity for the MIER1 histone deacetylase complex

Histone deacetylases 1 and 2 (HDAC1/2) serve as the catalytic subunit of six distinct families of nuclear complexes. These complexes repress gene transcription through removing acetyl groups from lysine residues in histone tails. In addition to the deacetylase subunit, these complexes typically contain transcription factor and/or chromatin binding activities. The MIER:HDAC complex has hitherto been poorly characterized. Here, we show that MIER1 unexpectedly co-purifies with an H2A:H2B histone dimer. We show that MIER1 is also able to bind a complete histone octamer. Intriguingly, we found that a larger MIER1:HDAC1:BAHD1:C1QBP complex additionally co-purifies with an intact nucleosome on which H3K27 is either di- or tri-methylated. Together this suggests that the MIER1 complex acts downstream of PRC2 to expand regions of repressed chromatin and could potentially deposit histone octamer onto nucleosome-depleted regions of DNA.

Application of Ligand- and Structure-Based Prediction Models for the Design of Alkylhydrazide-Based HDAC3 Inhibitors as Novel Anti-Cancer Compounds

Histone deacetylases (HDAC) represent promising epigenetic targets for several diseases including different cancer types. The HDAC inhibitors approved to date are pan-HDAC inhibitors and most show a poor selectivity profile, side effects, and in particular hydroxamic-acid-based inhibitors lack good pharmacokinetic profiles. Therefore, the development of isoform-selective non-hydroxamic acid HDAC inhibitors is a highly regarded field in medicinal chemistry. In this study, we analyzed different ligand-based and structure-based drug design techniques to predict the binding mode and inhibitory activity of recently developed alkylhydrazide HDAC inhibitors. Alkylhydrazides have recently attracted more attention as they have shown promising effects in various cancer cell lines. In this work, pharmacophore models and atom-based quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models were generated and evaluated. The binding mode of the studied compounds was determined using molecular docking as well as molecular dynamics simulations and compared with known crystal structures. Calculated free energies of binding were also considered to generate QSAR models. The created models show a good explanation of in vitro data and were used to develop novel HDAC3 inhibitors.

Conditional lethality profiling reveals anticancer mechanisms of action and drug-nutrient interactions

Chemical screening studies have identified drug sensitivities across hundreds of cancer cell lines but most putative therapeutics fail to translate. Discovery and development of drug candidates in models that more accurately reflect nutrient availability in human biofluids may help in addressing this major challenge. Here we performed high-throughput screens in conventional versus Human Plasma-Like Medium (HPLM). Sets of conditional anticancer compounds span phases of clinical development and include non-oncology drugs. Among these, we characterize a unique dual-mechanism of action for brivudine, an agent otherwise approved for antiviral treatment. Using an integrative approach, we find that brivudine affects two independent targets in folate metabolism. We also traced conditional phenotypes for several drugs to the availability of nucleotide salvage pathway substrates and verified others for compounds that seemingly elicit off-target anticancer effects. Our findings establish generalizable strategies for exploiting conditional lethality in HPLM to reveal therapeutic candidates and mechanisms of action.

Mechanism of assembly, activation and lysine selection by the SIN3B histone deacetylase complex

Lysine acetylation in histone tails is a key post-translational modification that controls transcription activation. Histone deacetylase complexes remove histone acetylation, thereby repressing transcription and regulating the transcriptional output of each gene. Although these complexes are drug targets and crucial regulators of organismal physiology, their structure and mechanisms of action are largely unclear. Here, we present the structure of a complete human SIN3B histone deacetylase holo-complex with and without a substrate mimic. Remarkably, SIN3B encircles the deacetylase and contacts its allosteric basic patch thereby stimulating catalysis. A SIN3B loop inserts into the catalytic tunnel, rearranges to accommodate the acetyl-lysine moiety, and stabilises the substrate for specific deacetylation, which is guided by a substrate receptor subunit. Our findings provide a model of specificity for a main transcriptional regulator conserved from yeast to human and a resource of protein-protein interactions for future drug designs.

Structure of a SIN3-HDAC complex from budding yeast

SIN3-HDAC (histone deacetylases) complexes have important roles in facilitating local histone deacetylation to regulate chromatin accessibility and gene expression. Here, we present the cryo-EM structure of the budding yeast SIN3-HDAC complex Rpd3L at an average resolution of 2.6 Å. The structure reveals that two distinct arms (ARM1 and ARM2) hang on a T-shaped scaffold formed by two coiled-coil domains. In each arm, Sin3 interacts with different subunits to create a different environment for the histone deacetylase Rpd3. ARM1 is in the inhibited state with the active site of Rpd3 blocked, whereas ARM2 is in an open conformation with the active site of Rpd3 exposed to the exterior space. The observed asymmetric architecture of Rpd3L is different from those of available structures of other class I HDAC complexes. Our study reveals the organization mechanism of the SIN3-HDAC complex and provides insights into the interaction pattern by which it targets histone deacetylase to chromatin.

Two assembly modes for SIN3 histone deacetylase complexes

The switch-independent 3 (SIN3)/histone deacetylase (HDAC) complexes play essential roles in regulating chromatin accessibility and gene expression. There are two major types of SIN3/HDAC complexes (named SIN3L and SIN3S) targeting different chromatin regions. Here we present the cryo-electron microscopy structures of the SIN3L and SIN3S complexes from Schizosaccharomyces pombe (S. pombe), revealing two distinct assembly modes. In the structure of SIN3L, each Sin3 isoform (Pst1 and Pst3) interacts with one histone deacetylase Clr6, and one WD40-containing protein Prw1, forming two lobes. These two lobes are bridged by two vertical coiled-coil domains from Sds3/Dep1 and Rxt2/Png2, respectively. In the structure of SIN3S, there is only one lobe organized by another Sin3 isoform Pst2; each of the Cph1 and Cph2 binds to an Eaf3 molecule, providing two modules for histone recognition and binding. Notably, the Pst1 Lobe in SIN3L and the Pst2 Lobe in SIN3S adopt similar conformation with their deacetylase active sites exposed to the space; however, the Pst3 Lobe in SIN3L is in a compact state with its active center buried inside and blocked. Our work reveals two classical organization mechanisms for the SIN3/HDAC complexes to achieve specific targeting and provides a framework for studying the histone deacetylase complexes.

Histone Deacetylases (HDACs) maintain expression of the pluripotent gene network via recruitment of RNA polymerase II to coding and non-coding loci

Histone acetylation is a dynamic modification regulated by the opposing actions of histone acetyltransferases (HATs) and histone deacetylases (HDACs). Deacetylation of histone tails results in chromatin tightening and therefore HDACs are generally regarded as transcriptional repressors. Counterintuitively, simultaneous deletion of Hdac1 and Hdac2 in embryonic stem cells (ESC) reduced expression of pluripotent transcription factors, Oct4, Sox2 and Nanog (OSN). By shaping global histone acetylation patterns, HDACs indirectly regulate the activity of acetyl-lysine readers, such as the transcriptional activator, BRD4. We used inhibitors of HDACs and BRD4 (LBH589 and JQ1 respectively) in combination with precision nuclear run-on and sequencing (PRO-seq) to examine their roles in defining the ESC transcriptome. Both LBH589 and JQ1 caused a marked reduction in the pluripotent network. However, while JQ1 treatment induced widespread transcriptional pausing, HDAC inhibition caused a reduction in both paused and elongating polymerase, suggesting an overall reduction in polymerase recruitment. Using enhancer RNA (eRNA) expression to measure enhancer activity we found that LBH589-sensitive eRNAs were preferentially associated with super-enhancers and OSN binding sites. These findings suggest that HDAC activity is required to maintain pluripotency by regulating the OSN enhancer network via the recruitment of RNA polymerase II.

GEMC1 and MCIDAS interactions with SWI/SNF complexes regulate the multiciliated cell-specific transcriptional program

Multiciliated cells (MCCs) project dozens to hundreds of motile cilia from their apical surface to promote the movement of fluids or gametes in the mammalian brain, airway or reproductive organs. Differentiation of MCCs requires the sequential action of the Geminin family transcriptional activators, GEMC1 and MCIDAS, that both interact with E2F4/5-DP1. How these factors activate transcription and the extent to which they play redundant functions remains poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that the transcriptional targets and proximal proteomes of GEMC1 and MCIDAS are highly similar. However, we identified distinct interactions with SWI/SNF subcomplexes; GEMC1 interacts primarily with the ARID1A containing BAF complex while MCIDAS interacts primarily with BRD9 containing ncBAF complexes. Treatment with a BRD9 inhibitor impaired MCIDAS-mediated activation of several target genes and compromised the MCC differentiation program in multiple cell based models. Our data suggest that the differential engagement of distinct SWI/SNF subcomplexes by GEMC1 and MCIDAS is required for MCC-specific transcriptional regulation and mediated by their distinct C-terminal domains.

Histone Deacetylases: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Implications for Muscular Dystrophies

Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are enzymes that regulate the deacetylation of numerous histone and non-histone proteins, thereby affecting a wide range of cellular processes. Deregulation of HDAC expression or activity is often associated with several pathologies, suggesting potential for targeting these enzymes for therapeutic purposes. For example, HDAC expression and activity are higher in dystrophic skeletal muscles. General pharmacological blockade of HDACs, by means of pan-HDAC inhibitors (HDACi), ameliorates both muscle histological abnormalities and function in preclinical studies. A phase II clinical trial of the pan-HDACi givinostat revealed partial histological improvement and functional recovery of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) muscles; results of an ongoing phase III clinical trial that is assessing the long-term safety and efficacy of givinostat in DMD patients are pending. Here we review the current knowledge about the HDAC functions in distinct cell types in skeletal muscle, identified by genetic and -omic approaches. We describe the signaling events that are affected by HDACs and contribute to muscular dystrophy pathogenesis by altering muscle regeneration and/or repair processes. Reviewing recent insights into HDAC cellular functions in dystrophic muscles provides new perspectives for the development of more effective therapeutic approaches based on drugs that target these critical enzymes.

Comprehensive Transcriptomic Analysis of Novel Class I HDAC Proteolysis Targeting Chimeras (PROTACs)

The class I histone deacetylase (HDAC) enzymes;HDAC1,2 and 3 form the catalytic engine of at least seven structurally distinct multiprotein complexes in cells. These molecular machines play a vital role in the regulation of chromatin accessibility and gene activity via the removal of acetyl moieties from lysine residues within histone tails. Their inhibition via small molecule inhibitors has beneficial effects in a number of disease types, including the clinical treatment of hematological cancers. We have previously reported a library of proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs) incorporating a benzamide-based HDAC ligand (from CI-994), with an alkyl linker and ligand for the von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) E3 ubiquitin ligase that degrade HDAC1-3 at submicromolar concentrations. Here we report the addition of two novel PROTACs (JPS026 and JPS027), which utilize a ligand for the cellular inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) family of E3 ligases. We found that both VHL (JPS004)- and IAP (JPS026)-based PROTACs degrade HDAC1-3 and induce histone acetylation to a similar degree. However, JPS026 is significantly more potent at inducing cell death in HCT116 cells than is JPS004. RNA sequencing analysis of PROTAC-treated HCT116 cells showed a distinct gene expression signature in which cell cycle and DNA replication machinery are repressed. Components of the mTORC1 and -2 complexes were also reduced, leading to an increase in FOXO3 and downstream target genes that regulate autophagy and apoptosis. In summary, a novel combination of HDAC and IAP ligands generates a PROTAC with a potent ability to stimulate apoptosis and differential gene expression in human cancer cells.

The MLL3/4 complexes and MiDAC co-regulate H4K20ac to control a specific gene expression program

The mitotic deacetylase complex MiDAC has recently been shown to play a vital physiological role in embryonic development and neurite outgrowth. However, how MiDAC functionally intersects with other chromatin-modifying regulators is poorly understood. Here, we describe a physical interaction between the histone H3K27 demethylase UTX, a complex-specific subunit of the enhancer-associated MLL3/4 complexes, and MiDAC. We demonstrate that UTX bridges the association of the MLL3/4 complexes and MiDAC by interacting with ELMSAN1, a scaffolding subunit of MiDAC. Our data suggest that MiDAC constitutes a negative genome-wide regulator of H4K20ac, an activity which is counteracted by the MLL3/4 complexes. MiDAC and the MLL3/4 complexes co-localize at many genomic regions, which are enriched for H4K20ac and the enhancer marks H3K4me1, H3K4me2, and H3K27ac. We find that MiDAC antagonizes the recruitment of UTX and MLL4 and negatively regulates H4K20ac, and to a lesser extent H3K4me2 and H3K27ac, resulting in transcriptional attenuation of associated genes. In summary, our findings provide a paradigm how the opposing roles of chromatin-modifying components, such as MiDAC and the MLL3/4 complexes, balance the transcriptional output of specific gene expression programs.

Distinct biochemical properties of the class I histone deacetylase complexes

Classical histone deacetylases (HDACs) are enzymes that can hydrolytically cleave acetyl-Lys in histones and other proteins and serve as established drug targets in some forms of cancer. Class I HDACs 1-3 typically exist in a range of multiprotein complexes inside cells and show distinct biological functions in modulating gene expression. In recent years, it has become possible to purify and analyze the structure and enzymatic properties of several of these HDAC complexes, including CoREST, MiDAC, NuRD, Sin3, SMRT, MIER, and RERE. Here, we summarize what is experimentally established and/or computationally predicted about the structure of these complexes to describe their particular catalytic activities and site-specificities with modified nucleosome substrates.

Hydroxamic Acid-Modified Peptide Library Provides Insights into the Molecular Basis for the Substrate Selectivity of HDAC Corepressor Complexes

Targeting the lysine deacetylase activity of class I histone deacetylases (HDACs) is potentially beneficial for the treatment of several diseases including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, Alzheimer's disease, and various cancers. It is therefore important to understand the function and mechanism of action of these enzymes. Class I HDACs act as catalytic components of seven large, multiprotein corepressor complexes. Different HDAC corepressor complexes have specific, nonredundant roles in the cell. It is likely that their specific functions are at least partly influenced by the substrate specificity of the complexes. To address this, we developed chemical tools to probe the specificity of HDAC complexes. We assessed a library of acetyl-lysine-containing substrate peptides and hydroxamic acid-containing inhibitor peptides against the full range of class I HDAC corepressor complexes. The results suggest that site-specific HDAC corepressor complex activity is driven in part by the recognition of the primary amino acid sequence surrounding a particular lysine position in the histone tail.

Target deconvolution of HDAC pharmacopoeia reveals MBLAC2 as common off-target

Drugs that target histone deacetylase (HDAC) entered the pharmacopoeia in the 2000s. However, some enigmatic phenotypes suggest off-target engagement. Here, we developed a quantitative chemical proteomics assay using immobilized HDAC inhibitors and mass spectrometry that we deployed to establish the target landscape of 53 drugs. The assay covers 9 of the 11 human zinc-dependent HDACs, questions the reported selectivity of some widely-used molecules (notably for HDAC6) and delineates how the composition of HDAC complexes influences drug potency. Unexpectedly, metallo-β-lactamase domain-containing protein 2 (MBLAC2) featured as a frequent off-target of hydroxamate drugs. This poorly characterized palmitoyl-CoA hydrolase is inhibited by 24 HDAC inhibitors at low nanomolar potency. MBLAC2 enzymatic inhibition and knockdown led to the accumulation of extracellular vesicles. Given the importance of extracellular vesicle biology in neurological diseases and cancer, this HDAC-independent drug effect may qualify MBLAC2 as a target for drug discovery.

DNTTIP1 promotes nasopharyngeal carcinoma metastasis via recruiting HDAC1 to DUSP2 promoter and activating ERK signaling pathway

Background

Distant metastasis remains the leading cause of treatment failure in patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), making it critical to identify efficient therapeutic targets for metastatic NPC. Previous studies have demonstrated that deoxynucleotidyltransferase terminal-interacting protein 1 (DNTTIP1) is associated with the development of various types of cancer. However, its role and mechanism in NPC have not been explored.

Methods

RNA-seq profiling was performed for three pairs of NPC and normal nasopharynx tissues. DNTTIP1 expression in NPC specimens was detected by immunohistochemistry. In vitro and in vivo assays were used to investigate the function of DNTTIP1. The molecular mechanism was determined using RT-qPCR, western blotting, RNA-seq, luciferase reporter assays, ChIP assays, and co-IP assays.

Findings

DNTTIP1 was found to be significantly upregulated in NPC tissues. Furthermore, DNTTIP1 promoted NPC growth and metastasis in vitro and in vivo. Upregulation of DNTTIP1 in NPC indicated poor clinical outcomes. Mechanistically, DNTTIP1 suppressed DUSP2 gene expression via recruiting HDAC1 to its promoter and maintaining a deacetylated state of histone H3K27. The downregulation of DUSP2 resulted in aberrant activation of the ERK signaling and elevated MMP2 levels, promoting NPC metastasis. Chidamide, an HDAC inhibitor, was shown to suppress NPC metastasis by regulating the DNTTIP1/HDAC1-DUSP2 axis.

Interpretation

Our findings demonstrate that DNTTIP1 not only regulates NPC metastasis but also independently predicts NPC prognosis. Furthermore, targeting DNTTIP1/HDAC1 by Chidamide may benefit NPC patients with metastasis.

Funding

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 81872464, 82073243).

Nuclear Coregulatory Complexes in Tregs as Targets to Promote Anticancer Immune Responses

T-regulatory (Treg) cells display considerable heterogeneity in their responses to various cancers. The functional differences among this cell type are heavily influenced by multiprotein nuclear complexes that control their gene expression. Many such complexes act mechanistically by altering epigenetic profiles of genes important to Treg function, including the forkhead P3 (Foxp3) transcription factor. Complexes that form with certain members of the histone/protein deacetylase (HDAC) class of enzymes, like HDACs 1, 2, and 3, along with histone methyltransferase complexes, are important in the induction and stabilization of Foxp3 and Treg identity. The functional behavior of both circulating and intratumoral Tregs greatly impacts the antitumor immune response and can be predictive of patient outcome. Thus, targeting these regulatory complexes within Tregs may have therapeutic potential, especially in personalized immunotherapies.

HDACs and the epigenetic plasticity of cancer cells: Target the complexity

Cancer cells must adapt to the hostile conditions of the microenvironment in terms of nutrition, space, and immune system attack. Mutations of DNA are the drivers of the tumorigenic process, but mutations must be able to hijack cellular functions to sustain the spread of mutant genomes. Transcriptional control is a key function in this context and is controlled by the rearrangement of the epigenome. Unlike genomic mutations, the epigenome of cancer cells can in principle be reversed. The discovery of the first epigenetic drugs triggered a contaminating enthusiasm. Unfortunately, the complexity of the epigenetic machinery has frustrated this enthusiasm. To develop efficient patient-oriented epigenetic therapies, we need to better understand the nature of this complexity. In this review, we will discuss recent advances in understanding the contribution of HDACs to the maintenance of the transformed state and the rational for their selective targeting.

Dynamic Opposition of Histone Modifications

Gene transcription does not only require writers of active histone modifications; on-site opposition by erasers is essential for many genes. Here, we propose the concept of dynamic opposition of histone modifications to explain this conundrum. We highlight the requirement of HDACs for acetylation balance at superenhancers, and the requirement of KDM5A for H4K3me3 recycling at highly active gene promoters. We propose that histone post-translational modifications regulate charge balance for biomolecular condensate formation and nucleosome turnover and form a short-term memory that informs lock-and-step checkpoints for chromatin engagement by RNA polymerase II.

Resolving the deceptive isoform and complex selectivity of HDAC1/2 inhibitors

The histone deacetylase paralogs HDAC1/2/3 and their corepressor complexes serve as epigenetic master regulators of chromatin function. Over the past decades, HDACs have been widely pursued as pharmacological targets, and considerable efforts have been invested in the development of small molecule drugs. Specifically, ortho-aminoanilide-derived inhibitors, including CI-994 and Cpd-60, stand out with their attractive selectivity profiles and have been used extensively as tools to delineate the biological roles of specific HDAC isoforms and complexes. Here, we apply a suite of activity-independent strategies to investigate how dynamic processes that regulate HDAC complexes govern the isoform and complex selectivity of HDAC inhibitors. Importantly, we find that overreliance on static and simplified biochemical activity assays has confounded the determination of the biological selectivity of these ligands. Our data urge a comprehensive reinterpretation of numerous studies utilizing these tool compounds for the interrogation of epigenetic and other cellular processes.

Development and Biological Evaluation of the First Highly Potent and Specific Benzamide-Based Radiotracer [18F]BA3 for Imaging of Histone Deacetylases 1 and 2 in Brain

The degree of acetylation of lysine residues on histones influences the accessibility of DNA and, furthermore, the gene expression. Histone deacetylases (HDACs) are overexpressed in various tumour diseases, resulting in the interest in HDAC inhibitors for cancer therapy. The aim of this work is the development of a novel 18F-labelled HDAC1/2-specific inhibitor with a benzamide-based zinc-binding group to visualize these enzymes in brain tumours by positron emission tomography (PET). BA3, exhibiting high inhibitory potency for HDAC1 (IC50 = 4.8 nM) and HDAC2 (IC50 = 39.9 nM), and specificity towards HDAC3 and HDAC6 (specificity ratios >230 and >2080, respectively), was selected for radiofluorination. The two-step one-pot radiosynthesis of [18F]BA3 was performed in a TRACERlab FX2 N radiosynthesizer by a nucleophilic aliphatic substitution reaction. The automated radiosynthesis of [18F]BA3 resulted in a radiochemical yield of 1%, a radiochemical purity of >96% and a molar activity between 21 and 51 GBq/µmol (n = 5, EOS). For the characterization of BA3, in vitro and in vivo experiments were carried out. The results of these pharmacological and pharmacokinetic studies indicate a suitable inhibitory potency of BA3, whereas the applicability for non-invasive imaging of HDAC1/2 by PET requires further optimization of the properties of this compound.

Histone H2B Deacylation Selectivity: Exploring Chromatin's Dark Matter with an Engineered Sortase

We describe a new method to produce histone H2B by semisynthesis with an engineered sortase transpeptidase. N-Terminal tail site-specifically modified acetylated, lactylated, and β-hydroxybutyrylated histone H2Bs were incorporated into nucleosomes and investigated as substrates of histone deacetylase (HDAC) complexes and sirtuins. A wide range of rates and site-specificities were observed by these enzyme forms suggesting distinct biological roles in regulating chromatin structure and epigenetics.

TdIF1-LSD1 Axis Regulates Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition and Metastasis via Histone Demethylation of E-Cadherin Promoter in Lung Cancer

We have previously found that TdT-interacting factor 1 (TdIF1) is a potential oncogene expressed in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and is associated with poor prognosis. However, its exact mechanism is still unclear. The lysine-specific demethylase 1 (LSD1) is a crucial mediator of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), an important process triggered during cancer metastasis. Here, we confirm that TdIF1 is highly expressed in NSCLC and related to lymph node metastasis through The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) analysis of clinical samples. Silencing TdIF1 can regulate the expression of EMT-related factors and impair the migration and invasion ability of cancer cells in vitro. An analysis of tumor xenografts in nude mice confirmed that silencing TdIF1 inhibits tumor growth. Furthermore, we determined the interaction between TdIF1 and LSD1 using immunoprecipitation. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) revealed that TdIF1 was enriched in the E-cadherin promoter region. The knockdown of TdIF1 repressed the enrichment of LSD1 at the E-cadherin promoter region, thereby regulating the level of promoter histone methylation and modulating E-cadherin transcription activity, ultimately leading to changes in EMT factors and cancer cell migration and invasion ability. The LSD1 inhibitor and TdIF1 knockdown combination showed a synergistic effect in inhibiting the growth, migration, and invasion of NSCLC cells. Taken together, this is the first demonstration that TdIF1 regulates E-cadherin transcription by recruiting LSD1 to the promoter region, thereby promoting EMT and tumor metastasis and highlighting the potential of TdIF1 as a therapeutic target for NSCLC.

Post-translational lysine ac(et)ylation in health, ageing and disease

The acetylation/acylation (ac(et)ylation) of lysine side chains is a dynamic post-translational modification (PTM) regulating fundamental cellular processes with implications on the organisms' ageing process: metabolism, transcription, translation, cell proliferation, regulation of the cytoskeleton and DNA damage repair. First identified to occur on histones, later studies revealed the presence of lysine ac(et)ylation in organisms of all kingdoms of life, in proteins covering all essential cellular processes. A remarkable finding showed that the NAD⁺-dependent sirtuin deacetylase Sir2 has an impact on replicative lifespan in Saccharomyces cerevisiae suggesting that lysine acetylation has a direct role in the ageing process. Later studies identified sirtuins as mediators for beneficial effects of caloric/dietary restriction on the organisms' health- or lifespan. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying these effects are only incompletely understood. Progress in mass-spectrometry, structural biology, synthetic and semi-synthetic biology deepened our understanding of this PTM. This review summarizes recent developments in the research field. It shows how lysine ac(et)ylation regulates protein function, how it is regulated enzymatically and non-enzymatically, how a dysfunction in this post-translational machinery contributes to disease development. A focus is set on sirtuins and lysine acyltransferases as these are direct sensors and mediators of the cellular metabolic state. Finally, this review highlights technological advances to study lysine ac(et)ylation.

Exploring novel capping framework: high substituent pyridine-hydroxamic acid derivatives as potential antiproliferative agents

PURPOSE

Histone deacetylases (HDACs) play a vital role in the epigenetic regulation of gene expression due to their overexpression in several cancer forms. Therefore, these enzymes are considered as a potential anticancer drug target. Different synthetic and natural structures have been studied as HDACs inhibitors; based on available structural design information, the capping group is important for the biological activity due to the different interactions in the active site entrance. The present study aimed to analyze high substituted pyridine as a capping group, which included carrying out the synthesis, antiproliferative activity analysis, and docking studies of these novel compounds.

METHODS

To achieve the synthesis of these derivatives, four reaction steps were performed, generating desired products 15a-k. Their effects on cell proliferation and gene expression of p21, cyclin D1, and p53 were determined using the sulphorhodamine B (SRB) method and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. The HDAC1, HDAC6, and HDAC8 isoforms were used for performing docking experiments with our 15a-k products.

RESULT

The products 15a-k were obtained in overall yields of 40-71%. Compounds 15j and 15k showed the highest antiproliferative activity in the breast (BT-474 and MDA-MB-231) and prostate (PC3) cancer cell lines at a concentration of 10 µM. These compounds increased p21 mRNA levels and decreased cyclin D1 and p53 gene expression. The docking study showed an increment in the strength, and in the number of interactions performed by the capping moiety of the tested molecules compared with SAHA; interactions displayed are mainly van der Waals, π-stacking, and hydrogen bond.

CONCLUSION

The synthesized compounds 2-thiophene (15j) and 2-furan (15k) pyridine displayed cell growth inhibition, regulation of genes related to cell cycle progression in highly metastatic cancer cell lines. The molecular coupling analysis performed with HDAC1, HDAC6 and HDAC8 showed an increment in the number of interactions performed by the capping moiety and consequently in the strength of the capping group interaction.

Discovery of novel class of histone deacetylase inhibitors as potential anticancer agents

Selective inhibition of histone deacetylases (HDACs) is an important strategy in the field of anticancer drug discovery. However, lack of inhibitors that possess high selectivity toward certain HDACs isozymes is associated with adverse side effects that limits their clinical applications. We have initiated a collaborative initiatives between multi-institutions aimed at the discovery of novel and selective HDACs inhibitors. To this end, a phenotypic screening of an in-house pilot library of about 70 small molecules against various HDAC isozymes led to the discovery of five compounds that displayed varying degrees of HDAC isozyme selectivity. The anticancer activities of these molecules were validated using various biological assays including transcriptomic studies. Compounds 15, 14, and 19 possessed selective inhibitory activity against HDAC5, while 28 displayed selective inhibition of HDAC1 and HDAC2. Compound 22 was found to be a selective inhibitor for HDAC3 and HDAC9. Importantly, we discovered a none-hydroxamate based HDAC inhibitor, compound 28, representing a distinct chemical probe of HDAC inhibitors. It contains a trifluoromethyloxadiazolyl moiety (TFMO) as a non-chelating metal-binding group. The new compounds showed potent anti-proliferative activity when tested against MCF7 breast cancer cell line, as well as increased acetylation of histones and induce cells apoptosis. The new compounds apoptotic effects were validated through the upregulation of proapoptotic proteins caspases3 and 7 and downregulation of the antiapoptotic biomarkers C-MYC, BCL2, BCL3 and NFĸB genes. Furthermore, the new compounds arrested cell cycle at different phases, which was confirmed through downregulation of the CDK1, 2, 4, 6, E2F1 and RB1 proteins. Taken together, our findings provide the foundation for the development of new chemical probes as potential lead drug candidates for the treatment of cancer.

Meiosis-specific ZFP541 repressor complex promotes developmental progression of meiotic prophase towards completion during mouse spermatogenesis

During spermatogenesis, meiosis is accompanied by a robust alteration in gene expression and chromatin status. However, it remains elusive how the meiotic transcriptional program is established to ensure completion of meiotic prophase. Here, we identify a protein complex that consists of germ-cell-specific zinc-finger protein ZFP541 and its interactor KCTD19 as the key transcriptional regulators in mouse meiotic prophase progression. Our genetic study shows that ZFP541 and KCTD19 are co-expressed from pachytene onward and play an essential role in the completion of the meiotic prophase program in the testis. Furthermore, our ChIP-seq and transcriptome analyses identify that ZFP541 binds to and suppresses a broad range of genes whose function is associated with biological processes of transcriptional regulation and covalent chromatin modification. The present study demonstrates that a germ-cell specific complex that contains ZFP541 and KCTD19 promotes the progression of meiotic prophase towards completion in male mice, and triggers the reconstruction of the transcriptional network and chromatin organization leading to post-meiotic development.

KCTD19 and its associated protein ZFP541 are independently essential for meiosis in male mice

Meiosis is a cell division process with complex chromosome events where various molecules must work in tandem. To find meiosis-related genes, we screened evolutionarily conserved and reproductive tract-enriched genes using the CRISPR/Cas9 system and identified potassium channel tetramerization domain containing 19 (Kctd19) as an essential factor for meiosis. In prophase I, Kctd19 deficiency did not affect synapsis or the DNA damage response, and chiasma structures were also observed in metaphase I spermatocytes of Kctd19 KO mice. However, spermatocytes underwent apoptotic elimination during the metaphase-anaphase transition. We were able to rescue the Kctd19 KO phenotype with an epitope-tagged Kctd19 transgene. By immunoprecipitation-mass spectrometry, we confirmed the association of KCTD19 with zinc finger protein 541 (ZFP541) and histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1). Phenotyping of Zfp541 KO spermatocytes demonstrated XY chromosome asynapsis and recurrent DNA damage in the late pachytene stage, leading to apoptosis. In summary, our study reveals that KCTD19 associates with ZFP541 and HDAC1, and that both KCTD19 and ZFP541 are essential for meiosis in male mice.

Meiosis is a fundamental process that consists of one round of genomic DNA replication and two rounds of chromosome segregation, producing four haploid cells. To properly distribute their genetic material, cells need to undergo complex chromosome events such as a physical linkage of homologous chromosomes (termed synapsis) and meiotic recombination. The molecules involved in these events have not been fully characterized yet, especially in mammals. Using a CRISPR/Cas9-screening system, we identified the potassium channel tetramerization domain containing 19 (Kctd19) as an essential factor for meiosis in male mice. Further, we confirmed the association of KCTD19 with zinc finger protein 541 (ZFP541) and histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1). By observing meiosis of Zfp541 knockout germ cells, we found that Zfp541 was also essential for meiosis. These results show that the KCTD19/ZFP541 complex plays a critical role and is indispensable for male meiosis and fertility.

The topology of chromatin-binding domains in the NuRD deacetylase complex

Class I histone deacetylase complexes play essential roles in many nuclear processes. Whilst they contain a common catalytic subunit, they have diverse modes of action determined by associated factors in the distinct complexes. The deacetylase module from the NuRD complex contains three protein domains that control the recruitment of chromatin to the deacetylase enzyme, HDAC1/2. Using biochemical approaches and cryo-electron microscopy, we have determined how three chromatin-binding domains (MTA1-BAH, MBD2/3 and RBBP4/7) are assembled in relation to the core complex so as to facilitate interaction of the complex with the genome. We observe a striking arrangement of the BAH domains suggesting a potential mechanism for binding to di-nucleosomes. We also find that the WD40 domains from RBBP4 are linked to the core with surprising flexibility that is likely important for chromatin engagement. A single MBD2 protein binds asymmetrically to the dimerisation interface of the complex. This symmetry mismatch explains the stoichiometry of the complex. Finally, our structures suggest how the holo-NuRD might assemble on a di-nucleosome substrate.

Structure-Based Inhibitor Discovery of Class I Histone Deacetylases (HDACs)

Class I histone deacetylases (HDACs) are promising targets for epigenetic therapies for a range of diseases such as cancers, inflammations, infections and neurological diseases. Although six HDAC inhibitors are now licensed for clinical treatments, they are all pan-inhibitors with little or no HDAC isoform selectivity, exhibiting undesirable side effects. A major issue with the currently available HDAC inhibitors is that they have limited specificity and target multiple deacetylases. Except for HDAC8, Class I HDACs (1, 2 and 3) are recruited to large multiprotein complexes to function. Therefore, there are rising needs to develop new, hopefully, therapeutically efficacious HDAC inhibitors with isoform or complex selectivity. Here, upon the introduction of the structures of Class I HDACs and their complexes, we provide an up-to-date overview of the structure-based discovery of Class I HDAC inhibitors, including pan-, isoform-selective and complex-specific inhibitors, aiming to provide an insight into the discovery of additional HDAC inhibitors with greater selectivity, specificity and therapeutic utility.

The Roles of Histone Deacetylases and Their Inhibitors in Cancer Therapy

Genetic mutations and abnormal gene regulation are key mechanisms underlying tumorigenesis. Nucleosomes, which consist of DNA wrapped around histone cores, represent the basic units of chromatin. The fifth amino group (Nε) of histone lysine residues is a common site for post-translational modifications (PTMs), and of these, acetylation is the second most common. Histone acetylation is modulated by histone acetyltransferases (HATs) and histone deacetylases (HDACs), and is involved in the regulation of gene expression. Over the past two decades, numerous studies characterizing HDACs and HDAC inhibitors (HDACi) have provided novel and exciting insights concerning their underlying biological mechanisms and potential anti-cancer treatments. In this review, we detail the diverse structures of HDACs and their underlying biological functions, including transcriptional regulation, metabolism, angiogenesis, DNA damage response, cell cycle, apoptosis, protein degradation, immunity and other several physiological processes. We also highlight potential avenues to use HDACi as novel, precision cancer treatments.