Improving cancer immunotherapy using nanomedicines: progress, opportunities and challenges

Immunomodulatory bioadhesive technologies

Bioadhesives have found significant use in medicine and engineering, particularly for wound care, tissue engineering, and surgical applications. Compared to traditional wound closure methods such as sutures and staples, bioadhesives offer advantages, including reduced tissue damage, enhanced healing, and ease of implementation. Recent progress highlights the synergy of bioadhesives and immunoengineering strategies, leading to immunomodulatory bioadhesives capable of modulating immune responses at local sites where bioadhesives are applied. They foster favorable therapeutic outcomes such as reduced inflammation in wounds and implants or enhanced local immune responses to improve cancer therapy efficacy. The dual functionalities of bioadhesion and immunomodulation benefit wound management, tissue regeneration, implantable medical devices, and post-surgical cancer management. This review delves into the interplay between bioadhesion and immunomodulation, highlighting the mechanobiological coupling involved. Key areas of focus include the modulation of immune responses through chemical and physical strategies, as well as the application of these bioadhesives in wound healing and cancer treatment. Discussed are remaining challenges such as achieving long-term stability and effectiveness, necessitating further research to fully harness the clinical potential of immunomodulatory bioadhesives.

Challenges and material innovations in drug delivery to central nervous system tumors

Central nervous system (CNS) tumors, encompassing a diverse array of neoplasms in the brain and spinal cord, pose significant therapeutic challenges due to their intricate anatomy and the protective presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The primary treatment obstacle is the effective delivery of therapeutics to the tumor site, which is hindered by multiple physiological, biological, and technical barriers, including the BBB. This comprehensive review highlights recent advancements in material science and nanotechnology aimed at surmounting these delivery challenges, with a focus on the development and application of nanomaterials. Nanomaterials emerge as potent tools in designing innovative drug delivery systems that demonstrate the potential to overcome the limitations posed by CNS tumors. The review delves into various strategies, including the use of lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, and inorganic nanoparticles, all of which are engineered to enhance drug stability, BBB penetration, and targeted tumor delivery. Additionally, this review highlights the burgeoning role of theranostic nanoparticles, integrating therapeutic and diagnostic functionalities to optimize treatment efficacy. The exploration extends to biocompatible materials like biodegradable polymers, liposomes, and advanced material-integrated delivery systems such as implantable drug-eluting devices and microfabricated devices. Despite promising preclinical results, the translation of these material-based strategies into clinical practice necessitates further research and optimization.

Bone marrow vessels are hyperpermeable to macromolecules and nanoscale medicine in a size-dependent manner

Bone marrow (BM) has roles in health and disease, so systemically administered nanocarriers (NCs) targeting or avoiding BM are desirable. While the hydrodynamic diameter of NCs can be tuned to target or avoid various organs, the size dependence of extravasation from BM vessels is unknown. To clarify the size dependence of passive transvascular transport in the BM, we performed vessel permeability measurements in murine calvaria using confocal fluorescent microscopy with fluorescently labeled dextrans, albumin, and polymeric micelles as model probes. Unexpectedly, we found the permeability of BM vessels to macromolecules decreases with increasing hydrodynamic diameter between 4 nm and 32 nm. We modeled this permeability data with mathematical models to predict an effective pore size for sinusoids of 47 nm and non-sinusoids of 37 nm, with estimated maximum pore sizes of 61 nm and 53 nm, respectively. Finally, we tested these model predictions by demonstrating that the extravasation of 70 nm polymeric micelles, which are larger than the estimated maximum pore size, is hindered relative to 30 nm polymeric micelles. These results establish design criteria for controlling NC hydrodynamic diameter towards modulating delivery to BM.

Cancer nanomedicine from a clinician-scientist perspective: Lessons and prospects

The nanomedicine field has progressed enormously in the last couple of decades. From a loose group of liposomologists, polymer scientists, chemical engineers, and experts in metal nanoparticles, mesoporous silica, and other nanomaterials, the field has gradually consolidated and has generated vast amounts of research and clinical data, but, until the development of lipid nanoparticle (LNP)-based vaccinations for Covid-19, has remained with low visibility in the clinic. Applications in the cancer field are the most frequently sought projects in nanomedicine. For the last 45 years, my clinical career has mingled with my research career focusing on ways to formulate drugs in liposomes to improve their safety and efficacy in cancer therapy. In this review, I will discuss my contribution to the development of pegylated liposomal doxorubicin and other cancer nanomedicines from my privileged position as a clinician and scientist.

Sonopermeation combined with stroma normalization enables complete cure using nano-immunotherapy in murine breast tumors

Nano-immunotherapy shows great promise in improving patient outcomes, as seen in advanced triple-negative breast cancer, but it does not cure the disease, with median survival under two years. Therefore, understanding resistance mechanisms and developing strategies to enhance its effectiveness in breast cancer is crucial. A key resistance mechanism is the pronounced desmoplasia in the tumor microenvironment, which leads to dysfunction of tumor blood vessels and thus, to hypoperfusion, limited drug delivery and hypoxia. Ultrasound sonopermeation and agents that normalize the tumor stroma have been employed separately to restore vascular abnormalities in tumors with some success. Here, we performed in vivo studies in two murine, orthotopic breast tumor models to explore if combination of ultrasound sonopermeation with a stroma normalization drug can synergistically improve tumor perfusion and enhance the efficacy of nano-immunotherapy. We found that the proposed combinatorial treatment can drastically reduce primary tumor growth and in many cases tumors were no longer measurable. Overall survival studies showed that all mice that received the combination treatment survived and rechallenge experiments revealed that the survivors obtained immunological memory. Employing ultrasound elastography and contrast enhanced ultrasound along with proteomics analysis, flow cytometry and immunofluorescene staining, we found the combinatorial treatment reduced tumor stiffness to normal levels, restoring tumor perfusion and oxygenation. Furthermore, it increased infiltration and activity of immune cells and altered the levels of immunosupportive chemokines. Finally, using machine learning analysis, we identified that tumor stiffness, CD8+ T cells and M2-type macrophages were strong predictors of treatment response.

Glycan Covalent Targeting Chimera-Based T-Cell Glycoengineering for Boosting Immunotherapy

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy is one of the most effective approaches in cancer immunotherapy. However, shortcomings such as loss of target antigens and poor infiltration remain in the treatment of solid tumors. Herein, we propose an approach to glycoengineer T cells based on glycan covalent targeting chimera (gcTAC), to enhance immunotherapy by modulating the glycan recognition behavior of T cells. We select hydrazide-modified phenylboronic acid (PBA) as gcTAC. The hydrazide group can covalently couple with the aldehyde group generated by the oxidation of galactose/N-acetylgalactosamine on the surface of T cells, while the PBA at the other end can specifically bind to sialic acids (Sia) of tumor cells, thereby enhancing the killing effect of T cells. At the same time, T cells covalently bound to tumor cells surfaces act as a blockade of Sia sites, which can disrupt the recognition between Siglec on natural killer (NK) cells and Sia on tumor cells, further enhancing the immune-killing effect of combined T-NK cell therapy. Our approach represents a novel concept to promote immune killing through cascading interventions in T-tumor and tumor-NK intercellular glycan recognition, thus providing a solution to the problem of immune escape in cancer therapy.

Biocompatible Astragalus polysaccharide-based nanogels for oncology: synthesis, characterization, and therapeutic potential

In recent years, drug delivery systems have become an important platform for cancer diagnosis and treatment. However, developing a novel nanoplatform that synergistically integrates multimodal therapies for precision tumor treatment remains a significant challenge. To address this, we employed Astragalus polysaccharide (ASP) with immunomodulatory function as the framework to load podophyllotoxin (PPT) and IR780, and constructed a novel ROS/GSH/NIR triple-response nanoplatform (IR780@PPTASP). Under simulated tumor microenvironment conditions, IR780@PPTASP underwent controlled collapse and drug release. The loaded IR780 photosensitizer endowed IR780@PPTASP with exceptional photothermal and photodynamic properties. To further investigate the molecular mechanism of IR780@PPTASP on A549 cells, we conducted a series of experiments. The results demonstrated that IR780@PPTASP could significantly inhibit A549 cell proliferation and migration, induce the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and promote A549 cell apoptosis. Furthermore, in vivo experiments revealed that IR780@PPTASP could effectively inhibit the proliferation and metastasis of zebrafish transplanted tumors. Notably, IR780@PPTASP promoted the release of nitric oxide (NO), increased the expression of CD40, CD80, CD86, and MHC-II, thereby promoting macrophage maturation and activating T cell function. The developed ROS/GSH/NIR triple-response nanoplatform enables a synergistic approach to chemo-phototherapy-immunotherapy, offering significant promise for the precision treatment of tumors, effectively achieving multiple therapeutic effects simultaneously.

Beyond Exosomes: An Ultrapurified Phospholipoproteic Complex (PLPC) as a Scalable Immunomodulatory Platform for Reprogramming Immune Suppression in Metastatic Cancer

Background/Objectives: Dendritic-cell-derived exosomes (DEXs) have demonstrated immunostimulatory potential in cancer immunotherapy, yet their clinical application remains constrained by their cryodependence, compositional heterogeneity, and limited scalability. To address these limitations, we developed an ultrapurified phospholipoproteic complex (PLPC), a dendritic-secretome-derived formulation stabilized through ultracentrifugation and lyophilization that has been engineered to preserve its immunological function and structural integrity. Methods: Secretomes were processed under four conditions (fresh, concentrated, cryopreserved, and lyophilized PLPC) and compared through proteomic and functional profiling. Mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis revealed that the PLPC retained a significantly enriched set of immunoregulatory proteins-including QSOX1, CCL22, and SDCBP-and exhibited superior preservation of post-translational modifications. Results: Ex vivo co-culture assays with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) demonstrated that the PLPC induced robust secretion of IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-6 while concurrently suppressing IL-10, achieving an IFN-γ/IL-10 ratio exceeding 3.5. Flow cytometry confirmed the substantial activation of both CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells, while apoptosis assays showed selective tumor cytotoxicity (>55% tumor apoptosis) with minimal impact on non-malignant cells (>92% viability). Conclusions: These findings establish the PLPC as a reproducible, Th1-polarizing immunomodulator with selective antitumor activity, ambient-temperature stability, and compatibility with non-invasive administration. Overall, the PLPC emerges as a scalable, cell-free immunotherapeutic platform with translational potential to reprogram immune suppression in metastatic therapy-resistant cancer settings.

Targeted nanosensitizer-augmented sono-immunotherapy with STING agonist to remodel the immune microenvironment in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary malignant disease of the liver. Although immunotherapy offers new opportunities for treating advanced HCC, its therapeutic effect is still limited by the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Herein, a nanosensitizer RGD@Ce6@MSA-2@Liposome (RCM-Lip) is synthesized to specifically initiate the HCC tumor immune microenvironment through sonodynamic therapy (SDT)-triggered immunogenic cell death (ICD) and MSA-2-activated cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway. RCM-Lip consists of a sonosensitizer (Chlorin e6, Ce6) with a STING agonist (MSA-2) and a tumor targeting peptide RGD inserted on the outer liposome surface. Under ultrasound irradiation, RCM-Lip generates reactive oxygen species that induce cytotoxicity and apoptosis of tumor cells. Meanwhile, tumor antigens released by apoptosis are taken up by dendritic cells (DCs), while STING is activated in the DCs by MSA-2. Moreover, DC maturation is stimulated, further enhancing the systematic anti-tumor immune responses. Sono-immunotherapy mediated by RCM-Lip promotes DCs maturation and tumor infiltration of CD8+T cells, increasing inflammatory cytokine secretion. Consequently, the immunologically "cold" TME of HCC is successfully turned into a "hot" one, leading to a significant tumor suppression effect with good bio-safety. These results suggest a promising method for precise tumor targeting and synergistic cancer sono-immunotherapy. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Our study addressed the therapeutic dilemma of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) as an immunological "cold" tumor by the synergistic application of sonodynamic therapy (SDT) and STING agonist. The cGAS-STING signaling pathway plays a pivotal role in innate immunity against cancer, but the clinical application of STING agonists were hampered by inflammatory responses due to off-target activation. Our innovative solution introduces RGD-targeted peptide to encapsulate sonosensitizer and STING agonist, strengthening therapeutic effects and reducing systemic toxicity. The targeted sono-immunotherapy promoted DCs maturation and tumor infiltration of CD8+T cells, producing intense tumor-killing effect on mice model with good bio-safety. As a result, the immunological "cold" tumor microenvironment of HCC is successfully turned into a "hot" one.

Biomaterial-driven 3D scaffolds for immune cell expansion toward personalized immunotherapy

Immunotherapy has emerged as a transformative medical approach in recent years, providing novel treatments for cancer eradication, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases. Fundamental to the success of therapy is the enrichment of the immune cell population, particularly T cells, natural killer cells, and dendritic cells. However, achieving a robust and long-term proliferation of immune cells is still challenging both in vivo and ex vivo. In vivo expansion leverages the patient's natural microenvironment and regulatory mechanisms through therapeutic interventions like immune checkpoint inhibitors, cytokine therapy, and targeted antibodies. This approach fosters long-term immune memory and sustained protection. In contrast, ex vivo expansion involves isolation, manipulation, and expansion of the immune cells under controlled conditions before reinfusion, allowing for precise control over the process and generating potent immune cell populations. Hydrogels, due to their tunable biomechanical properties, high biocompatibility, and ability to mimic the extracellular matrix, provide an ideal platform for both in vivo and ex vivo immune cell expansion. For instance, hydrogel-based scaffolds or beads can facilitate a controlled and efficient expansion of immune cells ex vivo, whereas injectable and implantable hydrogels can provide innovative solutions for enhancing immune cell activity within the patient supporting prolonged immune cell activity. This review aims to elucidate the importance of hydrogel-based strategies in immune cell expansion, advancing the development of effective, personalized immunotherapies to improve patient outcomes. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This review highlights the transformative potential of hydrogel-based 3D scaffolds in advancing personalized immunotherapy. By integrating in vivo and ex vivo strategies, hydrogels provide an innovative platform to enhance immune cell expansion, addressing critical challenges in immunotherapy. The discussion emphasizes the unique biomechanical and biochemical tunability of hydrogels, enabling precise mimicry of the extracellular matrix to support T cell proliferation, activation, and memory formation. These advances offer scalable, cost-effective solutions for producing high-quality immune cells, contributing to more effective cancer treatments, autoimmune disease management, and infectious disease control. By bridging materials science and immunology, this work underscores the pivotal role of hydrogels in shaping the future of immune-based therapies.

Virus-mimicking nanoparticle potentiates in-situ cancer vaccines by reversing intratumoral DCs via stimulating cytosolic nucleic acid sensors

The major challenge for in-situ cancer vaccines is to activate the dendritic cells (DCs) within the immunosuppressive tumor to initiate tumor-specific immune responses. By contrast, oncolytic viruses can always activate intratumoral DCs to initiate virus-specific immunity to eliminate viruses which will in turn reduce the anti-tumor effect of these viruses. To bridge the two approaches, we developed virus-mimicking nanoparticle (V-mimic) through self-assembly of artificial cyclic gadolinium-based GAMP (c·Gd·GAMP, a STING agonist), double-stranded RNA analog (Poly I:C), and indocyanine green (ICG). Within the V-mimic, c·Gd·GAMP and Poly I:C can simulate the DNA and RNA produced by virus replication to reverse the inhibition of the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment on DCs by promoting the IFN-β secreting via activating nucleic acid sensors, thereby eliciting anti-tumor immune response in a manner akin to the immune response triggered by viruses. Notably, the V-mimic significantly promoted IFN-β secretion, enhanced DCs maturation, and elicited robust tumor-specific immune memory when combined with photothermal therapy. In multiple tumor models, significant tumor inhibition was observed, including a metastasis and recurrence model. Therefore, leveraging the virus-mimicking nanoparticle to simulate the mechanism of virus-initiated specific immune responses to activate the intratumoral DCs may open up new strategies for in-situ cancer vaccines.

Drug-loaded nanoparticles induce immunogenic cell death and efficiently target cells from glioblastoma patients

AIM

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is characterized by a highly immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME), posing significant challenges for efficient therapy's outcomes. Nanomedicine combined with immunotherapy holds the potential to modulate the TME and reactivate immune responses. This study proposes a polymeric nanosystem (NPs) encapsulating diaminocyclohexane-platinum II (DACHPt), an oxaliplatin derivative, to induce immunogenic cell death (ICD) in GBM cells.

MATERIALS & METHODS

An ionic-gelation technique was employed to generate polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) with an approximate size of 200 nm. NPs internalization was analyzed in GBM cell lines, in vitro-derived macrophages, and in leukocytes and tumor cells from GBM patient via flow cytometry and confocal imaging. ICD was assessed by measuring two of its main markers: adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1).

RESULTS

NPs were efficiently incorporated by myeloid and tumor cells, but not by lymphocytes. DACHPt-loaded NPs demonstrated enhanced cytotoxicity compared to free drug, with increased ATP and HMGB1 release from GBM cells, confirming ICD induction.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that DACHPt-loaded NPs represent a promising therapeutic strategy capable of targeting both tumor cells and tumor-promoting immune cells while inducing ICD.

Nano-chameleons: A review on cluster of differentiation-driven immune cell-engineered nanoarchitectonics for non-small cell lung cancer

Cancer, being one of the most outrageous diseases, contributed to 48 % of the mortality in 2022, with lung cancer leading the race with a 12.4 % incidence rate. Conventional treatment modalities like radio-, chemo-, photo-, and immunotherapy employing nanocarriers often face several setbacks, such as non-specific delivery, off-site toxicity, rapid opsonization via the host immune system, and greater tumor recurrence rates. Moreover, the heterogeneous variability in the tumor microenvironment is responsible for existing therapy failure. With the advent of biomimetic nanoparticles as a novel and intriguing platform, researchers have exploited the inherent functionalities of the Cluster of Differentiation proteins (CD) as cell surface biomarkers and imparted the nanocarriers with enhanced homologous tumor targetability, immune evasion capability, and stealth properties, paving the way for improved therapy and diagnosis. This article explores pathogenesis and the multifaceted role of immune cells in non-small cell lung cancer. Moreover, the agenda of this article is to shed light on biomimetic nanoarchitectonics with respect to their fabrication, evaluation, and applications unraveling their synergistic effect with conventional therapies. Further discussion mentions the hurdles in clinical translation with viable solutions. The regulatory bottlenecks underscore the need for a regulatory roadmap with respect to commercialization. We believe that biomimetic nanoarchitectonics will be a beacon of hope in warfare against lung cancer.

Emerging nanomedicines for macrophage-mediated cancer therapy

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) contribute to tumor progression by promoting angiogenesis, remodeling the tumor extracellular matrix, inducing tumor invasion and metastasis, as well as immune evasion. Due to the high plasticity of TAMs, they can polarize into different phenotypes with distinct functions, which are primarily categorized as the pro-inflammatory, anti-tumor M1 type, and the anti-inflammatory, pro-tumor M2 type. Notably, anti-tumor macrophages not only directly phagocytize tumor cells, but also present tumor-specific antigens and activate adaptive immunity. Therefore, targeted regulation of TAMs to unleash their potential anti-tumor capabilities is crucial for improving the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy. Nanomedicine serves as a promising vehicle and can inherently interact with TAMs, hence, emerging as a new paradigm in cancer immunotherapy. Due to their controllable structures and properties, nanomedicines offer a plethora of advantages over conventional drugs, thus enhancing the balance between efficacy and toxicity. In this review, we provide an overview of the hallmarks of TAMs and discuss nanomedicines for targeting TAMs with a focus on inhibiting recruitment, depleting and reprogramming TAMs, enhancing phagocytosis, engineering macrophages, as well as targeting TAMs for tumor imaging. We also discuss the challenges and clinical potentials of nanomedicines for targeting TAMs, aiming to advance the exploitation of nanomedicine for cancer immunotherapy.

Advances and challenges in cancer immunotherapy: Strategies for personalized treatment

Cancer immunotherapy has transformed oncology by harnessing the immune system to specifically target cancer cells, offering reduced systemic toxicity compared to traditional therapies. This review highlights key strategies, including adoptive cell transfer (ACT), immune checkpoint inhibitors, oncolytic viral (OV) therapy, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), and mRNA-based vaccines. ACT reinfuses enhanced immune cells like tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) to combat refractory cancers, while checkpoint inhibitors (eg, PD-1 and CTLA-4 blockers) restore T-cell activity. OV therapy uses engineered viruses (eg, T-VEC) to selectively lyse cancer cells, and advanced mAbs improve targeting precision. mRNA vaccines introduce tumor-specific antigens to trigger robust immune responses. Despite significant progress, challenges like immune-related side effects, high costs, and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironments persist. This review underscores the need for combination strategies and precision medicine to overcome these barriers and maximize the potential of immunotherapy in personalized cancer treatment.

Bioactive metal sulfide nanomaterials as photo-enhanced chemodynamic nanoreactors for tumor therapy

Metal sulfide nanomaterials (MeSNs) are highly promising for biomedical applications due to their low toxicity, good dispersibility, high stability, adjustable particle sizes, and good biocompatibility. Their unique chemical and light-conversion properties also enable them to function as photothermal or photodynamic agents, enhancing chemodynamic therapy (CDT) of tumors. This makes MeSNs valuable as photo-enhanced CDT nanoagents, advancing precision and multi-modal tumor treatment. This review examines recent advancements in MeSNs for photo-enhanced chemodynamic tumor ablation, comparing their effectiveness in CDT. It highlights the roles of photothermal, photodynamic, and photocatalytic effects in enhancing treatment efficacy. MeSN-based nanoreactors are categorized by composition into iron sulfide, copper sulfide, other unary, and multi-MeSNs for their applications in tumor therapy. Additionally, this review discusses challenges, limitations, and future biomedical applications of MeSNs, offering insights into their potential for next-generation cancer treatments.

Design Strategies for Hyaluronic Acid-based Drug Delivery Systems in Cancer Immunotherapy

Despite its robust therapeutic potential, cancer immunotherapy has provided little progress towards improved survival rates for patients bearing immunologically refractory tumors. The implementation of advanced drug delivery systems represents a powerful means of improving cancer immunotherapy by relieving immunosuppression and promoting immune response; however, the overall impact of these systems on immunotherapy currently remains modest. Hyaluronic acid represents a widely used polymer in drug delivery; meanwhile, recent studies linking hyaluronic acid to the immune system make this polymer an attractive component in the design of next-generation cancer immunotherapies. Herein, we review our current understanding of the immunological properties of hyaluronic acid and discuss them in the context of bioactive functions and immune-related interactions with receptors, immune, and cancer cells. We analyze the potential of hyaluronic acid as a component in advanced drug delivery systems, highlighting strategies for the design of more effective vaccines and cancer chemo-immunotherapies. Finally, we discuss critical considerations to facilitate design and clinical translation to overcome existing challenges and maximize therapeutic potential.

Cholesterol-modified peptide nanomicelles as a promising platform for cancer therapy: A review

Drug resistance, systemic toxicity, low solubility, and rapid clearance are common issues with chemotherapy drugs and other molecules used to treat cancer. The development of new therapeutic compounds and nanotherapy offers a solution to these issues. Therapeutic peptides have attracted great interest among these molecules due to their unique advantages, including low immunogenicity, efficient cellular internalization, deep tissue penetration, and low systemic toxicity. They have shown promise in cancer treatment by inducing apoptosis, necrosis, or cell lysis and promoting immunotherapy. In addition, peptides can deliver a range of cargoes, such as drugs, nucleic acids, imaging agents, and nanoparticles, and can specifically target cancer cells. However, problems such as their short half-life and low solubility limit their therapeutic use. Recent developments have addressed these constraints through structural alterations and nanoparticle formulations. In particular, cholesterol modification makes it possible for peptides to self-assemble into nanomicelles, which enhances their stability, half-life, and cell penetration. In this review, therapeutic peptides are presented as a versatile and successful cancer treatment option. The potential of cholesterol-modified peptide micelles as a reliable drug, nucleic acid, and imaging agent delivery system is also examined.

A size-switchable nanocluster remodels the immunosuppressive microenvironment of tumor and tumor-draining lymph nodes for improved cancer immunotherapy

Remodeling the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) by immunomodulators has been well studied in the past years. However, strategies that enable concurrent modulation of both the immunosuppressive TME and tumor-draining lymph nodes (TDLNs) are still in the infancy. Here, we report a pH-sensitive size-switchable nanocluster, SPN-R848, to achieve simultaneous accumulation in tumor and TDLNs for immune activation. SPN-R848 with original size around 150 nm was formed by self-assembly of resiquimod (R848)-conjugated polyamidoamine (PAMAM) derivative, which could disintegrate into its small constituents (～ 8 nm) upon exposure to tumor acidity. The size reduction not only enhanced their accumulation and perfusion in the primary tumor, but promoted their transport and distribution in TDLNs. Accordingly, SPN-R848 remarkably remodeled the immunosuppressive TME by polarizing M2 to M1 macrophages and activated dendritic cells (DCs) in TDLNs, which synergistically facilitated the production and stimulation of cytotoxic T cells, and inhibited tumor growth in breast cancer and melanoma mouse models. Our study suggests that co-activation of immune microenvironments in both tumor and TDLNs may represent a promising direction to elicit strong antitumor immunity.

Bioactive mesoporous silica materials-assisted cancer immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is initially envisioned as a powerful approach to train immune cells within the tumor microenvironment (TME) and lymphoid tissues to elicit strong anti-tumor responses. However, clinical cancer immunotherapy still faces challenges, such as limited immunogenicity and insufficient immune response. Leveraging the advantages of mesoporous silica (MS) materials in controllable drug and immunomodulator release, recent efforts have focused on engineering MS with intrinsic immunoregulatory functions to promote robust, systemic, and safe anti-tumor responses. This review discusses advances in bioactive MS materials that address the challenges of immunotherapy. Beyond their role in on-demand delivery and drug release in response to the TME, we highlight the intrinsic functions of bioactive MS in orchestrating localized immune responses by inducing immunogenic cell death in tumor cells, modulating immune cell activity, and facilitating tumor-immune cell interactions. Additionally, we emphasize the advantages of bioactive MS in recruiting and activating immune cells within lymphoid tissues to initiate anti-tumor vaccination. The review also covers the challenges of MS-assisted immunotherapy, potential solutions, and future outlooks. With a deeper understanding of material-bio interactions, the rational design of MS with sophisticated bioactivities and controllable responsiveness holds great promise for enhancing the outcomes of personalized immunotherapy.

Advanced disease therapeutics using engineered living drug delivery systems

Biological barriers significantly impede the delivery of nanotherapeutics to diseased tissues, diminishing therapeutic efficacy across pathologies such as cancer and inflammatory disorders. Although conventional strategies integrate multifunctional designs and molecular components into nanomaterials (NMs), many approaches remain insufficient to overcome these barriers. Key challenges, including inadequate drug accumulation at target sites and nonspecific biodistribution, persist in nanotherapeutic development. NMs, which harness the ability to precisely modulate drug delivery spatiotemporally and control release kinetics, represent a transformative platform for targeted cancer therapy. In this review, we highlight the biological obstacles limiting effective cancer treatment and evaluate how stimuli-responsive NMs address these constraints. By leveraging exogenous and endogenous stimuli, such NMs improve therapeutic specificity, reduce off-target effects, and amplify drug activity within pathological microenvironments. We systematically analyze the rational design and synthesis of stimuli-responsive NMs, driven by advances in oncology, biomaterials science, and nanoscale engineering. Furthermore, we highlight advances across NM classes-including polymeric, lipid-based, inorganic, and hybrid systems and explore functionalization approaches using targeting ligands, antibodies, and biomimetic coatings. Diverse delivery strategies are evaluated, such as small-molecule prodrug activation, peptide- and protein-based targeting, nucleic acid payloads, and engineered cell-mediated transport. Despite the promise of stimuli-responsive NMs, challenges such as biocompatibility, scalable fabrication, and clinical translation barriers must be addressed. By elucidating structure-function relationships and refining stimulus-triggered mechanisms, these NMs pave the way for transformative precision oncology strategies, enabling patient-specific therapies with enhanced efficacy and safety. This synthesis of interdisciplinary insights aims to catalyze innovation in next-generation nanomedicine for cancer treatment.

Differences in immunogenicity of TP53-mutated cancers with low tumor mutational burden (TMB) A study on TP53mut endometrial-, ovarian- and triple-negative breast cancer

PURPOSE

To explore why in large phase III randomized clinical trials TP53-mutated (TP53mut) endometrial cancer (EC) was the only tumor showing survival benefit to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) added to chemotherapy when compared with other low TMB TP53mut cancers, such as high-grade serous ovarian (HGSOC) and triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC).

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

From 606 patients with one of the three mentioned cancers, "The Cancer Genome Atlas" data on clinical outcome, TMB and detailed composition of the tumor immune-microenvironment (TIME) (immune infiltrating cells, cytokines, and other immune-modulators) were compared using the Kruskal-Wallis test, followed by Pearson correlation. Prognostic value of studied variables was assessed by Kaplan-Meier and Cox-regression analyses.

RESULTS

TMB was very low in all three TP53mut entities, being lowest in EC (median: 1.27 Mut/Mb; p < 0.001). Interestingly, high TMB was significantly associated with improved clinical outcome in every entity, whereby best discrimination for PFS was found in EC (HR: 0.52). Compared to EC, immune-suppressing regulatory T-cells were higher in HGSOC and TNBC (p < 0.001) and M2-like macrophages higher in HGSOC (p < 0.001). In contrast, immune-activating mDCs were more prominent in EC than in HGSOC (p < 0.001). Differential modulator expression analyses revealed highest discrimination for the immune-inhibiting FOXP3, C1QA and XBP1, which all exhibited lower levels in EC compared with HGSOC and TNBC (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Characteristics of TIME differ substantially among the assessed entities in terms that EC exhibits fewer immunosuppressive traits, expecting a higher likelihood for responding to ICIs, despite a very low TMB, whereas HGSOC and TNBC exhibit an immune hostile TIME.

Battlegrounds of treatment resistance: decoding the tumor microenvironment

The tumor microenvironment (TME) emerges as a formidable actor in the cancer treatment landscape, wielding the power to thwart therapeutic efficacy across various modalities, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, and hormonal therapy. This intricate ecosystem comprising diverse cellular constituents, signaling molecules, and the extracellular matrix fosters a dynamic interplay that profoundly influences tumor behavior and treatment outcomes. This review explores the mechanisms through which the TME drives resistance to standard therapies, emphasizing key factors such as hypoxia, immune evasion, and metabolic reprogramming. Furthermore, we illuminate innovative strategies aimed at reprogramming this hostile environment, including the application of therapeutic vaccines, CAR T cell therapy, and combination immunotherapies designed to enhance anti-tumor responses. By advocating for multidimensional approaches that dismantle the TME's barriers to effective treatment, this review calls for a transformative shift in cancer treatment paradigms. By bridging the gap between the TME's complexities and targeted therapeutic strategies, we pave the way for targeted interventions that promise to enhance clinical outcomes and improve patient prognosis in the relentless battle against cancer.

Tumor microenvironment: recent advances in understanding and its role in modulating cancer therapies

Tumor microenvironment (TME) denotes the non-cancerous cells and components presented in the tumor, including molecules produced and released by them. Interactions between cancer cells, immune cells, stromal cells, and the extracellular matrix within the TME create a dynamic ecosystem that can either promote or hinder tumor growth and spread. The TME plays a pivotal role in either promoting or inhibiting tumor growth and dissemination, making it a critical factor to consider in the development of effective cancer therapies. Understanding the intricate interplay within the TME is crucial for devising effective cancer therapies. Combination therapies involving inhibitors of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB), and/or chemotherapy now offer new approaches for cancer therapy. However, it remains uncertain how to best utilize these strategies in the context of the complex tumor microenvironment. Oncogene-driven changes in tumor cell metabolism can impact the TME to limit immune responses and present barriers to cancer therapy. Cellular and acellular components in tumor microenvironment can reprogram tumor initiation, growth, invasion, metastasis, and response to therapies. Components in the TME can reprogram tumor behavior and influence responses to treatments, facilitating immune evasion, nutrient deprivation, and therapeutic resistance. Moreover, the TME can influence angiogenesis, promoting the formation of blood vessels that sustain tumor growth. Notably, the TME facilitates immune evasion, establishes a nutrient-deprived milieu, and induces therapeutic resistance, hindering treatment efficacy. A paradigm shift from a cancer-centric model to a TME-centric one has revolutionized cancer research and treatment. However, effectively targeting specific cells or pathways within the TME remains a challenge, as the complexity of the TME poses hurdles in designing precise and effective therapies. This review highlights challenges in targeting the tumor microenvironment to achieve therapeutic efficacy; explore new approaches and technologies to better decipher the tumor microenvironment; and discuss strategies to intervene in the tumor microenvironment and maximize therapeutic benefits.

Cell states and neighborhoods in distinct clinical stages of primary and metastatic esophageal adenocarcinoma

Esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC) is a highly lethal cancer of the upper gastrointestinal tract with rising incidence in western populations. To decipher EAC disease progression and therapeutic response, we performed multiomic analyses of a cohort of primary and metastatic EAC tumors, incorporating single-nuclei transcriptomic and chromatin accessibility sequencing, along with spatial profiling. We identified tumor microenvironmental features previously described to associate with therapy response. We identified five malignant cell programs, including undifferentiated, intermediate, differentiated, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, and cycling programs, which were associated with differential epigenetic plasticity and clinical outcomes, and for which we inferred candidate transcription factor regulons. Furthermore, we revealed diverse spatial localizations of malignant cells expressing their associated transcriptional programs and predicted their significant interactions with microenvironmental cell types. We validated our findings in three external single-cell RNA-seq and three bulk RNA-seq studies. Altogether, our findings advance the understanding of EAC heterogeneity, disease progression, and therapeutic response.

Extracellular vesicles-hitchhiking boosts the deep penetration of drugs to amplify anti-tumor efficacy

Developing drug delivery systems capable of achieving deep tumor penetration is a challenging task, yet there is a significant demand for such systems in cancer treatment. Hitchhiking on tumor-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) represents a promising strategy for enhancing drug penetration into tumors. However, the limited drug assembly on EVs restricts its further application. Here, we present a novel approach to efficiently attach antitumor drugs to EVs using an engineered cell membrane-based vector. This vector includes the AS1411 aptamer for tumor-specific targeting, the vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein (VSV-G) for tumor cell membrane fusion, and a photosensitizer as the therapeutic agent while ensuring optimal drug encapsulation and stability. Upon injection, photosensitizers are firstly transferred to the tumor cell membrane and subsequently piggybacked onto EVs with the inherent secretion process. By hitchhiking with EVs, photosensitizers can be transferred layer by layer deep into the solid tumors. The results suggest that this EVs-hitchhiking strategy enables photosensitizers to penetrate deeply into tumor tissue, thereby enhancing the efficacy of phototherapy. This study offers broad application prospects for delivering drugs deeply into tumor tissues.

Remodeling tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment through dual activation of immunogenic panoptosis and ferroptosis by H2S-amplified nanoformulation to enhance cancer immunotherapy

The deficiency in immunogenicity and the presence of immunosuppression within the tumor microenvironment significantly hindered the efficacy of immunotherapy. Consequently, a nanoformulation containing metal sulfide of FeS and GSDMD plasmid (NPFeS/GD) had been developed to effectively augment antitumor immune responses through dual activation of immunogenic PANoptosis and ferroptosis, as well as reprogramming immunosuppressive effects via H2S amplification. The bioactive NPFeS/GD exhibited controlled release of GSDMD plasmid, H2S, and Fe2+ in response to the tumor microenvironment. Fe2+, H2S, and the expression of GSDMD protein could effectively elicit highly immunogenic PANoptosis and ferroptosis. Furthermore, releasing H2S could mitigate the overexpression of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase1 (IDO1) induced by immunogenic PANoptotic and ferroptotic cell death and disrupt the activity of IDO1. Consequently, NPFeS/GD effectively triggered the antitumor innate and adaptive immune responses through induction of PANoptotic and ferroptotic cell death and reshaped the tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment to enhance antitumor immunotherapy for metastasis inhibition. This study unveiled the significant potential of immunogenic PANoptosis and ferroptosis in H2S gas therapy for enhancing tumor immunotherapy, offering novel insights and ideas for the rational design of nanomedicine to enhance tumor immunogenicity while reprogramming the tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment.

Transdermal delivery of PeptiCRAd cancer vaccine using microneedle patches

Microneedles (MNs) are a prospective system in cancer immunotherapy to overcome barriers regarding proper antigen delivery and presentation. This study aims at identifying the potential of MNs for the delivery of Peptide-coated Conditionally Replicating Adenoviruses (PeptiCRAd), whereby peptides enhance the immunogenic properties of adenoviruses presenting tumor associated antigens. The combination of PeptiCRAd with MNs containing polyvinylpyrrolidone and sucrose was tested for the preservation of structure, induction of immune response, and tumor eradication. The findings indicated that MN-delivered PeptiCRAd was effective in peptide presentation in vivo, leading to complete tumor rejection when mice were pre-vaccinated. A rise in the cDC1 population in the lymph nodes of the MN treated mice led to an increase in the effector memory T cells in the body. Thus, the results of this study demonstrate that the combination of MN technology with PeptiCRAd may provide a safer, more tolerable, and efficient approach to cancer immunotherapy, potentially translatable to other therapeutic applications.

Nanotherapies Based on ROS Regulation in Oral Diseases

Oral diseases rank among the most prevalent clinical conditions globally, typically involving detrimental factors such as infection, inflammation, and injury in their occurrence, development, and outcomes. The concentration of reactive oxygen species (ROS) within cells has been demonstrated as a pivotal player in modulating these intricate pathological processes, exerting significant roles in restoring oral functionality and maintaining tissue structural integrity. Due to their enzyme-like catalytic properties, unique composition, and intelligent design, ROS-based nanomaterials have garnered considerable attention in oral nanomedicine. Such nanomaterials have the capacity to influence the spatiotemporal dynamics of ROS within biological systems, guiding the evolution of intra-ROS to facilitate therapeutic interventions. This paper reviews the latest advancements in the design, functional customization, and oral medical applications of ROS-based nanomaterials. Through the analysis of the components and designs of various novel nanozymes and ROS-based nanoplatforms responsive to different stimuli dimensions, it elaborates on their impacts on the dynamic behavior of intra-ROS and their potential regulatory mechanisms within the body. Furthermore, it discusses the prospects and strategies of nanotherapies based on ROS scavenging and generation in oral diseases, offering alternative insights for the design and development of nanomaterials for treating ROS-related conditions.

Liposomal-Based Nanoarchitectonics as Bispecific T Cell Engagers in Neuroblastoma Therapy

Neuroblastoma (NB) is an aggressive pediatric solid tumor that lacks efficient treatment. In the past few years, the use of engineered lymphocytes endowed with chimeric antigen receptors (CAR T), which improve their natural search and destroy skills against tumoral cells, has provided a highly valuable strategy to eradicate tumors in a specific and safe manner. Unfortunately, despite the excellent results achieved by these cell-based therapies in liquid tumors, their efficacy in the treatment of solid malignancies is usually modest due to the existence of several biological barriers which compromise their efficacy. Herein, a strategy to guide CAR T toward NB cells based on the use of nanometric bispecific T engagers (NBTEs) is presented. These novel bispecific nanoplatforms are based on liposomes and protocells doubly functionalized with synthetic targeting moieties (para-aminobenzylguanidine and fluorescein) able to selectively bind to membrane cell receptors of NB and anti-FITC CAR T, respectively. The binding process of NBTEs to NB cells was monitored by confocal fluorescence microscopy showing the excellent capacity of these nanodevices to place fluorescence labels on the surface of the malignant cells. Then, NB cells previously incubated in the presence of NBTEs were rapidly detected and destroyed by anti-FITC CAR T, which confirmed the excellent capacity of these nanoplatforms to improve the natural capacity of CAR T to eradicate malignant cells. Finally, the high versatility of the NBTE design and its easy-to-tune nature would allow their rapid application to different types of solid tumors.

ESM1 promote proliferation, invasion and angiogenesis via Akt/mTOR and Ras pathway in kidney renal clear cell carcinoma

The most common types of renal carcinoma is kidney renal clear cell carcinoma (KIRC). ESM1 is a secreted protein, which involved in, lipids and glucose metabolism, but their role in angiogenesis is contradictory in different disease, especially in KIRC. Bioinformatic analysis confirmed the ESM1 expression and prognosis in KIRC. IHC staining revealed protein expression of ESM1 in KIRC samples. The role of ESM1 in KIRC proliferation and migration were tested by MTT, EdU, transwell analysis. The role of its paracrine function in KIRC angiogenesis was tested by functional experiments. The downstream molecular mechanism of ESM1 were further elucidated by WB and functional experiments. ESM1 was significantly increased in KIRC with prognostic significance. ESM1 knockdown inhibited the invasiveness capability and viability of KIRC cell. The paracrine of ESM1 enhanced HUVECs proliferation and migration to format tube in KIRC cell conditional medium. ESM1 knockdown induced the inactivation of Akt/mTOR and Ras pathway to attenuate proliferation, migration, invasion and angiogenesis in KIRC. ESM1 was a key role in the tumor microenvironment (TME) of KIRC, which promoted the proliferation, migration, invasion, and angiogenesis by activating Akt/mTOR and Ras pathway. It is a potential therapeutic target for KIRC patients.

Mechanical signatures in cancer metastasis

The cancer metastatic cascade includes a series of mechanical barrier-crossing events, involving the physical movement of cancer cells from their primary location to a distant organ. This review describes the physical changes that influence tumour proliferation, progression, and metastasis. We identify potential mechanical signatures at every step of the metastatic cascade and discuss some latest mechanobiology-based therapeutic interventions to highlight the importance of interdisciplinary approaches in cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Nano-Based Strategies Aiming at Tumor Microenvironment for Improved Cancer Therapy

Malignant tumors pose a considerable threat to human life and health. Traditional treatments, such as radiotherapy and chemotherapy, often lack specificity, leading to collateral damage to normal tissues. Tumor microenvironment (TME) is characterized by hypoxia, acidity, redox imbalances, and elevated ATP levels factors that collectively promote tumor growth and metastasis. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the nanoparticles developed in recent years for TME-responsive strategies or TME-modulating methods for tumor therapy. The TME-responsive strategies focus on designing and synthesizing nanoparticles that can interact with the tumor microenvironment to achieve precisely controlled drug release. These nanoparticles activate drug release under specific conditions within the tumor environment, thereby enhancing the efficacy of the drugs while reducing toxicity to normal cells. Moreover, simply eliminating tumor cells does not fundamentally solve the problem. Only by comprehensively regulating the TME to make it unsuitable for tumor cell survival and proliferation can we achieve more thorough therapeutic effects and reduce the risk of tumor recurrence. TME regulation strategies aim to suppress the growth and metastasis of tumor cells by modulating various components within the TME. These strategies not only improve treatment outcomes but also have the potential to lay the foundation for future personalized cancer therapies.

MMP2 enzyme-responsive extracellular vesicles as dual-targeted carriers to promote the phagocytosis of macrophages

Combination therapy using inhibition of tumor cell escape and alteration of the tumor microenvironment offers a new strategy for cancer treatment. This study aimed to develop an extracellular vesicle (EV) carrier that regulates tumor cells and the tumor microenvironment to achieve efficient tumor immunotherapy. The ligand modified on carriers targets the immune checkpoint CD47 protein, blocking tumor cell escape. This ligand is cleaved by the MMP2 enzyme and assembles into nanofibers, extending the retention time in the tumor. The carriers target the CD206 protein, enabling efficient uptake by M2 macrophages. Carriers with a high density of ligands (anti-CD206) exhibit strong receptorligand interactions with tumor cells. Due to their high rigidity, these EVs have difficulty deforming during the transmembrane process, reducing resistance and resulting in low uptake efficiency by M2 cells. The optimal uptake efficiency by M2 macrophages is achieved when the mass ratio of ligand to EVs is 1:25. Crocin loaded in EVs facilitates the polarization of M2 macrophages into M1 cells, which can phagocytize tumor cells. This study reveals a potential strategy for using extracellular vesicles in tumor treatment.

A Cross-talk between Nanomedicines and Cardiac Complications: Comprehensive View

Background:

Cardiovascular Diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of global morbidity and mortality, necessitating innovative approaches for both therapeutics and diagnostics. Nanoscience has emerged as a promising frontier in addressing the complexities of CVDs.

Objective:

This study aims to explorethe interaction of CVDs and Nanomedicine (NMs), focusing on applications in therapeutics and diagnostics.

Observations:

In the realm of therapeutics, nanosized drug delivery systems exhibit unique advantages, such as enhanced drug bioavailability, targeted delivery, and controlled release. NMs platform, including liposomes, nanoparticles, and carriers, allows the precise drug targeting to the affected cardiovascular tissues with minimum adverse effects and maximum therapeutic efficacy. Moreover, nanomaterial (NM) enables the integration of multifunctional components, such as therapeutic agents and target ligands, into a single system for comprehensive CVD management. Diagnostic fronts of NMs offer innovative solutions for early detection and monitoring of CVDs. Nanoparticles and nanosensors enable highly sensitive and specific detection of Cardiac biomarkers, providing valuable insights into a disease state, its progression, therapeutic outputs, etc. Further, nano-based technology via imaging modalities offers high high-resolution imaging, aiding in the vascularization of cardiovascular structures and abnormalities. Nanotechnology-based imaging modalities offer high-resolution imaging and aid in the visualization of cardiovascular structures and abnormalities.

Conclusion:

The cross-talk of CVDs and NMs holds tremendous potential for revolutionizing cardiovascular healthcare by providing targeted and efficient therapeutic interventions, as well as sensitive and early detection for the improvement of patient health if integrated with Artificial Intelligence (AI).

A virus-inspired RNA mimicry approach for effective cancer immunotherapy

Current cancer treatments, including chemotherapy, surgery, and radiation, often present significant challenges such as severe side effects, drug resistance, and damage to healthy tissues. To address these issues, we introduce a virus-inspired RNA mimicry approach, specifically through the development of uridine-rich nanoparticles (UNPs) synthesized using the rolling circle transcription (RCT) technique. These UNPs are designed to mimic the poly-U tail sequences of viral RNA, effectively engaging RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs) such as MDA5 and LGP2 in cancer cells. Activation of these receptors leads to the upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the initiation of apoptosis, resulting in targeted cancer cell death. Importantly, this strategy overcomes the limitations of traditional therapies and enhances the effectiveness of existing RIG-I stimulators, such as poly(I:C), which has often exhibited toxicity in clinical settings due to delivery methods. Our in vivo studies further demonstrate the ability of UNPs to significantly reduce tumor growth without adverse effects, highlighting their potential as a novel and effective approach in cancer immunotherapy. This approach offers new therapeutic strategies that leverage the body's innate antiviral mechanisms for cancer treatment.

Impact of nanoparticle properties on immune cell interactions in the lymph node

The lymphatic system plays an important role in health and many diseases, such as cancer, autoimmune, cardiovascular, metabolic, hepatic, viral, and other infectious diseases. The lymphatic system is, therefore, an important treatment target site for a range of diseases. Lymph nodes (LNs), rich in T cells, B cells, dendritic cells, and macrophages, are also primary sites of action for vaccines and immunotherapies. Promoting the delivery of therapeutics and vaccines to LNs can, therefore, enhance treatment efficacy and facilitate avoidance of off-target side effects by enabling a reduction in therapeutic dose. Several nanoparticle (NP) based delivery systems, such as polymeric NPs, lipid NPs, liposomes, micelles, and dendrimers, have been reported to enhance the delivery of therapeutics and/or vaccines to LNs. Specific uptake into the lymph following injection into tissues is highly dependent on particle properties, particularly particle size, as small molecules are more likely to be taken up by blood capillaries due to higher blood flow rates, whereas larger molecules and NPs can be specifically transported via the lymphatic vessels to LNs as the initial lymphatic capillaries are more permeable than blood capillaries. Once NPs enter LNs, particle properties also have an important influence on their disposition within the node and association with immune cells, which has significant implications for the design of vaccines and immunotherapies. This review article focuses on the impact of NP properties, such as size, surface charge and modification, and route of administration, on lymphatic uptake, retention, and interactions with immune cells in LNs. We suggest that optimizing all these factors can enhance the efficacy of vaccines or therapeutics with targets in the lymphatics and also be helpful for the rational design of vaccines. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The lymphatic system plays an essential role in health and is an important treatment target site for a range of diseases. Promoting the delivery of immunotherapies and vaccines to immune cells in lymph nodes can enhance efficacy and facilitate avoidance of off-target side effects by enabling a reduction in therapeutic dose. One of the major approaches used to deliver therapeutics and vaccines to lymph nodes is via injection in nanoparticle delivery systems. This review aims to provide an overview of the impact of nanoparticle properties, such as size, surface charge, modification, and route of administration, on lymphatic uptake, lymph node retention, and interactions with immune cells in lymph nodes. This will inform the design of future improved nanoparticle systems for vaccines and immunotherapies.

Nanomaterial-enabled metabolic reprogramming strategies for boosting antitumor immunity

Immunotherapy has become a crucial strategy in cancer treatment, but its effectiveness is often constrained. Most cancer immunotherapies focus on stimulating T-cell-mediated immunity by driving the cancer-immunity cycle, which includes tumor antigen release, antigen presentation, T cell activation, infiltration, and tumor cell killing. However, metabolism reprogramming in the tumor microenvironment (TME) supports the viability of cancer cells and inhibits the function of immune cells within this cycle, presenting clinical challenges. The distinct metabolic needs of tumor cells and immune cells require precise and selective metabolic interventions to maximize therapeutic outcomes while minimizing adverse effects. Recent advances in nanotherapeutics offer a promising approach to target tumor metabolism reprogramming and enhance the cancer-immunity cycle through tailored metabolic modulation. In this review, we explore cutting-edge nanomaterial strategies for modulating tumor metabolism to improve therapeutic outcomes. We review the design principles of nanoplatforms for immunometabolic modulation, key metabolic pathways and their regulation, recent advances in targeting these pathways for the cancer-immunity cycle enhancement, and future prospects for next-generation metabolic nanomodulators in cancer immunotherapy. We expect that emerging immunometabolic modulatory nanotechnology will establish a new frontier in cancer immunotherapy in the near future.

Harnessing the tumor microenvironment: targeted cancer therapies through modulation of epithelial-mesenchymal transition

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is integral to cancer progression, impacting metastasis and treatment response. It consists of diverse cell types, extracellular matrix components, and signaling molecules that interact to promote tumor growth and therapeutic resistance. Elucidating the intricate interactions between cancer cells and the TME is crucial in understanding cancer progression and therapeutic challenges. A critical process induced by TME signaling is the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), wherein epithelial cells acquire mesenchymal traits, which enhance their motility and invasiveness and promote metastasis and cancer progression. By targeting various components of the TME, novel investigational strategies aim to disrupt the TME's contribution to the EMT, thereby improving treatment efficacy, addressing therapeutic resistance, and offering a nuanced approach to cancer therapy. This review scrutinizes the key players in the TME and the TME's contribution to the EMT, emphasizing avenues to therapeutically disrupt the interactions between the various TME components. Moreover, the article discusses the TME's implications for resistance mechanisms and highlights the current therapeutic strategies toward TME modulation along with potential caveats.

Tumor microenvironment targeted nano-drug delivery systems for multidrug resistant tumor therapy

In recent years, nano-drug delivery systems (Nano-DDS) that target the tumor microenvironment (TME) to overcome multidrug resistance (MDR) have become a research hotspot in the field of cancer therapy. By precisely targeting the TME and regulating its unique pathological features, such as hypoxia, weakly acidic pH, and abnormally expressed proteins, etc., these Nano-DDS enable effective delivery of therapeutic agents and reversal of MDR. This scientific research community is increasing its investment in the development of diversified systems and exploring their anti-drug resistance potential. Therefore, it is particularly important to conduct a comprehensive review of the research progress of TME-targeted Nano-DDS in recent years. After a brief introduction of TME and tumor MDR, the design principle and structure of liposomes, polymer micelles and inorganic nanocarriers are focused on, and their characteristics as TME-targeted nanocarriers are described. It also demonstrates how these systems break through the cancer MDR treatment through various targeting mechanisms, discusses their synthetic innovation, research results and resistance overcoming mechanisms. The review was concluded with deliberations on the key challenges and future outlooks of targeting TME Nano-DDS in cancer therapy.

Nano-delivery of Silibinin Potentiate the Induction of Immunogenic Cell Death (ICD) in Melanoma Cells

BACKGROUND

Induction of immunogenic cell death (ICD) in tumors can enhance antitumor immunity and modulate immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment (TME).

OBJECTIVE

In the current study, we investigated the effect of silibinin, a natural compound with anticancer activity, and its polymer-based nanoformulations on the induction of apoptosis and ICD in cancer cells.

METHODS

Free and nanoparticulate silibinin were evaluated for their growth-inhibitory effects using an MTT assay. Annexin V/PI staining was used to analyze apoptosis. Calreticulin (CRT) expression was measured by flow cytometry. Western blotting was conducted to examine the levels of elf2α, which plays a role in the ICD pathway. The HSP90 and ATP levels were determined using specific detection kits.

RESULTS

Compared to the free drug, silibinin-loaded nanocarriers significantly increased the induction of apoptosis and ICD in B16F10 cells. ICD induction was characterized by significantly increased levels of ICD biomarkers, including CRT, HSP90, and ATP. We also observed an increased expression of p-elf-2α/ elf-2α in B16F10 cells treated with silibinin-loaded micelles compared to cells that received free silibinin.

CONCLUSION

Our findings showed that the encapsulation of silibinin in polymeric nanocarriers can potentiate the effects of this drug on the induction of apoptosis and ICD in B16F10 melanoma cells.

A Cross-talk between Nanomedicines and Cardiac Complications: Comprehensive View

BACKGROUND

Cardiovascular Diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of global morbidity and mortality, necessitating innovative approaches for both therapeutics and diagnostics. Nanoscience has emerged as a promising frontier in addressing the complexities of CVDs.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to explore the interaction of CVDs and Nanomedicine (NMs), focusing on applications in therapeutics and diagnostics.

OBSERVATIONS

In the realm of therapeutics, nanosized drug delivery systems exhibit unique advantages, such as enhanced drug bioavailability, targeted delivery, and controlled release. NMs platform, including liposomes, nanoparticles, and carriers, allows the precise drug targeting to the affected cardiovascular tissues with minimum adverse effects and maximum therapeutic efficacy. Moreover, Nanomaterial (NM) enables the integration of multifunctional components, such as therapeutic agents and target ligands, into a single system for comprehensive CVD management. Diagnostic fronts of NMs offer innovative solutions for early detection and monitoring of CVDs. Nanoparticles and nanosensors enable highly sensitive and specific detection of Cardiac biomarkers, providing valuable insights into a disease state, its progression, therapeutic outputs, etc. Further, nano-based technology via imaging modalities offers high high-resolution imaging, aiding in the vascularization of cardiovascular structures and abnormalities. Nanotechnology-based imaging modalities offer high-resolution imaging and aid in the visualization of cardiovascular structures and abnormalities.

CONCLUSION

The cross-talk of CVDs and NMs holds tremendous potential for revolutionizing cardiovascular healthcare by providing targeted and efficient therapeutic interventions, as well as sensitive and early detection for the improvement of patient health if integrated with Artificial Intelligence (AI).

Physiological markers for immunotherapeutics: a review

Immunotherapy has been advanced through multiple approaches, including immunogenic cytokines, monoclonal antibodies, therapeutic vaccinations, adoptive cell transfer, stem cell transplantation, and oncolytic viruses. This review analyses various strategies in genomics, transcriptomics, single-cell techniques, computational analysis, big data, and imaging technologies for the identification of tumour microbiota and microenvironments. Immunotherapy is becoming acknowledged as a feasible cancer treatment method, facilitating innovative cancer medicines and personalized medicine techniques.

Napabucasin-loaded PLGA nanoparticles trigger anti-HCC immune responses by metabolic reprogramming of tumor-associated macrophages

BACKGROUND

JAK/STAT3 is one of the critical signaling pathways involved in the occurrence and development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). BBI608 (Napabucasin), as a novel small molecule inhibitor of STAT3, has shown previously excellent anti-HCC effects in vitro and in mouse models. However, low bioavailability, high cytotoxicity and other shortcomings limit its clinical application. In this study, PLGA was selected to prepare Napabucasin PLGA nanoparticles (NPs) by solvent evaporation method, overcoming these limitations and improving the passive targeting effect that nanoparticle mediated. Base on this, we systematically evaluated the anti-HCC effect of Napabucasin-PLGA NPs and explored the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

Napabucasin-PLGA NPs were prepared by solvent evaporation method. CCK-8 assay, Annexin V/PI double staining, RT-qPCR, colony formation assay, and Western blotting were performed to evaluate the anti-HCC effect of Napabucasin-PLGA NPs in vitro. Proliferation assay and migration assay were used to detect the effects of Napabucasin-PLGA NPs-treated HCC-TAMs on tumor biological characteristics of HCC cells. Flow cytometry was used to detect anti-HCC immune responses induced by Napabucasin-PLGA NPs in vivo.

RESULTS

Our results demonstrated that Napabucasin-PLGA NPs could improve the bioavailability of Napabucasin and enhance Napabucasin-mediated the anti-HCC effects in vitro and in vivo with no significant drug toxicity. In addition to the direct inhibitory effects on the tumor biological characteristics of HCC cells, Napabucasin-PLGA NPs could promote the polarization of macrophages from tumor-promoting M2-type to anti-tumor M1-type, improving the tumor immune microenvironment and augmenting T cell-mediated anti-tumor responses. The underlining mechanisms showed Napabucasin-PLGA NPs suppressed the STAT3/FAO signaling axis in HCC-induced tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrated Napabucasin-PLGA NPs is a potential therapeutic candidate for HCC, and provided a new theoretical and experimental basis for further development and clinical application of Napabucasin.

Lactate/Cysteine Dual-Consuming Probiotic-Nanomedicine Biohybrid System for Enhanced Cancer Chemo-Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is revolutionizing oncology, but its therapeutic efficiency is still limited by the off-target toxicities and poor antitumor immune responses. By integrating the drug-loaded nanoparticles (DMnSH) with the unique metabolic traits of Veillonella parvula (Vei), a probiotic-nanomedicine conjugate Vei@DMnSH biohybrid is elaborately designed for enhanced cancer chemo-immunotherapy. Specifically, Vei@DMnSH can accumulate in hypoxic tumor sites and simultaneously consume lactate and cysteine to reverse the lactate-associated immunosuppression and impede the biosynthesis of GSH. In addition, the DMnSH nanoparticles will rapidly deplete intracellular GSH and disassemble to release DOX and Mn2+. Accompanied by the two-pronged GSH depletion, the Mn2+-mediated Fenton-like reaction can effectively generate oxidative hydroxyl radicals to induce heavy redox imbalance. Combined with the therapeutic effect of DOX, robust immunogenic cell death is provoked and subsequently activates antitumor adaptive immunity with a tumor suppression rate over 82%, synergistically enhancing the therapeutic outcomes of cancer chemo-immunotherapy.

Nano-bio-encapsulation of phyto-vaccines: a breakthrough in targeted cancer immunotherapy

Nano bio-encapsulation of phyto-vaccines for cancer has marked a cutting-edge strategy that brings together nanotechnology with plant-derived vaccines to enhance cancer therapy. Phyto-vaccines, isolated from bioactive compounds found in plants called protein bodies, have been shown to potentially stimulate the immune system to recognise and destroy cancer cells. However, challenges such as poor stability, rapid degradation, and limited bioavailability in the body have hindered their clinical application. Nano bio-encapsulation offers a solution by packaging these phyto-vaccines into nanoscale carriers such as lectins have provided ways to overcome these limitations. They protect the protein bodies from degradation by proteolytic enzymes, enhance targeted delivery to cancer cells, and enable controlled release. This approach not only improves the bio-distribution and potency of the vaccines but also minimizes side effects, making it a highly promising, sustainable, and efficient method for cancer immunotherapy. As research progresses, this technology has the potential to revolutionize cancer treatment by providing safer and more precise therapeutic options. This review focuses on the concept of nano bio-encapsulation of phyto-vaccines for cancer treatment. It explores how nanotechnology can enhance the stability, bioavailability, and targeted delivery of plant-derived vaccines, addressing the limitations of traditional vaccines. The review delves into the potential of this innovative strategy to advance cancer immunotherapy, providing a comprehensive overview of current research and future directions.

Decoding the prognostic landscape of LUAD: the interplay between N6-methyladenosine modification and immune microenvironment

Background

To determine the role of N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification in the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME), as well as their association with lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD).

Methods

Consensus clustering was performed to identify the subgroups with distinct immune or m6A modification patterns using profiles from TCGA. A risk score model was constructed using least absolute shrinkage and selection operator regression and validated in two independent cohorts and LUAD tissue microarrays. For experimental validation, the regulation of METTL3/m6A axis in the expression of candidate genes by RIP-qPCR assay in A549 and H460 cell lines. Co-culture experiments with human T cells were performed to evaluate the impact of METTL3 on the enhancement of anti-tumor immunity through in vitro experiments.

Results

We identified 282 m6A regulator genes and 955 immune-related genes, selecting seven key genes (SFTPC, CYP24A1, KRT6A, PTTG1, S100P, FAM83A, and ANLN) to develop a risk score model using Lasso regression. High-risk patients, determined by this model, exhibited poorer prognosis, increased immune infiltration, higher tumor mutational burden, more neoantigens, and elevated PD-L1 expression. These findings were validated by two independent databases and LUAD tissue microarrays. METTL3 was found to impact the mRNA expression of these genes, with METTL3 deficiency abolishing these interactions. Inhibition of METTL3 enhanced anti-tumor immunity, T cell activation, exhaustion, and infiltration in vitro.

Conclusion

This risk score system shows promise for prognostic prediction and the development of personalized treatment strategies for LUAD patients.

Biomimetic Nanovaccines Restore Immunosuppressive Tumor Antigen-Presenting Cells via the Saposin-Feeding Strategy

Cancer cell membrane-derived biomimetic nanovaccines have shown tremendous potential in cancer immunotherapy. However, their efficacy is restricted by the insufficient cross-presentation of cell membrane-associated antigens. Saposins (SAs), which are vital for membrane vesicle disintegration and cell membrane-associated antigen presentation, are severely deficient in the antigen-presenting cells (APCs) within tumors. Herein, we propose a complementary strategy for increasing the efficacy of biomimetic nanovaccines via the use of SAs. Biomimetic nanovaccines were designed using cancer cell membrane shells to provide a comprehensive array of tumor-associated antigens and reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsive nanoparticle cores that allowed the codelivery of cytosine-guanine dinucleotides (CpGs) and SAs. The biomimetic nanovaccines were ROS-responsive and highly internalized by APCs, which enabled the release of CpGs and SAs in the endo/lysosomes of APCs. Furthermore, biomimetic nanovaccines increased the activation of immunosuppressive APCs and enhanced T-cell priming by delivering SAs to the APCs. Consequently, biomimetic nanovaccines loaded with SAs not only suppressed tumor growth but also exhibited excellent therapeutic effects in combination with immune checkpoint blockade strategies. Overall, our study provides insights into the development of enhanced biomimetic nanovaccines via integrating SAs and offers a promising strategy for highly effective cancer immunotherapy.

Therapeutic Immunomodulation of Tumor-Lymphatic Crosstalk via Intratumoral Immunotherapy

Intra- and peritumoral lymphatics and tumor-draining lymph nodes play major roles in mediating the adaptive immune response to cancer immunotherapy. Despite this, current paradigms of clinical cancer management seldom seek to therapeutically modulate tumor-lymphatic immune crosstalk. This review explores recent developments that set the stage for how this regulatory axis can be therapeutically manipulated, with a particular emphasis on tumor-localized immunomodulation. Building on this idea, the nature of tumor-lymphatic immune crosstalk and relevant immunotherapeutic targets and pathways are reviewed, with a focus on their translational potential. Engineered drug delivery systems that enhance intratumoral immunotherapy by improving drug delivery to both the tumor and lymph nodes are also highlighted.