Transcriptional regulation of N6-methyladenosine orchestrates sex-dimorphic metabolic traits

Disparities, trends, and projections of cancer mortality burden related to high body mass index in China from 2005 to 2030

High body mass index (BMI), defined as a BMI greater than or equal to 20-25 kg/m2, is considered a rapid-increased risk factor for cancer. Based on comparative risk assessment framework, we elaborate the mortality burden of cancers attributable to high BMI in China. In 2018, we estimated that there were 85.19 thousand cancer-related deaths and 2,220.01 thousand cancer-related years of life lost (YLLs) attributable to high BMI in China. Of these, 62.14 thousand deaths and 1,698.81 thousand YLLs were from males. With higher socioeconomic levels, the burden generally increases initially and then decreases. By 2030, the projected age-standardized mortality rate attributable to high BMI in China will be 6.67 per 100,000 people, increased by 3.25% from that in 2005. In summary, the swift increase and substantial disparities in the cancer burden attributable to high BMI underscore the urgent need for evidence-based policies and interventions in China.

m6A alters ribosome dynamics to initiate mRNA degradation

Degradation of mRNA containing N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is essential for cell growth, differentiation, and stress responses. Here, we show that m6A markedly alters ribosome dynamics and that these alterations mediate the degradation effect of m6A on mRNA. We find that m6A is a potent inducer of ribosome stalling, and these stalls lead to ribosome collisions that form a unique conformation unlike those seen in other contexts. We find that the degree of ribosome stalling correlates with m6A-mediated mRNA degradation, and increasing the persistence of collided ribosomes correlates with enhanced m6A-mediated mRNA degradation. Ribosome stalling and collision at m6A is followed by recruitment of YTHDF m6A reader proteins to promote mRNA degradation. We show that mechanisms that reduce ribosome stalling and collisions, such as translation suppression during stress, stabilize m6A-mRNAs and increase their abundance, enabling stress responses. Overall, our study reveals the ribosome as the initial m6A sensor for beginning m6A-mRNA degradation.

Lycopene, a natural plant extract, alleviates atrazine-induced ferroptosis in hepatocytes by activating cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase

Atrazine (ATZ) and diaminochlorotriazine (DACT) accumulation poses liver health risks in animals and humans. Lycopene (LYC), a carotenoid found in red plants and fruits, exhibits potent antioxidant effects. This study explores the interaction between LYC and ATZ in mouse hepatocyte ferroptosis and the potential regulatory role of Cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (CYPOR) in this process. Male mice were exposed to ATZ (50 mg/kg or 200 mg/kg) and/or LYC (5 mg/kg) by gavage for 21 days. In vitro experiments, a mouse hepatocyte cell line (AML12) was exposed to DACT (200 μM) and/or LYC (2 μM) for 12 h with or without small interfering RNA treatment. We found that both ATZ and DACT promoted CYPOR expression and caused liver injury. ATZ/DACT promotes Fe2+ accumulation and lipid peroxidation, ultimately leading to Ferroptosis in mouse hepatocytes. However, LYC alleviated ATZ/DACT-induced Ferroptosis by inhibiting CYPOR. The CYPOR knockdown resulted in the blockage of ATZ/DACT-induced ferroptosis, while the alleviation of ferroptosis by LYC was further enhanced. Thus, CYPOR can regulate ferroptosis in mouse hepatocytes and is a novel target for the treatment of hepatocyte ferroptosis-related diseases. Lycopene can be used as a functional dietary supplement to scavenge ferroptosis and reduce chronic liver disease.

METTL14-Induced M6A Methylation Increases G6pc Biosynthesis, Hepatic Glucose Production and Metabolic Disorders in Obesity

METTL14 dimerizes with METTL3 to install N6-methyladenosine (m6A) on mRNA (m6A writers). Subsequently, m6A readers bind to m6A-marked RNA to influence its metabolism. RNA m6A emerges to critically regulate multiple intracellular processes; however, there is a gap in our understanding of m6A in liver metabolism. Glucose-6-phosphatase catalytic subunit (G6pc) mediates hepatic glucose production (HGP) and serves as the gatekeeper for glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis; however, G6pc regulation is not fully understood. Here, METTL14 is identified as a posttranscriptional regulator of G6pc. Liver METTL14, METTL3, and m6A-methylated G6pc mRNA are upregulated in mice with diet-induced obesity. Deletion of Mettl14 decreases, whereas overexpression of METTL14 increases, G6pc mRNA m6A in hepatocytes in vitro and in vivo. Five m6A sites are identified, and disruption of them (G6pcΔ 5A) blocks METTL14-induced m6A methylation of G6pcΔ 5A mRNA. METTL14 increases both stability and translation of G6pc but not G6pcΔ 5A mRNA. YTHDF1 and YTHDF3 but not YTHDF2 (m6A readers) bind to m6A-marked G6pc mRNA to increase its synthesis. Deletion of hepatic Mettl14 decreases gluconeogenesis in primary hepatocytes, liver slices, and mice. Hepatocyte-specific restoration of G6pc reverses defective HGP in Mettl14 knockout mice. These results unveil a METTL14/G6pc mRNA m6A/G6pc biosynthesis/HGP axis governing glucose metabolism in health and metabolic disease.

Association between the combination of the triglyceride-glucose index and obesity-related indices with hyperuricemia among children and adolescents in China

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of hyperuricemia (HUA) among Chinese children and adolescents is a significant public health concern. Triglyceride-glucose (TyG) is recognized as a reliable biomarker in predicting insulin resistance, a condition associated with various metabolic disorders. Nevertheless, research on the association between TyG and its obesity-related indices with HUA among children and adolescents in China is limited.

METHODS

This study utilized data from the 2017 Chinese National Nutrition and Health Surveillance of Children and Lactating Mothers. TyG, TyG-BMI, TyG-WC, and TyG-WHtR were calculated based on participants' fasting blood glucose, triglycerides, and measured height, weight, and waist circumference. Multivariable logistic regressions were used to assess the relationships between TyG and its obesity-related indices with HUA in children and adolescents. Receiver Operating Characteristic curves were constructed to compare the predictive power of these indicators. Furthermore, we conducted a stratified analysis based on sex and age. Restricted cubic spline curves were used to illustrate the dose-response relationship of TyG, TyG-BMI, TyG-WC, and TyG-WHtR with HUA in children and adolescents. The sensitivity analysis included 1:1 propensity score matching with a caliper value of 0.02 and adjustments to the diagnostic criteria for HUA.

RESULTS

After adjusting for all covariables, multivariable logistic regression analysis indicated that the fourth quartiles of TyG (OR: 1.33, 95% CI: 1.14-1.54, P < 0.001), TyG-BMI (OR: 1.43, 95% CI: 1.14-1.79, P = 0.002), TyG-WC (OR: 1.76, 95% CI: 1.42-2.19, P < 0.001), and TyG-WHtR (OR: 1.92, 95% CI: 1.66-2.21, P < 0.001) were significantly associated with higher odds of HUA, compared to the lowest quartile. Stratified analyses identified a significant interaction between sex and TyG-BMI, TyG-WC, and TyG-WHtR. Compared to the first quartile, the highest quartile of TyG-BMI, TyG-WC and TyG-WHtR among male participants exhibited a stronger association with HUA(Male: TyG-BMI: OR = 1.82, 95%CI: 1.28-2.59; TyG-WC: OR = 1.87, 95%CI: 1.31-2.67; TyG-WHtR: OR = 2.07, 95%CI: 1.68-2.54).

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified a significant association between TyG and related obesity indices with HUA in children and adolescents in China. Furthermore, stronger associations of TyG-BMI, TyG-WC, and TyG-WHtR with HUA were observed, particularly in males.

A genome-wide ATLAS of liver chromatin accessibility reveals that sex dictates diet-induced nucleosome dynamics

The three-dimensional organization of the genome plays an important role in cellular function. Alterations between open and closed chromatin states contributes to DNA binding, collaborative transcriptional activities and informs post-transcriptional processing. The liver orchestrates systemic metabolic control and has the ability to mount a rapid adaptive response to environmental challenges. We interrogated the chromatin architecture in liver under different dietary cues. Using ATAC-seq, we mapped over 120,000 nucleosome peaks, revealing a remarkably preserved hepatic chromatin landscape across feeding conditions. Stringent analysis of nucleosome rearrangements in response to diet revealed that sex is the dominant factor segregating changes in chromatin accessibility. A lipid-rich diet led to a more accessible chromatin confirmation at promoter regions in female mice along with enrichment of promoter binding CCAAT-binding domain proteins. Male liver exhibited stronger binding for nutrient sensing nuclear receptors. Integrative analysis with gene expression corroborated a role for chromatin states in informing functional differences in metabolic traits. We distinguished the impact of gonadal sex and chromosomal sex as determinants of chromatin modulation by diet using the Four Core Genotypes mouse model. Our data provide mechanistic evidence underlying the regulation for the critical sex-dimorphic GWAS gene, Pnpla3 . In summary, we provide a comprehensive epigenetic resource in murine liver that uncovers the complexity of chromatin dynamics in response to diet and sex.

Highlights

ATAC-Seq, RNA-Seq, and FCG model-integrated analysis unravel sex differences in chromatin accessibility and transcriptome responses to dietary challenges.Lipid-rich diet led to sex-biased chromatin confirmation at promoter regions.Gonadal sex emerged as the most prevalent determinant of the sex bias hepatic chromatin modulation by lipid-rich diets. The critical sex-dimorphic GWAS gene Pnpla3 is suppressed by testosterone, which underlies hepatic differences in expression between the sexes.

Liver-specific actions of GH and IGF1 that protect against MASLD

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD; also known as nonalcoholic fatty liver disease) is a chronic condition associated with metabolic syndrome, a group of conditions that includes obesity, insulin resistance, hyperlipidaemia and cardiovascular disease. Primary growth hormone (GH) deficiency is associated with MASLD, and the decline in circulating levels of GH with weight gain might contribute to the development of MASLD. Raising endogenous GH secretion or administering GH replacement therapy in the context of MASLD enhances insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) production and reduces steatosis and the severity of liver injury. GH and IGF1 indirectly control MASLD progression by regulating systemic metabolic function. Evidence supports the proposal that GH and IGF1 also have a direct role in regulating liver metabolism and health. This Review focuses on how GH acts on the hepatocyte in a sex-dependent manner to limit lipid accumulation, reduce stress, and promote survival and regeneration. In addition, we discuss how GH and IGF1 might regulate non-parenchymal cells of the liver to control inflammation and fibrosis, which have a major effect on hepatocyte survival and regeneration. Development of a better understanding of how GH and IGF1 coordinate the functions of specific, individual liver cell types might provide insight into the aetiology of MASLD initiation and progression and suggest novel approaches for the treatment of MASLD.

The deleterious effects and potential therapeutic strategy of fluorene-9-bisphenol on circadian activity and liver diseases in zebrafish and mice

Increasing evidence indicates that disturbance of the clock genes, which leads to systemic endocrine perturbation, plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of metabolic and liver diseases. Fluorene-9-bisphenol (BHPF) is utilized in the manufacturing of plastic materials but its biological effects on liver homeostasis remain unknown. The impacts and involved mechanisms of BHPF on the liver diseases, metabolism, and circadian clock were comprehensively studied by zebrafish and mouse models. The therapeutic effect of melatonin (MT) was also verified. Zebrafish and mouse models with either acute exposure (0.5 and 1 µmol/L, 1-4 days post-fertilization) or chronic oral exposure (0.5 and 50 mg/(kg·2 days), 30 days) were established with various BHPF concentrations. Herein, we identified a crucial role for estrogenic regulation in liver development and circadian locomotor rhythms damaged by BHPF in a zebrafish model. BHPF mice showed chaos in circadian activity through the imbalance of circadian clock component Brain and Muscle Aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator-like 1 in the liver and brain. The liver sexual dimorphic alteration along with reduced growth hormone and estrogens played a critical role in damaged glucose metabolism, hepatic inflammation, and fibrosis induced by BHPF. Besides, sleep improvement by exogenous MT alleviated BHPF-related glucose metabolism and liver injury in mice. We proposed the pathogenesis of metabolic and liver disease resulting from BHPF and promising targeted therapy for liver metabolism disorders associated with endocrine perturbation chemicals. These results might play a warning role in the administration of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in everyday life and various industry applications.

Sub-Chronic Methomyl Exposure Induces Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Responses in Zebrafish with Higher Female Susceptibility

The widespread use of carbamate pesticides has raised significant environmental and health concerns, particularly regarding water contamination and the disruption of defense systems in organisms. Despite these concerns, research on the differential impacts of pesticides on male and female organisms remains limited. This study focused on methomyl, investigating sex-specific differences in liver antioxidant defenses and inflammatory response indices in male and female zebrafish after 56 days of exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations (0, 0.05, 0.10, and 0.20 mg/L). Our findings indicate that methomyl exposure significantly increased ROS content in zebrafish livers, inducing oxidative stress and activating enzymatic antioxidant defenses such as SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px activities. Sub-chronic exposure altered the expression of apoptosis-related genes (Bax/Bcl2a and Caspases3a), resulting in liver cell apoptosis in a concentration-dependent manner, with the 0.20 mg/L concentration causing the most severe damage. Additionally, methomyl exposure at environmentally relevant concentrations triggered persistent inflammatory responses in liver tissues, evidenced by increased transcription levels of inflammatory factor genes and the activation of toll-like receptors, heightening susceptibility to exogenous allergens. It is noteworthy that oxidative damage indicators (AST, ROS, MDA) and inflammatory gene expressions (IL-1β, TNF-α) were significantly higher in female livers compared to male livers at 0.10-0.20 mg/L methomyl exposure. Consequently, our study underscores the potential adverse effects of environmental methomyl exposure on aquatic organisms and highlights the need for heightened consideration of the risks posed by environmental endocrine disruptors to female health and safety.

Development of hepatic steatosis in male and female mule ducks after respective force-feeding programs

Male and female mule ducks were subjected to a force-feeding diet to induce liver steatosis as it is generally done only with male ducks for the production of foie gras. The different biochemical measurements indicated that the course of hepatic steatosis development was present in both sexes and associated with a huge increase in liver weight mainly due to the synthesis and accumulation of lipids in hepatocytes. In livers of male and female ducks, this lipid accumulation was associated with oxidative stress and hypoxia. However, certain specific modifications (kinetics of lipid droplet development and hepatic inflammation) indicate that female ducks may tolerate force-feeding less well, at least at the hepatic level. This is in contradiction with what is generally reported concerning hepatic steatosis induced by dietary disturbances in mammals but could be explained by the very specific conditions imposed by force-feeding. Despite this, force-feeding female ducks seems entirely feasible, provided that the final quality of the product is as good as that of the male ducks, which will remain to be demonstrated in future studies.

Hepatic lipopolysaccharide binding protein partially uncouples inflammation from fibrosis in MAFLD

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), recently renamed metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD), is the most common liver disease worldwide. The progression to fibrosis, occurring against a backdrop of hepatic steatosis and inflammation, critically determines liver-related morbidity and mortality. Inflammatory processes contribute to various stages of MAFLD and thought to instigate hepatic fibrosis. For this reason, targeting inflammation has been heavily nominated as a strategy to mitigate liver fibrosis. Lipopolysaccharide binding protein (LBP) is a secreted protein that plays an established role in innate immune responses. Here, using adoptive transfer studies and tissue-specific deletion models we show that hepatocytes are the dominant contributors to circulating LBP. In a murine model of MAFLD, hepatocyte-specific deletion of LBP restrained hepatic inflammation and improved liver function abnormalities, but not measures of fibrosis. Human studies, including genetic evidence, corroborate an important role for LBP in hepatic inflammation with minimal impact on fibrosis. Collectively, our data argues against the idea that targeting hepatic inflammation is a viable approach to reducing fibrosis.

m6A RNA Methylation and Implications for Hepatic Lipid Metabolism

This review presents a summary of recent progress in research on the N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification and regulatory roles in hepatic lipid metabolism. As the most abundant internal modification of eukaryotic RNA, the m6A modification is a dynamic and reversible process of the m6A enzyme system, which includes writers, erasers, and readers. m6A methylation depressed lipid synthesis and facilitated lipolysis in liver. The depletion of m6A methyltransferase Mettl14/Mettl3 raised fatty acid synthase (FAS), stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (SCD1), acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), and elongase of very long chain fatty acids 6 (ELOVL6) in rodent liver, causing increases in liver weight, triglyceride (TG) production, and content in hepatocytes. FTO catalyzed m6A demethylation and the suppression m6A reader YTHDC2 promoted hepatocellular TG generation and hepatic steatosis in C57BL/6 mice through sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c (SREBP-1c) signaling pathway, which upregulated the lipogenic genes FAS, SCD1, ACC, recombinant acetyl coenzyme a carboxylase alpha, and cell death-inducing DNA fragmentation factor-like effector C (CIDEC). Furthermore, FTO overexpression did not only enhance mitochondrial fusion to impair mitochondrial function and lipid oxidation but also promoted lipid peroxidation, accompanied by excessive TG in hepatocytes and rodent liver. Elevated m6A modification potently suppressed hepatic lipid accumulation, while the shrinkage of m6A modification arose hepatic lipid deposition. These findings have highlighted the beneficial role of m6A RNA methylation in hepatic lipid metabolism, potentially protecting liver from lipid metabolic disorders.

Sex-based differences in short- and longer-term diet-induced metabolic heart disease

Sex-based differences in the development of obesity-induced cardiometabolic dysfunction are well documented, however, the specific mechanisms are not completely understood. Obesity has been linked to dysregulation of the epitranscriptome, but the role of N6-methyladenosine (m6A) RNA methylation has not been investigated in relation to the sex differences during obesity-induced cardiac dysfunction. In the current study, male and female C57BL/6J mice were subjected to short- and long-term high-fat/high-sucrose (HFHS) diet to induce obesogenic stress. Cardiac echocardiography showed males developed systolic and diastolic dysfunction after 4 mo of diet, but females maintained normal cardiac function despite both sexes being metabolically dysfunctional. Cardiac m6A machinery gene expression was differentially regulated by duration of HFHS diet in male, but not female mice, and left ventricular ejection fraction correlated with RNA machinery gene levels in a sex- and age-dependent manner. RNA-sequencing of cardiac transcriptome revealed that females, but not males may undergo protective cardiac remodeling early in the course of obesogenic stress. Taken together, our study demonstrates for the first time that cardiac RNA methylation machinery genes are regulated early during obesogenic stress in a sex-dependent manner and may play a role in the sex differences observed in cardiometabolic dysfunction.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Sex differences in obesity-associated cardiomyopathy are well documented but incompletely understood. We show for the first time that RNA methylation machinery genes may be regulated in response to obesogenic diet in a sex- and age-dependent manner and levels may correspond to cardiac systolic function. Our cardiac RNA-seq analysis suggests female, but not male mice may be protected from cardiac dysfunction by a protective cardiac remodeling response early during obesogenic stress.

The regulatory role of m6A methylation modification in metabolic syndrome pathogenesis and progression

Metabolic syndromes are characterized by various complications caused by disrupted glucose and lipid metabolism, which are major factors affecting the health of a population. However, existing diagnostic and treatment strategies have limitations, such as the lack of early diagnostic and therapeutic approaches, variability in patient responses to treatment, and cost-effectiveness. Therefore, developing alternative solutions for metabolic syndromes is crucial. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is one of the most abundant modifications that determine the fate of RNA. m6A modifications are closely associated with metabolic syndrome development and present novel prospects for clinical applications. Aberrant m6A modifications have been detected during inflammatory infiltration, apoptosis, autophagy, iron sagging, necrosis, and scorching during metabolic syndrome pathogenesis and progression. However, few reviews have systematically described the correlation between m6A modifications and these factors concerning metabolic syndrome pathogenesis and progression. This study summarizes the m6A methylation regulators and their roles in metabolic syndrome development, highlighting the potential of m6A modification as a biomarker in metabolic disorders.

Sex differences in energy metabolism: natural selection, mechanisms and consequences

Metabolic homeostasis operates differently in men and women. This sex asymmetry is the result of evolutionary adaptations that enable women to resist loss of energy stores and protein mass while remaining fertile in times of energy deficit. During starvation or prolonged exercise, women rely on oxidation of lipids, which are a more efficient energy source than carbohydrates, to preserve glucose for neuronal and placental function and spare proteins necessary for organ function. Carbohydrate reliance in men could be an evolutionary adaptation related to defence and hunting, as glucose, unlike lipids, can be used as a fuel for anaerobic high-exertion muscle activity. The larger subcutaneous adipose tissue depots in healthy women than in healthy men provide a mechanism for lipid storage. As female mitochondria have higher functional capacity and greater resistance to oxidative damage than male mitochondria, uniparental inheritance of female mitochondria may reduce the transmission of metabolic disorders. However, in women, starvation resistance and propensity to obesity have evolved in tandem, and the current prevalence of obesity is greater in women than in men. The combination of genetic sex, programming by developmental testosterone in males, and pubertal sex hormones defines sex-specific biological systems in adults that produce phenotypic sex differences in energy homeostasis, metabolic disease and drug responses.

N6-methyladenosine RNA modification in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common chronic liver disease worldwide, influencing numerous regulatory axes and extrahepatic vital organs. The molecular mechanisms that lead to the progression of NAFLD remain unclear and knowledge on the pathways causing hepatocellular damage followed by lipid accumulation is limited. Recently, a number of studies have shown that mRNA N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification contributes to the progression of NAFLD. In this review, we summarize current knowledge on m6A modification in the metabolic processes associated with NAFLD and discuss the challenges of and prospects for therapeutic avenues based on m6A regulation for the treatment of liver disease.

Spenito-dependent metabolic sexual dimorphism intrinsic to fat storage cells

Metabolism in males and females is distinct. Differences are usually linked to sexual reproduction, with circulating signals (e.g. hormones) playing major roles. In contrast, sex differences prior to sexual maturity and intrinsic to individual metabolic tissues are less understood. We analyzed Drosophila melanogaster larvae and find that males store more fat than females, the opposite of the sexual dimorphism in adults. We show that metabolic differences are intrinsic to the major fat storage tissue, including many differences in the expression of metabolic genes. Our previous work identified fat storage roles for Spenito (Nito), a conserved RNA-binding protein and regulator of sex determination. Nito knockdown specifically in the fat storage tissue abolished fat differences between males and females. We further show that Nito is required for sex-specific expression of the master regulator of sex determination, Sex-lethal (Sxl). "Feminization" of fat storage cells via tissue-specific overexpression of a Sxl target gene made larvae lean, reduced the fat differences between males and females, and induced female-like metabolic gene expression. Altogether, this study supports a model in which Nito autonomously controls sexual dimorphisms and differential expression of metabolic genes in fat cells in part through its regulation of the sex determination pathway.

Gonadal sex vs genetic sex in experimental atherosclerosis

Epidemiological data and interventional studies with hormone replacement therapy suggest that women, at least until menopause, are at decreased cardiovascular risk compared to men. Still the molecular mechanisms beyond this difference are debated and the investigation in experimental models of atherosclerosis has been pivotal to prove that the activation of the estrogen receptor is atheroprotective, despite not enough to explain the differences reported in cardiovascular disease between male and female. This casts also for investigating the importance of the sex chromosome complement (genetic sex) beyond the contribution of sex hormones (gonadal sex) on atherosclerosis. Aim of this review is to present the dualism between gonadal sex and genetic sex with a focus on the data available from experimental models. The molecular mechanisms driving changes in lipid metabolism, immuno-inflammatory reactivity and vascular response in males and females that affect atherosclerosis progression will be discussed.

The impact of chromosomal sex on cardiometabolic health and disease

Many aspects of metabolism are sex-biased, from gene expression in metabolic tissues to the prevalence and presentation of cardiometabolic diseases. The influence of hormones produced by male and female gonads has been widely documented, but recent studies have begun to elucidate the impact of genetic sex (XX or XY chromosomes) on cellular and organismal metabolism. XX and XY cells have differential gene dosage conferred by specific genes that escape X chromosome inactivation or the presence of Y chromosome genes that are absent from XX cells. Studies in mouse models that dissociate chromosomal and gonadal sex have uncovered mechanisms for sex-biased epigenetic, transcriptional, and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression in conditions such as obesity, atherosclerosis, pulmonary hypertension, autoimmune disease, and Alzheimer's disease.

Sexual Dimorphism in Brain Sirtuin-1 and m6A Methylated Sirtuin-1 mRNA, and in Protection with Post-Injury Anti-miR-200c treatment, after Experimental Stroke in Aged Mice

We previously demonstrated that inhibition of miR-200c was protective against stroke in young adult male mice by augmenting sirtuin-1 (Sirt1). In the present study we assessed the role of miR-200c on injury, Sirt1, and bioenergetic and neuroinflammatory markers in aged male and female mice after experimental stroke. Mice were subjected to 1hr of transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and assessed for post-injury expression of miR-200c, Sirt1 protein and mRNA, N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methylated Sirt1 mRNA, ATP, cytochrome C oxidase activity, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), interleukin-6 (IL-6), infarct volume and motor function. MCAO induced a decrease in Sirt1 expression at 1d post-injury only in males. No differences in SIRT1 mRNA were observed between the sexes. Females had greater baseline miR-200c expression and a greater increase in miR-200c in response to stroke, while pre-MCAO levels of m6A SIRT1 was greater in females. Males had lower post-MCAO ATP levels and cytochrome C oxidase activity, and higher TNFα and IL-6. Post-injury intravenous treatment with anti-miR-200c reduced miR-200c expression in both sexes. In males, anti-miR-200c increased Sirt1 protein expression, reduced infarct volume, and improved neurological score. Conversely in females anti-miR-200c had no effect on Sirt1 levels and provided no protection against injury from MCAO. These results provide the first evidence of sexual dimorphism in the role of a microRNA in aged mice after experimental stroke and suggest sex-differences in epigenetic modulation of the transcriptome and downstream effects on miR biological activity may play a role in sexually dimorphic outcomes after stroke in aged brains.

m6A modification-tuned sphingolipid metabolism regulates postnatal liver development in male mice

Different organs undergo distinct transcriptional, epigenetic and physiological alterations that guarantee their functional maturation after birth. However, the roles of epitranscriptomic machineries in these processes have remained elusive. Here we demonstrate that expression of RNA methyltransferase enzymes Mettl3 and Mettl14 gradually declines during postnatal liver development in male mice. Liver-specific Mettl3 deficiency causes hepatocyte hypertrophy, liver injury and growth retardation. Transcriptomic and N6-methyl-adenosine (m⁶A) profiling identify the neutral sphingomyelinase, Smpd3, as a target of Mettl3. Decreased decay of Smpd3 transcripts due to Mettl3 deficiency results in sphingolipid metabolism rewiring, characterized by toxic ceramide accumulation and leading to mitochondrial damage and elevated endoplasmic reticulum stress. Pharmacological Smpd3 inhibition, Smpd3 knockdown or Sgms1 overexpression that counteracts Smpd3 can ameliorate the abnormality of Mettl3-deficent liver. Our findings demonstrate that Mettl3-N⁶-methyl-adenosine fine-tunes sphingolipid metabolism, highlighting the pivotal role of an epitranscriptomic machinery in coordination of organ growth and the timing of functional maturation during postnatal liver development.

Spenito-dependent metabolic sexual dimorphism intrinsic to fat storage cells

Metabolism in males and females is distinct. Differences are usually linked to sexual reproduction, with circulating signals (e.g. hormones) playing major roles. By contrast, sex differences prior to sexual maturity and intrinsic to individual metabolic tissues are less understood. We analyzed Drosophila melanogaster larvae and find that males store more fat than females, the opposite of the sexual dimorphism in adults. We show that metabolic differences are intrinsic to the major fat storage tissue, including many differences in the expression of metabolic genes. Our previous work identified fat storage roles for Spenito (Nito), a conserved RNA-binding protein and regulator of sex determination. Nito knockdown specifically in the fat storage tissue abolished fat differences between males and females. We further show that Nito is required for sex-specific expression of the master regulator of sex determination, Sex-lethal (Sxl). "Feminization" of fat storage cells via tissue-specific overexpression of a Sxl target gene made larvae lean, reduced the fat differences between males and females, and induced female-like metabolic gene expression. Altogether, this study supports a model in which Nito autonomously controls sexual dimorphisms and differential expression of metabolic genes in fat cells in part through its regulation of the sex determination pathway.

Cerebroprotective Role of N6-Methyladenosine Demethylase FTO (Fat Mass and Obesity-Associated Protein) After Experimental Stroke

BACKGROUND

FTO (fat mass and obesity-associated protein) demethylates N6-methyladenosine (m6A), which is a critical epitranscriptomic regulator of neuronal function. We previously reported that ischemic stroke induces m6A hypermethylation with a simultaneous decrease in FTO expression in neurons. Currently, we evaluated the functional significance of restoring FTO with an adeno-associated virus 9, and thus reducing m6A methylation in poststroke brain damage.

METHODS

Adult male and female C57BL/6J mice were injected with FTO adeno-associated virus 9 (intracerebral) at 21 days prior to inducing transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. Poststroke brain damage (infarction, atrophy, and white matter integrity) and neurobehavioral deficits (motor function, cognition, depression, and anxiety-like behaviors) were evaluated between days 1 and 28 of reperfusion.

RESULTS

FTO overexpression significantly decreased the poststroke m6A hypermethylation. More importantly, exogenous FTO substantially decreased poststroke gray and white matter damage and improved motor function recovery, cognition, and depression-like behavior in both sexes.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that FTO-dependent m6A demethylation minimizes long-term sequelae of stroke independent of sex.

Polychlorinated biphenyls alter hepatic m6A mRNA methylation in a mouse model of environmental liver disease

Exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) has been associated with liver injury in human cohorts and with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) in mice fed a high fat diet (HFD). N (6)-methyladenosine (m6A) modification of mRNA regulates transcript fate, but the contribution of m6A modification on the regulation of transcripts in PCB-induced steatosis and fibrosis is unknown. This study tested the hypothesis that PCB and HFD exposure alters the levels of m6A modification in transcripts that play a role in NASH in vivo. Male C57Bl6/J mice were fed a HFD (12 wks) and administered a single oral dose of Aroclor1260, PCB126, or Aroclor1260 + PCB126. Genome-wide identification of m6A peaks was accomplished by m6A mRNA immunoprecipitation sequencing (m6A-RIP) and the mRNA transcriptome identified by RNA-seq. Exposure of HFD-fed mice to Aroclor1260 decreased the number of m6A peaks and m6A-containing genes relative to PCB vehicle control whereas PCB126 or the combination of Aroclor1260 + PCB126 increased m6A modification frequency. ∼41% of genes had one m6A peak and ∼49% had 2-4 m6A peaks. 117 m6A peaks were common in the four experimental groups. The Aroclor1260 + PCB126 exposure group showed the highest number (52) of m6A-peaks. qRT-PCR confirmed enrichment of m6A-containing fragments of the Apob transcript with PCB exposure. A1cf transcript abundance, m6A peak count, and protein abundance was increased with Aroclor1260 + PCB126 co-exposure. Irrespective of the PCB type, all PCB groups exhibited enriched pathways related to lipid/lipoprotein metabolism and inflammation through the m6A modification. Integrated analysis of m6A-RIP-seq and mRNA-seq identified 242 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) with increased or reduced number of m6A peaks. These data show that PCB exposure in HFD-fed mice alters the m6A landscape offering an additional layer of regulation of gene expression affecting a subset of gene responses in NASH.

Liver Injury and Cell Survival in Non-Alcoholic Steatohepatitis Regulated by Sex-Based Difference through B Cell Lymphoma 6

The liver is a crucial organ for maintaining homeostasis in living organisms and is the center of various metabolic functions. Therefore, abnormal metabolic activity, as in metabolic syndrome, leads to pathological conditions, such as abnormal accumulation of lipids in the liver. Inflammation and cell death are induced by several stresses in the fatty liver, namely steatohepatitis. In recent years, an increase in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which is not dependent on excessive alcohol intake, has become an issue as a major cause of liver cirrhosis and liver cancer. There are several recent findings on functional sex-based differences, NASH, and cell stress and death in the liver. In particular, NASH-induced liver injury and tumorigeneses were suppressed by B cell lymphoma 6, the transcriptional factor regulating sex-based liver functional gene expression. In this review, we discuss cell response to stress and lipotoxicity in NASH and its regulatory mechanisms.

N6-methyladenosine modification governs liver glycogenesis by stabilizing the glycogen synthase 2 mRNA

Hepatic glycogen is the main source of blood glucose and controls the intervals between meals in mammals. Hepatic glycogen storage in mammalian pups is insufficient compared to their adult counterparts; however, the detailed molecular mechanism is poorly understood. Here, we show that, similar to glycogen storage pattern, N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification in mRNAs gradually increases during the growth of mice in liver. Strikingly, in the hepatocyte-specific Mettl3 knockout mice, loss of m6A modification disrupts liver glycogen storage. On the mechanism, mRNA of Gys2, the liver-specific glycogen synthase, is a substrate of METTL3 and plays a critical role in m6A-mediated glycogenesis. Furthermore, IGF2BP2, a "reader" protein of m6A, stabilizes the mRNA of Gys2. More importantly, reconstitution of GYS2 almost rescues liver glycogenesis in Mettl3-cKO mice. Collectively, a METTL3-IGF2BP2-GYS2 axis, in which METTL3 and IGF2BP2 regulate glycogenesis as "writer" and "reader" proteins respectively, is essential on maintenance of liver glycogenesis in mammals.

An evolutionary trade-off between host immunity and metabolism drives fatty liver in male mice

Adaptations to infectious and dietary pressures shape mammalian physiology and disease risk. How such adaptations affect sex-biased diseases remains insufficiently studied. In this study, we show that sex-dependent hepatic gene programs confer a robust (~300%) survival advantage for male mice during lethal bacterial infection. The transcription factor B cell lymphoma 6 (BCL6), which masculinizes hepatic gene expression at puberty, is essential for this advantage. However, protection by BCL6 protein comes at a cost during conditions of dietary excess, which result in overt fatty liver and glucose intolerance in males. Deleting hepatic BCL6 reverses these phenotypes but markedly lowers male survival during infection, thus establishing a sex-dependent trade-off between host defense and metabolic systems. Our findings offer strong evidence that some current sex-biased diseases are rooted in ancient evolutionary trade-offs between immunity and metabolism.

Sex matters in liver fat regulation

Growth hormone orchestrates a complex, sex-dependent balancing act.

The methyltransferase METTL3-mediated fatty acid metabolism revealed the mechanism of cinnamaldehyde on alleviating steatosis

BACKGROUND

As a primarily N6-methyladenosine methyltransferase, methyltransferase 3 (METTL3) plays a crucial role in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. However, its regulatory mechanism in steatosis remains unknown.

METHODS

Alpha mouse liver 12 (AML12) cells were induced by free fatty acids (FFA). Triglycerides, lipid droplet assay, and Oil Red O staining were performed to evaluate steatosis. The expression of METTL3 and cytochrome P450 family 4 subfamily f polypeptide 40 (CYP4F40) was measured using Western blotting, real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction, and dual-luciferase reporter assay. Triglycerides, total cholesterol, almandine aminotransferase, and aspartate aminotransferase were assayed after cinnamaldehyde treatment. Transcriptomics and metabolomics were performed to determine how METTL3 and cinnamaldehyde regulate steatosis.

RESULTS

METTL3 protein level was reduced in FFA-induced steatosis in AML12 cells, and METTL3 knockdown aggravated the steatosis. Cinnamaldehyde alleviated steatosis by increasing METTL3 expression. A combined transcriptomics and metabolomics analysis revealed that METTL3 knockdown reduced CYP4F40 expression and reduced the level of capric acid, gamma-linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, and docosapentaenoic acid. Cinnamaldehyde promoted CYP4F40 expression by increasing METTL3 and increased the levels of capric acid, gamma-linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, and docosapentaenoic acid. Finally, the beneficial effects of cinnamaldehyde on steatosis were reversed after METTL3 knockdown.

CONCLUSIONS

METTL3 knockdown aggravated steatosis in AML12 cells through CYP4F40-mediated fatty acid metabolism, and cinnamaldehyde alleviated steatosis via the METTL3-CYP4F40 pathway.

Alphaherpesvirus US3 protein-mediated inhibition of the m6A mRNA methyltransferase complex

Chemical modifications of mRNA, the so-called epitranscriptome, represent an additional layer of post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression. The most common epitranscriptomic modification, N6-methyladenosine (m6A), is generated by a multi-subunit methyltransferase complex. We show that alphaherpesvirus kinases trigger phosphorylation of several components of the m6A methyltransferase complex, including METTL3, METTL14, and WTAP, which correlates with inhibition of the complex and a near complete loss of m6A levels in mRNA of virus-infected cells. Expression of the viral US3 protein is necessary and sufficient for phosphorylation and inhibition of the m6A methyltransferase complex. Although m6A methyltransferase complex inactivation is not essential for virus replication in cell culture, the consensus m6A methylation motif is under-represented in alphaherpesvirus genomes, suggesting evolutionary pressure against methylation of viral transcripts. Together, these findings reveal that phosphorylation can be associated with inactivation of the m6A methyltransferase complex, in this case mediated by the viral US3 protein.

Interplay Between GH-regulated, Sex-biased Liver Transcriptome and Hepatic Zonation Revealed by Single-Nucleus RNA Sequencing

The zonation of liver metabolic processes is well-characterized; however, little is known about the cell type-specificity and zonation of sexually dimorphic gene expression or its growth hormone (GH)-dependent transcriptional regulators. We address these issues using single-nucleus RNA-sequencing of 32 000 nuclei representing 9 major liver cell types. Nuclei were extracted from livers from adult male and female mice; from males infused with GH continuously, mimicking the female plasma GH pattern; and from mice exposed to TCPOBOP, a xenobiotic agonist ligand of the nuclear receptor CAR that perturbs sex-biased gene expression. Analysis of these rich transcriptomic datasets revealed the following: 1) expression of sex-biased genes and their GH-dependent transcriptional regulators is primarily restricted to hepatocytes and is not a feature of liver nonparenchymal cells; 2) many sex-biased transcripts show sex-dependent zonation within the liver lobule; 3) gene expression is substantially feminized both in periportal and pericentral hepatocytes when male mice are infused with GH continuously; 4) sequencing nuclei increases the sensitivity for detecting thousands of nuclear-enriched long-noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) and enables determination of their liver cell type-specificity, sex-bias and hepatocyte zonation profiles; 5) the periportal to pericentral hepatocyte cell ratio is significantly higher in male than female liver; and 6) TCPOBOP exposure disrupts both sex-specific gene expression and hepatocyte zonation within the liver lobule. These findings highlight the complex interconnections between hepatic sexual dimorphism and zonation at the single-cell level and reveal how endogenous hormones and foreign chemical exposure can alter these interactions across the liver lobule with large effects both on protein-coding genes and lncRNAs.

Metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease: advances in genetic and epigenetic implications

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Fatty liver associated with metabolic dysfunction, also known under the acronym NAFLD (nonalcoholic fatty liver disease) is the leading global cause of chronic liver disease. In this review, we address the state of research on genetics and epigenetics of NAFLD with focus on key discoveries and conceptual advances over the past 2 years.

RECENT FINDINGS

The analysis of NAFLD-associated genetic variant effects on the whole-transcriptome, including quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with gene expression (eQTL) or splicing (sQTL) may explain pleiotropic effects. Functional experiments on NAFLD-epigenetics, including profiling of liver chromatin accessibility quantitative trait loci (caQTL) show co-localization with numerous genome-wide association study signals linked to metabolic and cardiovascular traits. Novel studies provide insights into the modulation of the hepatic transcriptome and epigenome by tissue microbiotas. Genetic variation of components of the liver cellular respirasome may result in broad cellular and metabolic effects. Mitochondrial noncoding RNAs may regulate liver inflammation and fibrogenesis. RNA modifications as N6-methyladenosine may explain sex-specific differences in liver gene transcription linked to lipid traits.

SUMMARY

The latest developments in the field of NAFLD-genomics can be leveraged for identifying novel disease mechanisms and therapeutic targets that may prevent the morbidity and mortality associated with disease progression.

VIDEO ABSTRACT

http://links.lww.com/COL/A23.

Integrative analysis reveals multiple modes of LXR transcriptional regulation in liver

The nuclear receptors liver X receptor (LXR) α and β play crucial roles in hepatic metabolism. Many genes induced in response to pharmacologic LXR agonism have been defined; however, the transcriptional consequences of loss of LXR binding to its genomic targets are less well characterized. Here, we addressed how deletion of both LXRα and LXRβ from mouse liver (LXR double knockout [DKO]) affects the transcriptional regulatory landscape by integrating changes in LXR binding, chromatin accessibility, and gene expression. Many genes involved in fatty acid metabolism showed reduced expression and chromatin accessibility at their intergenic and intronic regions in LXRDKO livers. Genes that were up-regulated with LXR deletion had increased chromatin accessibility at their promoter regions and were enriched for functions not linked to lipid metabolism. Loss of LXR binding in liver reduced the activity of a broad set of hepatic transcription factors, inferred through changes in motif accessibility. By contrast, accessibility at promoter nuclear factor Y (NF-Y) motifs was increased in the absence of LXR. Unexpectedly, we also defined a small set of LXR targets for direct ligand-dependent repression. These genes have LXR-binding sites but showed increased expression in LXRDKO liver and reduced expression in response to the LXR agonist. In summary, the binding of LXRs to the hepatic genome has broad effects on the transcriptional landscape that extend beyond its canonical function as an activator of lipid metabolic genes.

Function of m6A and its regulation of domesticated animals' complex traits

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most functionally important epigenetic modification in RNA. The m6A modification widely exists in mRNA and noncoding RNA, influences the mRNA processing, and regulates the secondary structure and maturation of noncoding RNA. Studies showed the important regulatory roles of m6A modification in animal's complex traits, such as development, immunity, and reproduction-related traits. As an important intermediate stage from animal genome to phenotype, the function of m6A in the complex trait formation of domestic animals cannot be neglected. This review discusses recent research advances on m6A modification in well-studied organisms, such as human and model organisms, and introduces m6A detection technologies, small-molecule inhibitors of m6A-related enzymes, interaction between m6A and other biological progresses, and the regulation mechanisms of m6A in domesticated animals' complex traits.