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Teo F, Kok CYL, Tan MJ, Je HS. Human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived microglia for the study of brain disorders. A comprehensive review of existing protocols. IBRO Neurosci Rep 2024; 16:497-508. [PMID: 38655500 PMCID: PMC11035045 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibneur.2024.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Microglia, resident immune cells of the brain that originate from the yolk sac, play a critical role in maintaining brain homeostasis by monitoring and phagocytosing pathogens and cellular debris in the central nervous system (CNS). While they share characteristics with myeloid cells, they are distinct from macrophages. In response to injury, microglia release pro-inflammatory factors and contribute to brain homeostasis through activities such as synapse pruning and neurogenesis. To better understand their role in neurological disorders, the generation of in vitro models of human microglia has become essential. These models, derived from patient-specific induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), provide a controlled environment to study the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying microglia-mediated neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. The incorporation or generation of microglia into three-dimensional (3D) organoid cultures provides a more physiologically relevant environment that offers further opportunities to study microglial dynamics and disease modeling. This review describes several protocols that have been recently developed for the generation of human-induced microglia. Importantly, it highlights the promise of these in vitro models in advancing our understanding of brain disorders and facilitating personalized drug screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fionicca Teo
- Program in Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders, Duke-NUS Medical School, 8 College Road, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Catherine Yen Li Kok
- Program in Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders, Duke-NUS Medical School, 8 College Road, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Mao-Jia Tan
- Program in Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders, Duke-NUS Medical School, 8 College Road, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - H. Shawn Je
- Program in Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders, Duke-NUS Medical School, 8 College Road, Singapore 169857, Singapore
- Advanced Bioimaging Centre, SingHealth, Academia, 20 College Road, Singapore 169856, Singapore
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Pirjanian NA, Kalpana K, Kruglikov I, Mesci P, Stoudemire J, Grisanti P, Noggle SA, Loring JF, Fossati V. Establishing Neural Organoid Cultures for Investigating the Effects of Microgravity in Low-Earth Orbit (LEO). Methods Mol Biol 2024. [PMID: 38801498 DOI: 10.1007/7651_2024_550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
Recent findings from studies involving astronauts and animal models indicate that microgravity increases immune cell activity and potentially alters the white and gray matter of the central nervous system (CNS). To further investigate the impact of microgravity on CNS cells, we established cultures of three-dimensional neural organoids containing isogenic microglia, the brain's resident immune cells, and sent them onboard the International Space Station. When using induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines from individuals affected by neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS) and Parkinson's disease (PD), these cultures can provide novel insights into pathogenic pathways that may be exacerbated by microgravity. We have devised a cryovial culture strategy that enables organoids to be maintained through space travel and onboard the International Space Station (ISS) without the need for medium or carbon dioxide exchange. Here, we provide a comprehensive description of all the steps involved: generating various types of neural organoids, establishing long-term cultures, arranging plans for shipment to the Kennedy Space Center (KSC), and ultimately preparing organoids for launch into low-Earth orbit (LEO) and return to Earth for post-flight analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kriti Kalpana
- The New York Stem Cell Foundation Research Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ilya Kruglikov
- The New York Stem Cell Foundation Research Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | | | | | | | - Scott A Noggle
- The New York Stem Cell Foundation Research Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jeanne F Loring
- National Stem Cell Foundation, Louisville, KY, USA
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Valentina Fossati
- The New York Stem Cell Foundation Research Institute, New York, NY, USA.
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3
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Mancuso R, Fattorelli N, Martinez-Muriana A, Davis E, Wolfs L, Van Den Daele J, Geric I, Premereur J, Polanco P, Bijnens B, Preman P, Serneels L, Poovathingal S, Balusu S, Verfaillie C, Fiers M, De Strooper B. Xenografted human microglia display diverse transcriptomic states in response to Alzheimer's disease-related amyloid-β pathology. Nat Neurosci 2024; 27:886-900. [PMID: 38539015 PMCID: PMC11089003 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-024-01600-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/14/2024]
Abstract
Microglia are central players in Alzheimer's disease pathology but analyzing microglial states in human brain samples is challenging due to genetic diversity, postmortem delay and admixture of pathologies. To circumvent these issues, here we generated 138,577 single-cell expression profiles of human stem cell-derived microglia xenotransplanted in the brain of the AppNL-G-F model of amyloid pathology and wild-type controls. Xenografted human microglia adopt a disease-associated profile similar to that seen in mouse microglia, but display a more pronounced human leukocyte antigen or HLA state, likely related to antigen presentation in response to amyloid plaques. The human microglial response also involves a pro-inflammatory cytokine/chemokine cytokine response microglia or CRM response to oligomeric Aβ oligomers. Genetic deletion of TREM2 or APOE as well as APOE polymorphisms and TREM2R47H expression in the transplanted microglia modulate these responses differentially. The expression of other Alzheimer's disease risk genes is differentially regulated across the distinct cell states elicited in response to amyloid pathology. Thus, we have identified multiple transcriptomic cell states adopted by human microglia in a multipronged response to Alzheimer's disease-related pathology, which should be taken into account in translational studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renzo Mancuso
- Microglia and Inflammation in Neurological Disorders (MIND) Lab, VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, VIB, Antwerp, Belgium.
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Nicola Fattorelli
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Anna Martinez-Muriana
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Emma Davis
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, University College London, London, UK
| | - Leen Wolfs
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Johanna Van Den Daele
- Department of Development and Regeneration, Stem Cell Biology and Embryology, KU Leuven Stem Cell Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Ivana Geric
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jessie Premereur
- Microglia and Inflammation in Neurological Disorders (MIND) Lab, VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, VIB, Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Paula Polanco
- Microglia and Inflammation in Neurological Disorders (MIND) Lab, VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, VIB, Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Baukje Bijnens
- Microglia and Inflammation in Neurological Disorders (MIND) Lab, VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, VIB, Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Pranav Preman
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Lutgarde Serneels
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Suresh Poovathingal
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sriram Balusu
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Catherine Verfaillie
- Department of Development and Regeneration, Stem Cell Biology and Embryology, KU Leuven Stem Cell Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Mark Fiers
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, University College London, London, UK
| | - Bart De Strooper
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium.
- Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, University College London, London, UK.
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Cerneckis J, Cai H, Shi Y. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs): molecular mechanisms of induction and applications. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2024; 9:112. [PMID: 38670977 PMCID: PMC11053163 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-024-01809-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 03/09/2024] [Accepted: 03/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology has transformed in vitro research and holds great promise to advance regenerative medicine. iPSCs have the capacity for an almost unlimited expansion, are amenable to genetic engineering, and can be differentiated into most somatic cell types. iPSCs have been widely applied to model human development and diseases, perform drug screening, and develop cell therapies. In this review, we outline key developments in the iPSC field and highlight the immense versatility of the iPSC technology for in vitro modeling and therapeutic applications. We begin by discussing the pivotal discoveries that revealed the potential of a somatic cell nucleus for reprogramming and led to successful generation of iPSCs. We consider the molecular mechanisms and dynamics of somatic cell reprogramming as well as the numerous methods available to induce pluripotency. Subsequently, we discuss various iPSC-based cellular models, from mono-cultures of a single cell type to complex three-dimensional organoids, and how these models can be applied to elucidate the mechanisms of human development and diseases. We use examples of neurological disorders, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), and cancer to highlight the diversity of disease-specific phenotypes that can be modeled using iPSC-derived cells. We also consider how iPSC-derived cellular models can be used in high-throughput drug screening and drug toxicity studies. Finally, we discuss the process of developing autologous and allogeneic iPSC-based cell therapies and their potential to alleviate human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Cerneckis
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, 91010, USA
- Irell & Manella Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, 91010, USA
| | - Hongxia Cai
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, 91010, USA
| | - Yanhong Shi
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, 91010, USA.
- Irell & Manella Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, 91010, USA.
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Vandermeulen L, Geric I, Fumagalli L, Kreir M, Lu A, Nonneman A, Premereur J, Wolfs L, Policarpo R, Fattorelli N, De Bondt A, Van Den Wyngaert I, Asselbergh B, Fiers M, De Strooper B, d'Ydewalle C, Mancuso R. Regulation of human microglial gene expression and function via RNAase-H active antisense oligonucleotides in vivo in Alzheimer's disease. Mol Neurodegener 2024; 19:37. [PMID: 38654375 PMCID: PMC11040766 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-024-00725-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Microglia play important roles in maintaining brain homeostasis and neurodegeneration. The discovery of genetic variants in genes predominately or exclusively expressed in myeloid cells, such as Apolipoprotein E (APOE) and triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2), as the strongest risk factors for Alzheimer's disease (AD) highlights the importance of microglial biology in the brain. The sequence, structure and function of several microglial proteins are poorly conserved across species, which has hampered the development of strategies aiming to modulate the expression of specific microglial genes. One way to target APOE and TREM2 is to modulate their expression using antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs). METHODS In this study, we identified, produced, and tested novel, selective and potent ASOs for human APOE and TREM2. We used a combination of in vitro iPSC-microglia models, as well as microglial xenotransplanted mice to provide proof of activity in human microglial in vivo. RESULTS We proved their efficacy in human iPSC microglia in vitro, as well as their pharmacological activity in vivo in a xenografted microglia model. We demonstrate ASOs targeting human microglia can modify their transcriptional profile and their response to amyloid-β plaques in vivo in a model of AD. CONCLUSIONS This study is the first proof-of-concept that human microglial can be modulated using ASOs in a dose-dependent manner to manipulate microglia phenotypes and response to neurodegeneration in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Vandermeulen
- Neuroscience Discovery, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, 2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Ivana Geric
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
| | - Laura Fumagalli
- MIND Lab, VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, VIB, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Mohamed Kreir
- Preclinical Development & Safety, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, 2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Ashley Lu
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
| | - Annelies Nonneman
- Neuroscience Discovery, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, 2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Jessie Premereur
- MIND Lab, VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, VIB, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Leen Wolfs
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
| | - Rafaela Policarpo
- Neuroscience Discovery, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, 2340, Beerse, Belgium
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
| | - Nicola Fattorelli
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
| | - An De Bondt
- Discovery Sciences, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, 2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Ilse Van Den Wyngaert
- Discovery Sciences, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, 2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Bob Asselbergh
- Neuromics Support Facility, VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, University of Antwerp, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium
- Neuromics Support Facility, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Mark Fiers
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
- UK Dementia Research Institute, University College London, London, W1T 7NF, UK
| | - Bart De Strooper
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
- UK Dementia Research Institute, University College London, London, W1T 7NF, UK
| | - Constantin d'Ydewalle
- Neuroscience Discovery, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, 2340, Beerse, Belgium.
| | - Renzo Mancuso
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, 3000, Belgium.
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium.
- MIND Lab, VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, VIB, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium.
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium.
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Mizrachi M, Diamond B. Impact of microglia isolation and culture methodology on transcriptional profile and function. J Neuroinflammation 2024; 21:87. [PMID: 38589917 PMCID: PMC11000335 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-024-03076-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Microglial isolation and culturing methods continue to be explored to maximize cellular yield, purity, responsiveness to stimulation and similarity to in vivo microglia. This study aims to evaluate five different microglia isolation methods-three variants of microglia isolation from neonatal mice and two variants of microglia isolation from adult mice-on transcriptional profile and response to HMGB1. METHODS Microglia from neonatal mice, age 0-3 days (P0-P3) were isolated from mixed glial cultures (MGC). We included three variations of this protocol that differed by use of GM-CSF in culture (No GM-CSF or 500 pg/mL GM-CSF), and days of culture in MGC before microglial separation (10 or 21). Protocols for studying microglia from adult mice age 6-8 weeks included isolation by adherence properties followed by 7 days of culture with 100 ng/mL GM-CSF and 100 ng/mL M-CSF (Vijaya et al. in Front Cell Neurosci 17:1082180, 2023), or acute isolation using CD11b beads (Bordt et al. in STAR Protoc 1:100035, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xpro.2020.100035 ). Purity, yield, and RNA quality of the isolated microglia were assessed by flow cytometry, hemocytometer counting, and Bioanalyzer, respectively. Microglial responsiveness to an inflammatory stimulus, HMGB1, was evaluated by measuring TNFα, IL1β, and IFNβ concentration in supernatant by ELISA and assessing gene expression patterns using bulk mRNA sequencing. RESULTS All five methods demonstrated greater than 90% purity. Microglia from all cultures increased transcription and secretion of TNFα, IL1β, and IFNβ in response to HMGB1. RNA sequencing showed a larger number of differentially expressed genes in response to HMGB1 treatment in microglia cultured from neonates than from adult mice, with sparse changes among the three MGC culturing conditions. Additionally, cultured microglia derived from adult and microglia derived from MGCs from neonates display transcriptional signatures corresponding to an earlier developmental stage. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that while all methods provided high purity, the choice of protocol may significantly influence yield, RNA quality, baseline transcriptional profile and response to stimulation. This comparative study provides valuable insights to inform the choice of microglial isolation and culture method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Mizrachi
- Feinstein Institutes of Molecular Medicine, Feinstein Institutes for Medical Research, 350 Community Drive, Manhasset, NY, 11030, USA
- Donald and Barbara Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwell, 500 Hofstra Blvd, Hempstead, NY, 11549, USA
| | - Betty Diamond
- Feinstein Institutes of Molecular Medicine, Feinstein Institutes for Medical Research, 350 Community Drive, Manhasset, NY, 11030, USA.
- Donald and Barbara Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwell, 500 Hofstra Blvd, Hempstead, NY, 11549, USA.
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7
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Vacharasin JM, Ward JA, McCord MM, Cox K, Imitola J, Lizarraga SB. Neuroimmune mechanisms in autism etiology - untangling a complex problem using human cellular models. OXFORD OPEN NEUROSCIENCE 2024; 3:kvae003. [PMID: 38665176 PMCID: PMC11044813 DOI: 10.1093/oons/kvae003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Revised: 01/13/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) affects 1 in 36 people and is more often diagnosed in males than in females. Core features of ASD are impaired social interactions, repetitive behaviors and deficits in verbal communication. ASD is a highly heterogeneous and heritable disorder, yet its underlying genetic causes account only for up to 80% of the cases. Hence, a subset of ASD cases could be influenced by environmental risk factors. Maternal immune activation (MIA) is a response to inflammation during pregnancy, which can lead to increased inflammatory signals to the fetus. Inflammatory signals can cross the placenta and blood brain barriers affecting fetal brain development. Epidemiological and animal studies suggest that MIA could contribute to ASD etiology. However, human mechanistic studies have been hindered by a lack of experimental systems that could replicate the impact of MIA during fetal development. Therefore, mechanisms altered by inflammation during human pre-natal brain development, and that could underlie ASD pathogenesis have been largely understudied. The advent of human cellular models with induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) and organoid technology is closing this gap in knowledge by providing both access to molecular manipulations and culturing capability of tissue that would be otherwise inaccessible. We present an overview of multiple levels of evidence from clinical, epidemiological, and cellular studies that provide a potential link between higher ASD risk and inflammation. More importantly, we discuss how stem cell-derived models may constitute an ideal experimental system to mechanistically interrogate the effect of inflammation during the early stages of brain development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janay M Vacharasin
- Department of Biological Sciences, and Center for Childhood Neurotherapeutics, Univ. of South Carolina, 715 Sumter Street, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Francis Marion University, 4822 East Palmetto Street, Florence, S.C. 29506, USA
| | - Joseph A Ward
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, & Biochemistry, Brown University, 185 Meeting Street, Providence, RI 02912, USA
- Center for Translational Neuroscience, Carney Institute of Brain Science, Brown University, 70 Ship Street, Providence, RI 02903, USA
| | - Mikayla M McCord
- Department of Biological Sciences, and Center for Childhood Neurotherapeutics, Univ. of South Carolina, 715 Sumter Street, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Kaitlin Cox
- Department of Biological Sciences, and Center for Childhood Neurotherapeutics, Univ. of South Carolina, 715 Sumter Street, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Jaime Imitola
- Laboratory of Neural Stem Cells and Functional Neurogenetics, UConn Health, Departments of Neuroscience, Neurology, Genetics and Genome Sciences, UConn Health, 263 Farmington Avenue, Farmington, CT 06030-5357, USA
| | - Sofia B Lizarraga
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, & Biochemistry, Brown University, 185 Meeting Street, Providence, RI 02912, USA
- Center for Translational Neuroscience, Carney Institute of Brain Science, Brown University, 70 Ship Street, Providence, RI 02903, USA
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Romero-Molina C, Neuner SM, Ryszawiec M, Pébay A, Marcora E, Goate A. Autosomal Dominant Alzheimer's Disease Mutations in Human Microglia Are Not Sufficient to Trigger Amyloid Pathology in WT Mice but Might Affect Pathology in 5XFAD Mice. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2565. [PMID: 38473822 PMCID: PMC10932392 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25052565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Several genetic variants that affect microglia function have been identified as risk factors for Alzheimer's Disease (AD), supporting the importance of this cell type in disease progression. However, the effect of autosomal dominant mutations in the amyloid precursor protein (APP) or the presenilin (PSEN1/2) genes has not been addressed in microglia in vivo. We xenotransplanted human microglia derived from non-carriers and carriers of autosomal dominant AD (ADAD)-causing mutations in the brain of hCSF1 WT or 5XFAD mice. We observed that ADAD mutations in microglia are not sufficient to trigger amyloid pathology in WT mice. In 5XFAD mice, we observed a non-statistically significant increase in amyloid plaque volume and number of dystrophic neurites, coupled with a reduction in plaque-associated microglia in the brain of mice xenotransplanted with ADAD human microglia compared to mice xenotransplanted with non-ADAD microglia. In addition, we observed a non-statistically significant impairment in working and contextual memory in 5XFAD mice xenotransplanted with ADAD microglia compared to those xenotransplanted with non-ADAD-carrier microglia. We conclude that, although not sufficient to initiate amyloid pathology in the healthy brain, mutations in APP and PSEN1 in human microglia might cause mild changes in pathological and cognitive outcomes in 5XFAD mice in a manner consistent with increased AD risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Romero-Molina
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer’s Disease, Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029, USA; (C.R.-M.); (S.M.N.); (M.R.); (E.M.)
| | - Sarah M. Neuner
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer’s Disease, Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029, USA; (C.R.-M.); (S.M.N.); (M.R.); (E.M.)
| | - Marcelina Ryszawiec
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer’s Disease, Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029, USA; (C.R.-M.); (S.M.N.); (M.R.); (E.M.)
| | - Alice Pébay
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Department of Surgery, Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia;
| | | | - Edoardo Marcora
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer’s Disease, Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029, USA; (C.R.-M.); (S.M.N.); (M.R.); (E.M.)
| | - Alison Goate
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer’s Disease, Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029, USA; (C.R.-M.); (S.M.N.); (M.R.); (E.M.)
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9
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Ifediora N, Canoll P, Hargus G. Human stem cell transplantation models of Alzheimer's disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2024; 16:1354164. [PMID: 38450383 PMCID: PMC10915253 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2024.1354164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most frequent form of dementia. It is characterized by pronounced neuronal degeneration with formation of neurofibrillary tangles and deposition of amyloid β throughout the central nervous system. Animal models have provided important insights into the pathogenesis of AD and they have shown that different brain cell types including neurons, astrocytes and microglia have important functions in the pathogenesis of AD. However, there are difficulties in translating promising therapeutic observations in mice into clinical application in patients. Alternative models using human cells such as human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) may provide significant advantages, since they have successfully been used to model disease mechanisms in neurons and in glial cells in neurodegenerative diseases in vitro and in vivo. In this review, we summarize recent studies that describe the transplantation of human iPSC-derived neurons, astrocytes and microglial cells into the forebrain of mice to generate chimeric transplantation models of AD. We also discuss opportunities, challenges and limitations in using differentiated human iPSCs for in vivo disease modeling and their application for biomedical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nkechime Ifediora
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Peter Canoll
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Gunnar Hargus
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
- Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
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10
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Bobotis BC, Halvorson T, Carrier M, Tremblay MÈ. Established and emerging techniques for the study of microglia: visualization, depletion, and fate mapping. Front Cell Neurosci 2024; 18:1317125. [PMID: 38425429 PMCID: PMC10902073 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2024.1317125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
The central nervous system (CNS) is an essential hub for neuronal communication. As a major component of the CNS, glial cells are vital in the maintenance and regulation of neuronal network dynamics. Research on microglia, the resident innate immune cells of the CNS, has advanced considerably in recent years, and our understanding of their diverse functions continues to grow. Microglia play critical roles in the formation and regulation of neuronal synapses, myelination, responses to injury, neurogenesis, inflammation, and many other physiological processes. In parallel with advances in microglial biology, cutting-edge techniques for the characterization of microglial properties have emerged with increasing depth and precision. Labeling tools and reporter models are important for the study of microglial morphology, ultrastructure, and dynamics, but also for microglial isolation, which is required to glean key phenotypic information through single-cell transcriptomics and other emerging approaches. Strategies for selective microglial depletion and modulation can provide novel insights into microglia-targeted treatment strategies in models of neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative conditions, cancer, and autoimmunity. Finally, fate mapping has emerged as an important tool to answer fundamental questions about microglial biology, including their origin, migration, and proliferation throughout the lifetime of an organism. This review aims to provide a comprehensive discussion of these established and emerging techniques, with applications to the study of microglia in development, homeostasis, and CNS pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Caroline Bobotis
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
- Centre for Advanced Materials and Related Technology, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Torin Halvorson
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Surgery, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- British Columbia Children’s Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Micaël Carrier
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
- Département de Psychiatrie et de Neurosciences, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
- Axe neurosciences, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
| | - Marie-Ève Tremblay
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
- Centre for Advanced Materials and Related Technology, Victoria, BC, Canada
- Axe neurosciences, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
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11
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Lu W, Wen J. Crosstalk Among Glial Cells in the Blood-Brain Barrier Injury After Ischemic Stroke. Mol Neurobiol 2024:10.1007/s12035-024-03939-6. [PMID: 38279077 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-024-03939-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/28/2024]
Abstract
Blood-brain barrier (BBB) is comprised of brain microvascular endothelial cells (ECs), astrocytes, perivascular microglia, pericytes, neuronal processes, and the basal lamina. As a complex and dynamic interface between the blood and the central nervous system (CNS), BBB is responsible for transporting nutrients essential for the normal metabolism of brain cells and hinders many toxic compounds entering into the CNS. The loss of BBB integrity following stroke induces tissue damage, inflammation, edema, and neural dysfunction. Thus, BBB disruption is an important pathophysiological process of acute ischemic stroke. Understanding the mechanism underlying BBB disruption can uncover more promising biological targets for developing treatments for ischemic stroke. Ischemic stroke-induced activation of microglia and astrocytes leads to increased production of inflammatory mediators, containing chemokines, cytokines, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), etc., which are important factors in the pathological process of BBB breakdown. In this review, we discussed the current knowledges about the vital and dual roles of astrocytes and microglia on the BBB breakdown during ischemic stroke. Specifically, we provided an updated overview of phenotypic transformation of microglia and astrocytes, as well as uncovered the crosstalk among astrocyte, microglia, and oligodendrocyte in the BBB disruption following ischemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weizhuo Lu
- Medical Branch, Hefei Technology College, Hefei, China
| | - Jiyue Wen
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.
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12
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Guido G, Mangano K, Tancheva L, Kalfin R, Leone GM, Saraceno A, Fagone P, Nicoletti F, Petralia MC. Evaluation of Cell-Specific Alterations in Alzheimer's Disease and Relevance of In Vitro Models. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:2187. [PMID: 38137009 PMCID: PMC10743149 DOI: 10.3390/genes14122187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder classically characterized by two neuropathological hallmarks: β-amyloid plaques and tau tangles in the brain. However, the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in AD are still elusive, which dampens the possibility of finding new and more effective therapeutic interventions. Current in vitro models are limited in modelling the complexity of AD pathogenesis. In this study, we aimed to characterize the AD expression signature upon a meta-analysis of multiple human datasets, including different cell populations from various brain regions, and compare cell-specific alterations in AD patients and in vitro models to highlight the appropriateness and the limitations of the currently available models in recapitulating AD pathology. The meta-analysis showed consistent enrichment of the Rho GTPases signaling pathway among different cell populations and in the models. The accuracy of in vitro models was higher for neurons and lowest for astrocytes. Our study underscores the particularly low fidelity in modelling down-regulated genes across all cell populations. The top enriched pathways arising from meta-analysis of human data differ from the enriched pathways arising from the overlap. We hope that our data will prove useful in indicating a starting point in the development of future, more complex, 3D in vitro models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgio Guido
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia 89, 95123 Catania, Italy; (G.G.); (K.M.); (G.M.L.); (A.S.)
| | - Katia Mangano
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia 89, 95123 Catania, Italy; (G.G.); (K.M.); (G.M.L.); (A.S.)
| | - Lyubka Tancheva
- Department of Biological Effects of Natural and Synthetic Substances, Institute of Neurobiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. Georgi Bonchev Str. Block 23, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (L.T.); (R.K.)
| | - Reni Kalfin
- Department of Biological Effects of Natural and Synthetic Substances, Institute of Neurobiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. Georgi Bonchev Str. Block 23, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (L.T.); (R.K.)
- Department of Healthcare, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Ivan Mihailov Str. 66, 2700 Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria
| | - Gian Marco Leone
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia 89, 95123 Catania, Italy; (G.G.); (K.M.); (G.M.L.); (A.S.)
| | - Andrea Saraceno
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia 89, 95123 Catania, Italy; (G.G.); (K.M.); (G.M.L.); (A.S.)
| | - Paolo Fagone
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia 89, 95123 Catania, Italy; (G.G.); (K.M.); (G.M.L.); (A.S.)
| | - Ferdinando Nicoletti
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia 89, 95123 Catania, Italy; (G.G.); (K.M.); (G.M.L.); (A.S.)
| | - Maria Cristina Petralia
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Messina, 98122 Messina, Italy
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13
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Marei HE, Khan MUA, Hasan A. Potential use of iPSCs for disease modeling, drug screening, and cell-based therapy for Alzheimer's disease. Cell Mol Biol Lett 2023; 28:98. [PMID: 38031028 PMCID: PMC10687886 DOI: 10.1186/s11658-023-00504-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic illness marked by increasing cognitive decline and nervous system deterioration. At this time, there is no known medication that will stop the course of Alzheimer's disease; instead, most symptoms are treated. Clinical trial failure rates for new drugs remain high, highlighting the urgent need for improved AD modeling for improving understanding of the underlying pathophysiology of disease and improving drug development. The development of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) has made it possible to model neurological diseases like AD, giving access to an infinite number of patient-derived cells capable of differentiating neuronal fates. This advance will accelerate Alzheimer's disease research and provide an opportunity to create more accurate patient-specific models of Alzheimer's disease to support pathophysiological research, drug development, and the potential application of stem cell-based therapeutics. This review article provides a complete summary of research done to date on the potential use of iPSCs from AD patients for disease modeling, drug discovery, and cell-based therapeutics. Current technological developments in AD research including 3D modeling, genome editing, gene therapy for AD, and research on familial (FAD) and sporadic (SAD) forms of the disease are discussed. Finally, we outline the issues that need to be elucidated and future directions for iPSC modeling in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hany E Marei
- Department of Cytology and Histology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura, 35116, Egypt.
| | - Muhammad Umar Aslam Khan
- Biomedical Research Center, Qatar University, 2713, Doha, Qatar
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Anwarul Hasan
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
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14
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Sudwarts A, Thinakaran G. Alzheimer's genes in microglia: a risk worth investigating. Mol Neurodegener 2023; 18:90. [PMID: 37986179 PMCID: PMC10662636 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-023-00679-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite expressing many key risk genes, the role of microglia in late-onset Alzheimer's disease pathophysiology is somewhat ambiguous, with various phenotypes reported to be either harmful or protective. Herein, we review some key findings from clinical and animal model investigations, discussing the role of microglial genetics in mediating perturbations from homeostasis. We note that impairment to protective phenotypes may include prolonged or insufficient microglial activation, resulting in dysregulated metabolomic (notably lipid-related) processes, compounded by age-related inflexibility in dynamic responses. Insufficiencies of mouse genetics and aggressive transgenic modelling imply severe limitations in applying current methodologies for aetiological investigations. Despite the shortcomings, widely used amyloidosis and tauopathy models of the disease have proven invaluable in dissecting microglial functional responses to AD pathophysiology. Some recent advances have brought modelling tools closer to human genetics, increasing the validity of both aetiological and translational endeavours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ari Sudwarts
- Byrd Alzheimer's Center and Research Institute, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33613, USA.
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA.
| | - Gopal Thinakaran
- Byrd Alzheimer's Center and Research Institute, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33613, USA.
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA.
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15
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Elmansy MF, Reidl CT, Rahaman M, Özdinler PH, Silverman RB. Small molecules targeting different cellular pathologies for the treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Med Res Rev 2023; 43:2260-2302. [PMID: 37243319 PMCID: PMC10592673 DOI: 10.1002/med.21974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 04/30/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a devastating neurodegenerative disease in which the motor neuron circuitry displays progressive degeneration, affecting mostly the motor neurons in the brain and in the spinal cord. There are no effective cures, albeit three drugs, riluzole, edaravone, and AMX0035 (a combination of sodium phenylbutyrate and taurursodiol), have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration, with limited improvement in patients. There is an urgent need to build better and more effective treatment strategies for ALS. Since the disease is very heterogenous, numerous approaches have been explored, such as targeting genetic mutations, decreasing oxidative stress and excitotoxicity, enhancing mitochondrial function and protein degradation mechanisms, and inhibiting neuroinflammation. In addition, various chemical libraries or previously identified drugs have been screened for potential repurposing in the treatment of ALS. Here, we review previous drug discovery efforts targeting a variety of cellular pathologies that occur from genetic mutations that cause ALS, such as mutations in SOD1, C9orf72, FUS, and TARDP-43 genes. These mutations result in protein aggregation, which causes neuronal degeneration. Compounds used to target cellular pathologies that stem from these mutations are discussed and comparisons among different preclinical models are presented. Because the drug discovery landscape for ALS and other motor neuron diseases is changing rapidly, we also offer recommendations for a novel, more effective, direction in ALS drug discovery that could accelerate translation of effective compounds from animals to patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed F. Elmansy
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Molecular Biosciences, Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Center for Developmental Therapeutics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA
- Department of Organometallic and Organometalloid Chemistry, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Cory T. Reidl
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Molecular Biosciences, Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Center for Developmental Therapeutics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA
| | - Mizzanoor Rahaman
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Molecular Biosciences, Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Center for Developmental Therapeutics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA
| | - P. Hande Özdinler
- Department of Pharmacology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Richard B. Silverman
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Molecular Biosciences, Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Center for Developmental Therapeutics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA
- Department of Neurology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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16
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Matuleviciute R, Akinluyi ET, Muntslag TAO, Dewing JM, Long KR, Vernon AC, Tremblay ME, Menassa DA. Microglial contribution to the pathology of neurodevelopmental disorders in humans. Acta Neuropathol 2023; 146:663-683. [PMID: 37656188 PMCID: PMC10564830 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-023-02629-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Microglia are the brain's resident macrophages, which guide various developmental processes crucial for brain maturation, activity, and plasticity. Microglial progenitors enter the telencephalic wall by the 4th postconceptional week and colonise the fetal brain in a manner that spatiotemporally tracks key neurodevelopmental processes in humans. However, much of what we know about how microglia shape neurodevelopment comes from rodent studies. Multiple differences exist between human and rodent microglia warranting further focus on the human condition, particularly as microglia are emerging as critically involved in the pathological signature of various cognitive and neurodevelopmental disorders. In this article, we review the evidence supporting microglial involvement in basic neurodevelopmental processes by focusing on the human species. We next concur on the neuropathological evidence demonstrating whether and how microglia contribute to the aetiology of two neurodevelopmental disorders: autism spectrum conditions and schizophrenia. Next, we highlight how recent technologies have revolutionised our understanding of microglial biology with a focus on how these tools can help us elucidate at unprecedented resolution the links between microglia and neurodevelopmental disorders. We conclude by reviewing which current treatment approaches have shown most promise towards targeting microglia in neurodevelopmental disorders and suggest novel avenues for future consideration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rugile Matuleviciute
- MRC Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, King's College London, London, UK
- Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Elizabeth T Akinluyi
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Afe Babalola University, Ado Ekiti, Nigeria
| | - Tim A O Muntslag
- Princess Maxima Centre for Paediatric Oncology, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | | | - Katherine R Long
- MRC Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, King's College London, London, UK
- Centre for Developmental Neurobiology, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Anthony C Vernon
- MRC Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, King's College London, London, UK
- Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | | | - David A Menassa
- Department of Neuropathology & The Queen's College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden.
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17
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Sabogal-Guáqueta AM, Marmolejo-Garza A, Trombetta-Lima M, Oun A, Hunneman J, Chen T, Koistinaho J, Lehtonen S, Kortholt A, Wolters JC, Bakker BM, Eggen BJL, Boddeke E, Dolga A. Species-specific metabolic reprogramming in human and mouse microglia during inflammatory pathway induction. Nat Commun 2023; 14:6454. [PMID: 37833292 PMCID: PMC10575978 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42096-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Metabolic reprogramming is a hallmark of the immune cells in response to inflammatory stimuli. This metabolic process involves a switch from oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) to glycolysis or alterations in other metabolic pathways. However, most of the experimental findings have been acquired in murine immune cells, and little is known about the metabolic reprogramming of human microglia. In this study, we investigate the transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolic profiles of mouse and iPSC-derived human microglia challenged with the TLR4 agonist LPS. We demonstrate that both species display a metabolic shift and an overall increased glycolytic gene signature in response to LPS treatment. The metabolic reprogramming is characterized by the upregulation of hexokinases in mouse microglia and phosphofructokinases in human microglia. This study provides a direct comparison of metabolism between mouse and human microglia, highlighting the species-specific pathways involved in immunometabolism and the importance of considering these differences in translational research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angélica María Sabogal-Guáqueta
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, Behavioral and Cognitive Neurosciences (BCN), University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Alejandro Marmolejo-Garza
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, Behavioral and Cognitive Neurosciences (BCN), University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, section Molecular Neurobiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marina Trombetta-Lima
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, Behavioral and Cognitive Neurosciences (BCN), University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, section Molecular Neurobiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Asmaa Oun
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, Behavioral and Cognitive Neurosciences (BCN), University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jasmijn Hunneman
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, Behavioral and Cognitive Neurosciences (BCN), University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Tingting Chen
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, Behavioral and Cognitive Neurosciences (BCN), University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jari Koistinaho
- A.I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, 70211, Kuopio, Finland
- Neuroscience Center, Helsinki Institute for Life Science, University of Helsinki, Haartmaninkatu 8, 00290, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Sarka Lehtonen
- A.I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, 70211, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Arjan Kortholt
- Department of Cell Biochemistry, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- YETEM-Innovative Technologies Application and Research Centre Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey
| | - Justina C Wolters
- Laboratory of Pediatrics, Section Systems Medicine of Metabolism and Signaling, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Barbara M Bakker
- Laboratory of Pediatrics, Section Systems Medicine of Metabolism and Signaling, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Bart J L Eggen
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, section Molecular Neurobiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Erik Boddeke
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, section Molecular Neurobiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Amalia Dolga
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, Behavioral and Cognitive Neurosciences (BCN), University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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18
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Pan AL, Audrain M, Sakakibara E, Joshi R, Zhu X, Wang Q, Wang M, Beckmann ND, Schadt EE, Gandy S, Zhang B, Ehrlich ME, Salton SR. Dual-specificity protein phosphatase 6 (DUSP6) overexpression reduces amyloid load and improves memory deficits in male 5xFAD mice. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.08.24.554335. [PMID: 37662269 PMCID: PMC10473733 DOI: 10.1101/2023.08.24.554335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
Background Dual specificity protein phosphatase 6 (DUSP6) was recently identified as a key hub gene in a causal network that regulates late-onset Alzheimer's disease. Importantly, decreased DUSP6 levels are correlated with an increased clinical dementia rating in human subjects, and DUSP6 levels are additionally decreased in the 5xFAD amyloidopathy mouse model. Methods AAV5-DUSP6 or AAV5-GFP (control) were stereotactically injected into the dorsal hippocampus (dHc) of female and male 5xFAD or wild type mice to overexpress DUSP6 or GFP. Spatial learning memory of these mice was assessed in the Barnes maze, after which hippocampal tissues were isolated for downstream analysis. Results Barnes maze testing indicated that DUSP6 overexpression in the dHc of 5xFAD mice improved memory deficits and was associated with reduced amyloid plaque load, Aß 1-40 and Aß 1-42 levels, and amyloid precursor protein processing enzyme BACE1, in male but not in female mice. Microglial activation and microgliosis, which are increased in 5xFAD mice, were significantly reduced by dHc DUSP6 overexpression in both males and females. Transcriptomic profiling of female 5xFAD hippocampus revealed upregulated expression of genes involved in inflammatory and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathways, while dHc DUSP6 overexpression in female 5xFAD mice downregulated a subset of genes in these pathways. A limited number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) (FDR<0.05) were identified in male mice; gene ontology analysis of DEGs (p<0.05) identified a greater number of synaptic pathways that were regulated by DUSP6 overexpression in male compared to female 5xFAD. Notably, the msh homeobox 3 gene, Msx3 , previously shown to regulate microglial M1/M2 polarization and reduce neuroinflammation, was one of the most robustly upregulated genes in female and male wild type and 5xFAD mice overexpressing DUSP6. Conclusions In summary, our data indicate that DUSP6 overexpression in dHc reduced amyloid deposition and memory deficits in male but not female 5xFAD mice, whereas reduced neuroinflammation and microglial activation were observed in both males and females. The sex-dependent regulation of synaptic pathways by DUSP6 overexpression, however, correlated with the improvement of spatial memory deficits in male but not female 5xFAD.
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19
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Chatterjee D, Krainc D. Mechanisms of Glucocerebrosidase Dysfunction in Parkinson's Disease. J Mol Biol 2023; 435:168023. [PMID: 36828270 PMCID: PMC10247409 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2023.168023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
Beta-glucocerebrosidase is a lysosomal hydrolase, encoded by GBA1 that represents the most common risk gene associated with Parkinson's disease (PD) and Lewy Body Dementia. Glucocerebrosidase dysfunction has been also observed in the absence of GBA1 mutations across different genetic and sporadic forms of PD and related disorders, suggesting a broader role of glucocerebrosidase in neurodegeneration. In this review, we highlight recent advances in mechanistic characterization of glucocerebrosidase function as the foundation for development of novel therapeutics targeting glucocerebrosidase in PD and related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diptaman Chatterjee
- Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA. https://twitter.com/NeilChatterBox
| | - Dimitri Krainc
- Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA; Simpson Querrey Center for Neurogenetics, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA.
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20
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Cerneckis J, Shi Y. Modeling brain macrophage biology and neurodegenerative diseases using human iPSC-derived neuroimmune organoids. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1198715. [PMID: 37342768 PMCID: PMC10277621 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1198715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Cerneckis
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States
- Irell and Manella Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States
| | - Yanhong Shi
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States
- Irell and Manella Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States
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21
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Schafer ST, Mansour AA, Schlachetzki JCM, Pena M, Ghassemzadeh S, Mitchell L, Mar A, Quang D, Stumpf S, Ortiz IS, Lana AJ, Baek C, Zaghal R, Glass CK, Nimmerjahn A, Gage FH. An in vivo neuroimmune organoid model to study human microglia phenotypes. Cell 2023; 186:2111-2126.e20. [PMID: 37172564 PMCID: PMC10284271 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2023.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Revised: 12/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Microglia are specialized brain-resident macrophages that play crucial roles in brain development, homeostasis, and disease. However, until now, the ability to model interactions between the human brain environment and microglia has been severely limited. To overcome these limitations, we developed an in vivo xenotransplantation approach that allows us to study functionally mature human microglia (hMGs) that operate within a physiologically relevant, vascularized immunocompetent human brain organoid (iHBO) model. Our data show that organoid-resident hMGs gain human-specific transcriptomic signatures that closely resemble their in vivo counterparts. In vivo two-photon imaging reveals that hMGs actively engage in surveilling the human brain environment, react to local injuries, and respond to systemic inflammatory cues. Finally, we demonstrate that the transplanted iHBOs developed here offer the unprecedented opportunity to study functional human microglia phenotypes in health and disease and provide experimental evidence for a brain-environment-induced immune response in a patient-specific model of autism with macrocephaly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon T Schafer
- Laboratory of Genetics, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany; Center for Organoid Systems, Technical University of Munich, 85748 Garching, Germany; TranslaTUM - Organoid Hub, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany.
| | - Abed AlFatah Mansour
- Laboratory of Genetics, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Medical Neurobiology, Institute for Medical Research Israel-Canada, Faculty of Medicine, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9112102, Israel.
| | - Johannes C M Schlachetzki
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Monique Pena
- Laboratory of Genetics, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany; Center for Organoid Systems, Technical University of Munich, 85748 Garching, Germany; TranslaTUM - Organoid Hub, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Saeed Ghassemzadeh
- Laboratory of Genetics, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Lisa Mitchell
- Laboratory of Genetics, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Amanda Mar
- Laboratory of Genetics, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Daphne Quang
- Laboratory of Genetics, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Sarah Stumpf
- Laboratory of Genetics, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Irene Santisteban Ortiz
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany; Center for Organoid Systems, Technical University of Munich, 85748 Garching, Germany; TranslaTUM - Organoid Hub, Technical University of Munich, 81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Addison J Lana
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Clara Baek
- Laboratory of Genetics, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Raghad Zaghal
- Department of Medical Neurobiology, Institute for Medical Research Israel-Canada, Faculty of Medicine, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9112102, Israel
| | - Christopher K Glass
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Axel Nimmerjahn
- Waitt Advanced Biophotonics Center, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Fred H Gage
- Laboratory of Genetics, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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22
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Qu W, Canoll P, Hargus G. Molecular Insights into Cell Type-specific Roles in Alzheimer's Disease: Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-based Disease Modelling. Neuroscience 2023; 518:10-26. [PMID: 35569647 PMCID: PMC9974106 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2022.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia resulting in widespread degeneration of the central nervous system with severe cognitive impairment. Despite the devastating toll of AD, the incomplete understanding of the complex molecular mechanisms hinders the expeditious development of effective cures. Emerging evidence from animal studies has shown that different brain cell types play distinct roles in the pathogenesis of AD. Glutamatergic neurons are preferentially affected in AD and pronounced gliosis contributes to the progression of AD in both a cell-autonomous and a non-cell-autonomous manner. Much has been discovered through genetically modified animal models, yet frequently failed translational attempts to clinical applications call for better disease models. Emerging evidence supports the significance of human-induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) derived brain cells in modeling disease development and progression, opening new avenues for the discovery of molecular mechanisms. This review summarizes the function of different cell types in the pathogenesis of AD, such as neurons, microglia, and astrocytes, and recognizes the potential of utilizing the rapidly growing iPSC technology in modeling AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhui Qu
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States; Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Peter Canoll
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Gunnar Hargus
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States; Taub Institute for Research on Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States.
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23
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McMillan RE, Wang E, Carlin AF, Coufal NG. Human microglial models to study host-virus interactions. Exp Neurol 2023; 363:114375. [PMID: 36907350 PMCID: PMC10521930 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2023.114375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023]
Abstract
Microglia, the resident macrophage of the central nervous system, are increasingly recognized as contributing to diverse aspects of human development, health, and disease. In recent years, numerous studies in both mouse and human models have identified microglia as a "double edged sword" in the progression of neurotropic viral infections: protecting against viral replication and cell death in some contexts, while acting as viral reservoirs and promoting excess cellular stress and cytotoxicity in others. It is imperative to understand the diversity of human microglial responses in order to therapeutically modulate them; however, modeling human microglia has been historically challenging due to significant interspecies differences in innate immunity and rapid transformation upon in vitro culture. In this review, we discuss the contribution of microglia to the neuropathogenesis of key neurotropic viral infections: human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1), Zika virus (ZIKV), Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), West Nile virus (WNV), Herpes simplex virus (HSV), and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). We pay special attention to recent work with human stem cell-derived microglia and propose strategies to leverage these powerful models to further uncover species- and disease-specific microglial responses and novel therapeutic interventions for neurotropic viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel E McMillan
- Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States of America; Department of Pathology and Medicine, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States of America
| | - Ellen Wang
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States of America; Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States of America
| | - Aaron F Carlin
- Department of Pathology and Medicine, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States of America.
| | - Nicole G Coufal
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States of America; Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States of America.
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24
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Wei JR, Xiao D, Tang L, Xu N, Liu R, Shen Y, Xu Z, Sang X, Ge J, Xiang M, Liu S. Neural cell isolation from adult macaques for high-throughput analyses and neurosphere cultures. Nat Protoc 2023:10.1038/s41596-023-00820-z. [PMID: 37045994 DOI: 10.1038/s41596-023-00820-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
The low number of neural progenitor cells (NPCs) present in the adult and aged primate brains represents a challenge for generating high-yield and viable in vitro cultures of primary brain cells. Here we report a step-by-step approach for the fast and reproducible isolation of high-yield and viable primary brain cells, including mature neurons, immature cells and NPCs, from adult and aged macaques. We describe the anesthesia, transcardial perfusion and brain tissue preparation; the subsequent microdissection of the regions of interest and their enzymatic dissociation, leading to the separation of single cells. The cell isolation steps of our protocol can also be used for routine cell culturing, in particular for NPC expansion and differentiation, suitable for studies of hippocampal neurogenesis in the adult macaque brain. The purified primary brain cells are largely free from myelin debris and erythrocytes, paving the way for multiple downstream applications in vitro and in vivo. When combined with single-cell profiling techniques, this approach allows an unbiased and comprehensive mapping of cell states in the adult and aged macaque brain, which is needed to advance our understanding of human cognitive and neurological diseases. The neural cell isolation protocol requires 4 h and a team of four to six users with expertize in primary brain cell isolation to avoid tissue hypoxia during the time-sensitive steps of the procedure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Ru Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, China
| | - Dongchang Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lei Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, China
| | - Nana Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ruifeng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuhui Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zihui Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xuan Sang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jian Ge
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, China
| | - Mengqing Xiang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, China
| | - Sheng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Guangzhou, China.
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Disease, Guangzhou, China.
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25
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Balusu S, Praschberger R, Lauwers E, De Strooper B, Verstreken P. Neurodegeneration cell per cell. Neuron 2023; 111:767-786. [PMID: 36787752 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2023.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
Abstract
The clinical definition of neurodegenerative diseases is based on symptoms that reflect terminal damage of specific brain regions. This is misleading as it tells little about the initial disease processes. Circuitry failures that underlie the clinical symptomatology are themselves preceded by clinically mostly silent, slowly progressing multicellular processes that trigger or are triggered by the accumulation of abnormally folded proteins such as Aβ, Tau, TDP-43, and α-synuclein, among others. Methodological advances in single-cell omics, combined with complex genetics and novel ways to model complex cellular interactions using induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, make it possible to analyze the early cellular phase of neurodegenerative disorders. This will revolutionize the way we study those diseases and will translate into novel diagnostics and cell-specific therapeutic targets, stopping these disorders in their early track before they cause difficult-to-reverse damage to the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sriram Balusu
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Roman Praschberger
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Elsa Lauwers
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bart De Strooper
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium; UK Dementia Research Institute, London, UK.
| | - Patrik Verstreken
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium.
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26
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Duan J, Wang Y. Modeling nervous system tumors with human stem cells and organoids. CELL REGENERATION (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2023; 12:4. [PMID: 36854987 PMCID: PMC9975125 DOI: 10.1186/s13619-022-00150-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/05/2022] [Indexed: 03/02/2023]
Abstract
Nervous system cancers are the 10th leading cause of death worldwide, many of which are difficult to diagnose and exhibit varying degrees of treatment resistance. The limitations of existing cancer models, such as patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models and genetically engineered mouse (GEM) models, call for the development of novel preclinical cancer models to more faithfully mimic the patient's cancer and offer additional insights. Recent advances in human stem cell biology, organoid, and genome-editing techniques allow us to model nervous system tumors in three types of next-generation tumor models: cell-of-origin models, tumor organoids, and 3D multicellular coculture models. In this review, we introduced and compared different human stem cell/organoid-derived models, and comprehensively summarized and discussed the recently developed models for various primary tumors in the central and peripheral nervous systems, including glioblastoma (GBM), H3K27M-mutant Diffuse Midline Glioma (DMG) and H3G34R-mutant High-grade Glioma (HGG), Low-grade Glioma (LGG), Neurofibromatosis Type 1 (NF1), Neurofibromatosis Type 2 (NF2), Medulloblastoma (MB), Atypical Teratoid/rhabdoid Tumor (AT/RT), and meningioma. We further compared these models with PDX and GEM models, and discussed the opportunities and challenges of precision nervous cancer modeling with human stem cells and organoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Duan
- grid.412901.f0000 0004 1770 1022Department of Neurosurgery, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University and National Collaborative Innovation Center, Chengdu, 610041 China
| | - Yuan Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University and National Collaborative Innovation Center, Chengdu, 610041, China.
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27
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Cuní-López C, Stewart R, White AR, Quek H. 3D in vitro modelling of human patient microglia: A focus on clinical translation and drug development in neurodegenerative diseases. J Neuroimmunol 2023; 375:578017. [PMID: 36657374 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2023.578017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/08/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Microglia have an increasingly well-recognised role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, thereby becoming attractive therapeutic targets. However, the development of microglia-targeted therapeutics for neurodegeneration has had limited success. This stems partly from the lack of clinically relevant microglia model systems. To circumvent this translational gap, patient-derived microglial cell models established using conventional 2D in vitro techniques have emerged. Though promising, these models lack the microenvironment and multicellular interactions of the brain needed to maintain microglial homeostasis. In this review, we discuss the use of 3D in vitro platforms to improve microglia modelling and their potential benefits to fast-track drug development for neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Cuní-López
- Mental Health and Neuroscience, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane 4006, QLD, Australia; Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4006, QLD, Australia.
| | - Romal Stewart
- Mental Health and Neuroscience, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane 4006, QLD, Australia; UQ Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4006, QLD, Australia.
| | - Anthony R White
- Mental Health and Neuroscience, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane 4006, QLD, Australia; School of Biomedical Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, QLD, Australia.
| | - Hazel Quek
- Mental Health and Neuroscience, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane 4006, QLD, Australia; School of Biomedical Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, QLD, Australia; School of Biomedical Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane 4059, QLD, Australia.
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28
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Li M, Gao L, Zhao L, Zou T, Xu H. Toward the next generation of vascularized human neural organoids. Med Res Rev 2023; 43:31-54. [PMID: 35993813 DOI: 10.1002/med.21922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Thanks to progress in the development of three-dimensional (3D) culture technologies, human central nervous system (CNS) development and diseases have been gradually deciphered by using organoids derived from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) or human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs). Selforganized neural organoids (NOs) have been used to mimic morphogenesis and functions of specific organs in vitro. Many NOs have been reproduced in vitro, such as those mimicking the human brain, retina, and spinal cord. However, NOs fail to capitulate to the maturation and complexity of in vivo neural tissues. The persistent issues with current NO cultivation protocols are inadequate oxygen supply and nutrient diffusion due to the absence of vascular networks. In vivo, the developing CNS is interpenetrated by vasculature that not only supplies oxygen and nutrients but also provides a structural template for neuronal growth. To address these deficiencies, recent studies have begun to couple NO culture with bioengineering techniques and methodologies, including genetic engineering, coculture, multidifferentiation, microfluidics and 3D bioprinting, and transplantation, which might promote NO maturation and create more functional NOs. These cutting-edge methods could generate an ever more reliable NO model in vitro for deciphering the codes of human CNS development, disease progression, and translational application. In this review, we will summarize recent technological advances in culture strategies to generate vascularized NOs (vNOs), with a special focus on cerebral- and retinal-organoid models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minghui Li
- Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, China.,Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Lixiong Gao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Third Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Ling Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ting Zou
- Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, China.,Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Haiwei Xu
- Southwest Hospital/Southwest Eye Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, China.,Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, China
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29
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Warden AS, Han C, Hansen E, Trescott S, Nguyen C, Kim R, Schafer D, Johnson A, Wright M, Ramirez G, Lopez-Sanchez M, Coufal NG. Tools for studying human microglia: In vitro and in vivo strategies. Brain Behav Immun 2023; 107:369-382. [PMID: 36336207 PMCID: PMC9810377 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2022.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 09/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia may only represent 10% of central nervous system (CNS) cells but they perform critical roles in development, homeostasis and neurological disease. Microglia are also environmentally regulated, quickly losing their transcriptomic and epigenetic signature after leaving the CNS. This facet of microglia biology is both fascinating and technically challenging influencing the study of the genetics and function of human microglia in a manner that recapitulates the CNS environment. In this review we provide a comprehensive overview of existing in vitro and in vivo methodology to study human microglia, such as immortalized cells lines, stem cell-derived microglia, cerebral organoids and xenotransplantation. Since there is currently no single method that completely recapitulates all hallmarks of human ex vivo adult homeostatic microglia, we also discuss the advantages and limitations of each existing model as a practical guide for researchers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna S Warden
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Claudia Han
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Emily Hansen
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Samantha Trescott
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Celina Nguyen
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Roy Kim
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Danielle Schafer
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Avalon Johnson
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Madison Wright
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Gabriela Ramirez
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Mark Lopez-Sanchez
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Nicole G Coufal
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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30
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Weth FR, Peng L, Paterson E, Tan ST, Gray C. Utility of the Cerebral Organoid Glioma 'GLICO' Model for Screening Applications. Cells 2022; 12:cells12010153. [PMID: 36611949 PMCID: PMC9818141 DOI: 10.3390/cells12010153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma, a grade IV astrocytoma, is regarded as the most aggressive primary brain tumour with an overall median survival of 16.0 months following the standard treatment regimen of surgical resection, followed by radiotherapy and chemotherapy with temozolomide. Despite such intensive treatment, the tumour almost invariably recurs. This poor prognosis has most commonly been attributed to the initiation, propagation, and differentiation of cancer stem cells. Despite the unprecedented advances in biomedical research over the last decade, the current in vitro models are limited at preserving the inter- and intra-tumoural heterogeneity of primary tumours. The ability to understand and manipulate complex cancers such as glioblastoma requires disease models to be clinically and translationally relevant and encompass the cellular heterogeneity of such cancers. Therefore, brain cancer research models need to aim to recapitulate glioblastoma stem cell function, whilst remaining amenable for analysis. Fortunately, the recent development of 3D cultures has overcome some of these challenges, and cerebral organoids are emerging as cutting-edge tools in glioblastoma research. The opportunity to generate cerebral organoids via induced pluripotent stem cells, and to perform co-cultures with patient-derived cancer stem cells (GLICO model), has enabled the analysis of cancer development in a context that better mimics brain tissue architecture. In this article, we review the recent literature on the use of patient-derived glioblastoma organoid models and their applicability for drug screening, as well as provide a potential workflow for screening using the GLICO model. The proposed workflow is practical for use in most laboratories with accessible materials and equipment, a good first pass, and no animal work required. This workflow is also amenable for analysis, with separate measures of invasion, growth, and viability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freya R. Weth
- Gillies McIndoe Research Institute, 7 Hospital Road, Wellington 6021, New Zealand
- Centre for Biodiscovery and School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6021, New Zealand
| | - Lifeng Peng
- Centre for Biodiscovery and School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6021, New Zealand
| | - Erin Paterson
- Gillies McIndoe Research Institute, 7 Hospital Road, Wellington 6021, New Zealand
| | - Swee T. Tan
- Gillies McIndoe Research Institute, 7 Hospital Road, Wellington 6021, New Zealand
- Wellington Regional Plastic, Maxillofacial & Burns Unit, Hutt Hospital, Lower Hutt 5040, New Zealand
- Department of Surgery, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Clint Gray
- Gillies McIndoe Research Institute, 7 Hospital Road, Wellington 6021, New Zealand
- Correspondence:
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31
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Shalita R, Amit I. The industrial genomic revolution: A new era in neuroimmunology. Neuron 2022; 110:3429-3443. [PMID: 36257321 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2022.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Recent discoveries have highlighted the importance of understanding the complex interactions between the brain and immune systems in health and neurodegenerative disease. In this Primer, we outline single-cell multiomics approaches. Applied to patient samples with rich metadata, functional organoids, and animal models, single-cell studies will facilitate the next big leap in translational neuro-immune research. We believe this will pave the way for reshaping our understanding of the neuro-immune interplay: from descriptive to functional, from broad cell types to effective pathways, spatial organization, biomarkers, and targets, toward a comprehensive mechanistic understanding that will be the impetus for drug discovery and therapeutic breakthroughs. We envision that in the near future, single-cell multiomics technologies, along with the advances in immunotherapy development, will become a major driving force and fully integrated resource in the toolset for the development of therapeutic agents in neuroimmunology, which will revolutionize drug development for treating neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rotem Shalita
- Department of Systems Immunology, Weizmann Institute, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel.
| | - Ido Amit
- Department of Systems Immunology, Weizmann Institute, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel.
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32
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Sheridan SD, Horng JE, Perlis RH. Patient-Derived In Vitro Models of Microglial Function and Synaptic Engulfment in Schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2022; 92:470-479. [PMID: 35232567 PMCID: PMC10039432 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2022.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2021] [Revised: 12/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Multiple lines of evidence implicate dysregulated microglia-mediated synaptic pruning in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. In vitro human cellular studies represent a promising means of pursuing this hypothesis, complementing efforts with animal models and postmortem human data while addressing their limitations. The challenges in culturing homogeneous populations of cells derived from postmortem or surgical biopsy brain material from patients, and their limited availability, has led to a focus on differentiation of induced pluripotent stem cells. These methods too have limitations, in that they disrupt the epigenome and can demonstrate line-to-line variability due in part to extended time in culture, partial reprogramming, and/or residual epigenetic memory from the cell source, yielding large technical artifacts. Yet another strategy uses direct transdifferentiation of peripheral mononuclear blood cells, or umbilical cord blood cells, to microglia-like cells. Any of these approaches can be paired with patient-derived synaptosomes from differentiated neurons as a simpler alternative to co-culture. Patient-derived microglia models may facilitate identification of novel modulators of synaptic pruning and identification of biomarkers that may allow more targeted early interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven D Sheridan
- Center for Genomic Medicine and Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Joy E Horng
- Center for Genomic Medicine and Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Roy H Perlis
- Center for Genomic Medicine and Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts.
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33
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Sonn I, Honda-Ozaki F, Yoshimatsu S, Morimoto S, Watanabe H, Okano H. Single transcription factor efficiently leads human induced pluripotent stem cells to functional microglia. Inflamm Regen 2022; 42:20. [PMID: 35773727 PMCID: PMC9248164 DOI: 10.1186/s41232-022-00201-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Microglia are innate immune cells that are the only residential macrophages in the central nervous system. They play vital physiological roles in the adult brain and during development. Microglia are particularly in the spotlight because many genetic risk factors recently identified for neurodegenerative diseases are largely expressed in microglia. Rare polymorphisms in these risk alleles lead to abnormal activity of microglia under traumatic or disease conditions. Methods In the present study, to investigate the multifaceted functions of human microglia, we established a novel robust protocol to generate microglia from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) using a combination of cytokines and small chemicals essential for microglia ontogeny. Moreover, we highly enhanced the microglial differentiation efficiency by forcing the expression of PU.1, a crucial transcription factor for microglial development, during posterior mesoderm differentiation. Results By our novel method, we demonstrated the generation of a greater number of hiPSC-derived microglia (hiMGLs, approximately 120-folds) than the prior methods (at most 40-folds). Over 90% of the hiMGLs expressed microglia-specific markers, such as CX3CR1 and IBA-1. Whole-transcriptome analysis revealed that these hiMGLs are similar to human primary microglia but differ from monocytes/macrophages. Furthermore, the specific physiological functions of microglia were confirmed through indices of lipopolysaccharide responsiveness, phagocytotic ability, and inflammasome formation. By co-culturing these hiMGLs with mouse primary neurons, we demonstrated that hiMGLs can regulate the activity and maturation of neurons. Conclusions In this study, our new simple, rapid, and highly efficient method for generating microglia from hiPSCs will prove useful for future investigations on microglia in both physiological and disease conditions, as well as for drug discovery. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s41232-022-00201-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iki Sonn
- Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan.,Research Fellow of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), Tokyo, 102-0083, Japan
| | - Fumiko Honda-Ozaki
- K Pharma, Inc., Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 251-8555, Japan.,Department of Pediatrics and Developmental Biology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, 113-8510, Japan
| | - Sho Yoshimatsu
- Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan.,Research Fellow of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), Tokyo, 102-0083, Japan
| | - Satoru Morimoto
- Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Hirotaka Watanabe
- Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Okano
- Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan.
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34
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Wang ZB, Wang ZT, Sun Y, Tan L, Yu JT. The future of stem cell therapies of Alzheimer's disease. Ageing Res Rev 2022; 80:101655. [PMID: 35660003 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2022.101655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) places a heavy burden on the global economy. There is no effective disease-modifying treatment available at present. Since the advent of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) reprogrammed from human somatic cells, new approaches using iPSC-derived products provided novel insights into AD pathogenesis and drug candidates for the AD treatment. Multiple recent studies using animal models have increased the possibility of reducing pathology and improving cognitive function by cell replacement therapies. In this review, we summarized the advantages, limitations, and future directions of cell replacement therapy, discussed the safety and ethical concerns of this novel therapeutic approach and the possibility of translation to clinical practice.
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35
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McComish SF, MacMahon Copas AN, Caldwell MA. Human Brain-Based Models Provide a Powerful Tool for the Advancement of Parkinson’s Disease Research and Therapeutic Development. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:851058. [PMID: 35651633 PMCID: PMC9149087 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.851058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease and affects approximately 2–3% of the population over the age of 65. PD is characterised by the loss of dopaminergic neurons from the substantia nigra, leading to debilitating motor symptoms including bradykinesia, tremor, rigidity, and postural instability. PD also results in a host of non-motor symptoms such as cognitive decline, sleep disturbances and depression. Although existing therapies can successfully manage some motor symptoms for several years, there is still no means to halt progression of this severely debilitating disorder. Animal models used to replicate aspects of PD have contributed greatly to our current understanding but do not fully replicate pathological mechanisms as they occur in patients. Because of this, there is now great interest in the use of human brain-based models to help further our understanding of disease processes. Human brain-based models include those derived from embryonic stem cells, patient-derived induced neurons, induced pluripotent stem cells and brain organoids, as well as post-mortem tissue. These models facilitate in vitro analysis of disease mechanisms and it is hoped they will help bridge the existing gap between bench and bedside. This review will discuss the various human brain-based models utilised in PD research today and highlight some of the key breakthroughs they have facilitated. Furthermore, the potential caveats associated with the use of human brain-based models will be detailed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah F. McComish
- Department of Physiology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- School of Medicine, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Adina N. MacMahon Copas
- Department of Physiology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- School of Medicine, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Maeve A. Caldwell
- Department of Physiology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- School of Medicine, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- *Correspondence: Maeve A. Caldwell,
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36
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Cai Y, Liu J, Wang B, Sun M, Yang H. Microglia in the Neuroinflammatory Pathogenesis of Alzheimer's Disease and Related Therapeutic Targets. Front Immunol 2022; 13:856376. [PMID: 35558075 PMCID: PMC9086828 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.856376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative disease worldwide, characterized by progressive neuron degeneration or loss due to excessive accumulation of β-amyloid (Aβ) peptides, formation of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), and hyperphosphorylated tau. The treatment of AD has been only partially successful as the majority of the pharmacotherapies on the market may alleviate some of the symptoms. In the occurrence of AD, increasing attention has been paid to neurodegeneration, while the resident glial cells, like microglia are also observed. Microglia, a kind of crucial glial cells associated with the innate immune response, functions as double-edge sword role in CNS. They exert a beneficial or detrimental influence on the adjacent neurons through secretion of both pro-inflammatory cytokines as well as neurotrophic factors. In addition, their endocytosis of debris and toxic protein like Aβ and tau ensures homeostasis of the neuronal microenvironment. In this review, we will systematically summarize recent research regarding the roles of microglia in AD pathology and latest microglia-associated therapeutic targets mainly including pro-inflammatory genes, anti-inflammatory genes and phagocytosis at length, some of which are contradictory and controversial and warrant to further be investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Miao Sun
- Institute for Fetology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Hao Yang
- Institute for Fetology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
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37
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Redefining microglia states: Lessons and limits of human and mouse models to study microglia states in neurodegenerative diseases. Semin Immunol 2022; 60:101651. [PMID: 36155944 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2022.101651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Microglia are resident macrophages of the brain parenchyma and play an essential role in various aspects of brain development, plasticity, and homeostasis. With recent advances in single-cell RNA-sequencing, heterogeneous microglia transcriptional states have been identified in both animal models of neurodegenerative disorders and patients. However, the functional roles of these microglia states remain unclear; specifically, the question of whether individual states or combinations of states are protective or detrimental (or both) in the context of disease progression. To attempt to answer this, the field has largely relied on studies employing mouse models, human in vitro and chimeric models, and human post-mortem tissue, all of which have their caveats, but used in combination can enable new biological insight and validation of candidate disease pathways and mechanisms. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of disease-associated microglia states and phenotypes in neurodegenerative disorders, discuss important considerations when comparing mouse and human microglia states and functions, and identify areas of microglia biology where species differences might limit our understanding of microglia state.
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38
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Ackermann M, Rafiei Hashtchin A, Manstein F, Carvalho Oliveira M, Kempf H, Zweigerdt R, Lachmann N. Continuous human iPSC-macrophage mass production by suspension culture in stirred tank bioreactors. Nat Protoc 2022; 17:513-539. [PMID: 35039668 DOI: 10.1038/s41596-021-00654-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have the potential to enable the development of cell-based therapies for numerous disease conditions. We here provide a detailed protocol for the mass production of iPSC-derived macrophages (iPSC-Mac) in scalable suspension culture on an orbital shaker or in stirred-tank bioreactors (STBRs). This strategy is straightforward, robust and characterized by the differentiation of primed iPSC aggregates into 'myeloid-cell-forming-complex' intermediates by means of a minimal cytokine cocktail. In contrast to the 'batch-like differentiation approaches' established for other iPSC-derived lineages, myeloid-cell-forming-complex-intermediates are stably maintained in suspension culture and continuously generate functional and highly pure iPSC-Mac. Employing a culture volume of 120 ml in the STBR platform, ~1-4 × 107 iPSC-Mac can be harvested at weekly intervals for several months. The STBR technology allows for real-time monitoring of crucial process parameters such as biomass, pH, dissolved oxygen, and nutrition levels; the system also promotes systematic process development, optimization and linear upscaling. The process duration, from the expansion of iPSC until the first iPSC-Mac harvest, is 28 d. Successful application of the protocol requires expertise in pluripotent stem cell culture, differentiation and analytical methods, such as flow cytometry. Fundamental know-how in biotechnology is also advantageous to run the process in the STBR platform. The continuous, scalable production of well-defined iPSC-Mac populations is highly relevant to various fields, ranging from developmental biology, immunology and cell therapies to industrial applications for drug safety and discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mania Ackermann
- Institute of Experimental Hematology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,REBIRTH, Research Center for Translational and Regenerative Medicine, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,Department of Pediatric Pneumology, Allergology and Neonatology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Anna Rafiei Hashtchin
- Institute of Experimental Hematology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,REBIRTH, Research Center for Translational and Regenerative Medicine, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Felix Manstein
- REBIRTH, Research Center for Translational and Regenerative Medicine, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,Leibniz Research Laboratories for Biotechnology and Artificial Organs (LEBAO), Department of Cardiothoracic, Transplantation and Vascular Surgery, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Marco Carvalho Oliveira
- Institute of Experimental Hematology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,REBIRTH, Research Center for Translational and Regenerative Medicine, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Henning Kempf
- Leibniz Research Laboratories for Biotechnology and Artificial Organs (LEBAO), Department of Cardiothoracic, Transplantation and Vascular Surgery, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,Department of Stem Cell Biology, Novo Nordisk A/S, Måløv, Denmark
| | - Robert Zweigerdt
- REBIRTH, Research Center for Translational and Regenerative Medicine, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.,Leibniz Research Laboratories for Biotechnology and Artificial Organs (LEBAO), Department of Cardiothoracic, Transplantation and Vascular Surgery, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Nico Lachmann
- Institute of Experimental Hematology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany. .,REBIRTH, Research Center for Translational and Regenerative Medicine, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany. .,Department of Pediatric Pneumology, Allergology and Neonatology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany. .,Biomedical Research in Endstage and Obstructive Lung Disease Hannover (BREATH), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Hannover, Germany. .,Cluster of Excellence RESIST (EXC 2155), Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.
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39
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Wang H. Microglia Heterogeneity in Alzheimer's Disease: Insights From Single-Cell Technologies. Front Synaptic Neurosci 2022; 13:773590. [PMID: 35002670 PMCID: PMC8735255 DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2021.773590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are resident immune cells in the central nervous system and play critical roles in brain immunity, development, and homeostasis. The pathology of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) triggers activation of microglia. Microglia express many AD risk genes, suggesting that their response to AD pathology can affect disease progression. Microglia have long been considered a homogenous cell population. The diversity of microglia has gained great interest in recent years due to the emergence of novel single-cell technologies, such as single-cell/nucleus RNA sequencing and single-cell mass cytometry by time-of-flight. This review summarizes the current knowledge about the diversity/heterogeneity of microglia and distinct microglia states in the brain of both AD mouse models and patients, as revealed by single-cell technologies. It also discusses the future developments for application of single-cell technologies and the integration of these technologies with functional studies to further dissect microglia biology in AD. Defining the functional correlates of distinct microglia states will shed new light on the pathological roles of microglia and might uncover new relevant therapeutic targets for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hansen Wang
- Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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40
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Liu E, Karpf L, Bohl D. Neuroinflammation in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Frontotemporal Dementia and the Interest of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells to Study Immune Cells Interactions With Neurons. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 14:767041. [PMID: 34970118 PMCID: PMC8712677 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2021.767041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammation is a shared hallmark between amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). For long, studies were conducted on tissues of post-mortem patients and neuroinflammation was thought to be only bystander result of the disease with the immune system reacting to dying neurons. In the last two decades, thanks to improving technologies, the identification of causal genes and the development of new tools and models, the involvement of inflammation has emerged as a potential driver of the diseases and evolved as a new area of intense research. In this review, we present the current knowledge about neuroinflammation in ALS, ALS-FTD, and FTD patients and animal models and we discuss reasons of failures linked to therapeutic trials with immunomodulator drugs. Then we present the induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology and its interest as a new tool to have a better immunopathological comprehension of both diseases in a human context. The iPSC technology giving the unique opportunity to study cells across differentiation and maturation times, brings the hope to shed light on the different mechanisms linking neurodegeneration and activation of the immune system. Protocols available to differentiate iPSC into different immune cell types are presented. Finally, we discuss the interest in studying monocultures of iPS-derived immune cells, co-cultures with neurons and 3D cultures with different cell types, as more integrated cellular approaches. The hope is that the future work with human iPS-derived cells helps not only to identify disease-specific defects in the different cell types but also to decipher the synergistic effects between neurons and immune cells. These new cellular tools could help to find new therapeutic approaches for all patients with ALS, ALS-FTD, and FTD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elise Liu
- Sorbonne Université, Institut du Cerveau - Paris Brain Institute - ICM, INSERM, CNRS, AP-HP, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Léa Karpf
- Sorbonne Université, Institut du Cerveau - Paris Brain Institute - ICM, INSERM, CNRS, AP-HP, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Delphine Bohl
- Sorbonne Université, Institut du Cerveau - Paris Brain Institute - ICM, INSERM, CNRS, AP-HP, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
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41
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Preman P, TCW J, Calafate S, Snellinx A, Alfonso-Triguero M, Corthout N, Munck S, Thal DR, Goate AM, De Strooper B, Arranz AM. Human iPSC-derived astrocytes transplanted into the mouse brain undergo morphological changes in response to amyloid-β plaques. Mol Neurodegener 2021; 16:68. [PMID: 34563212 PMCID: PMC8467145 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-021-00487-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Increasing evidence for a direct contribution of astrocytes to neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative processes causing Alzheimer's disease comes from molecular and functional studies in rodent models. However, these models may not fully recapitulate human disease as human and rodent astrocytes differ considerably in morphology, functionality, and gene expression. RESULTS To address these challenges, we established an approach to study human astrocytes within the mouse brain by transplanting human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived astrocyte progenitors into neonatal brains. Xenografted hiPSC-derived astrocyte progenitors differentiated into astrocytes that integrated functionally within the mouse host brain and matured in a cell-autonomous way retaining human-specific morphologies, unique features, and physiological properties. In Alzheimer´s chimeric brains, transplanted hiPSC-derived astrocytes responded to the presence of amyloid plaques undergoing morphological changes that seemed independent of the APOE allelic background. CONCLUSIONS In sum, we describe here a promising approach that consist of transplanting patient-derived and genetically modified astrocytes into the mouse brain to study human astrocyte pathophysiology in the context of Alzheimer´s disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pranav Preman
- grid.511015.1VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium ,grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven (University of Leuven), Leuven, Belgium
| | - Julia TCW
- grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn Institute of Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY USA ,grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Department of Neuroscience & Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY USA ,grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer’s disease, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY USA
| | - Sara Calafate
- grid.511015.1VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium ,grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven (University of Leuven), Leuven, Belgium
| | - An Snellinx
- grid.511015.1VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium ,grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven (University of Leuven), Leuven, Belgium
| | - Maria Alfonso-Triguero
- grid.427629.cAchucarro Basque Center for Neuroscience, Leioa, Spain ,grid.11480.3c0000000121671098Department of Neurosciences, Universidad del País Vasco (UPV/EHU), Leioa, Spain
| | - Nikky Corthout
- grid.511015.1VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium ,grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven (University of Leuven), Leuven, Belgium ,VIB Bio Imaging Core, Campus Gasthuisberg, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sebastian Munck
- grid.511015.1VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium ,grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven (University of Leuven), Leuven, Belgium ,VIB Bio Imaging Core, Campus Gasthuisberg, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Dietmar Rudolf Thal
- grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Laboratory for Neuropathology, Department of Imaging and Pathology, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), Department of Pathology, KU Leuven (University of Leuven), University Hospital Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Alison M Goate
- grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn Institute of Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY USA ,grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Department of Neuroscience & Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY USA ,grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer’s disease, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY USA
| | - Bart De Strooper
- grid.511015.1VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium ,grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven (University of Leuven), Leuven, Belgium ,grid.83440.3b0000000121901201Dementia Research Institute, University College London, London, UK
| | - Amaia M Arranz
- grid.511015.1VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium ,grid.5596.f0000 0001 0668 7884Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven (University of Leuven), Leuven, Belgium ,grid.427629.cAchucarro Basque Center for Neuroscience, Leioa, Spain ,grid.424810.b0000 0004 0467 2314Ikerbasque Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain
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Current tools to interrogate microglial biology. Neuron 2021; 109:2805-2819. [PMID: 34390649 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2021.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Microglial cells perform a plethora of functions in the central nervous system (CNS), involving them in brain development, maintenance of homeostasis in adulthood, and CNS diseases. Significant technical advancements have prompted the development of novel systems adapted to analyze microglia with increasing specificity and intricacy. The advent of single-cell technologies combined with targeted mouse models has been decisive in deciphering microglia heterogeneity and dissecting microglial functions. However sophisticated these tools have become, clear limitations remain. Understanding their pitfalls and advantages ensures their correct application. Therefore, we provide a guide to the cutting-edge methods currently available to dissect microglial biology.
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