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Yuan Q, Yin L, He J, Zeng Q, Liang Y, Shen Y, Zu X. Metabolism of asparagine in the physiological state and cancer. Cell Commun Signal 2024; 22:163. [PMID: 38448969 PMCID: PMC10916255 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-024-01540-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Asparagine, an important amino acid in mammals, is produced in several organs and is widely used for the production of other nutrients such as glucose, proteins, lipids, and nucleotides. Asparagine has also been reported to play a vital role in the development of cancer cells. Although several types of cancer cells can synthesise asparagine alone, their synthesis levels are insufficient to meet their requirements. These cells must rely on the supply of exogenous asparagine, which is why asparagine is considered a semi-essential amino acid. Therefore, nutritional inhibition by targeting asparagine is often considered as an anti-cancer strategy and has shown success in the treatment of leukaemia. However, asparagine limitation alone does not achieve an ideal therapeutic effect because of stress responses that upregulate asparagine synthase (ASNS) to meet the requirements for asparagine in cancer cells. Various cancer cells initiate different reprogramming processes in response to the deficiency of asparagine. Therefore, it is necessary to comprehensively understand the asparagine metabolism in cancers. This review primarily discusses the physiological role of asparagine and the current progress in the field of cancer research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiong Yuan
- Cancer Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, PR China
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, Hunan, China
| | - Liyang Yin
- Cancer Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, PR China
| | - Jun He
- Department of Spine Surgery, The Nanhua Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Qiting Zeng
- Cancer Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, PR China
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, Hunan, China
| | - Yuxin Liang
- Cancer Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, PR China
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, 421001, Hunan, China
| | - Yingying Shen
- Cancer Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, PR China.
| | - Xuyu Zu
- Cancer Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan, 421001, PR China.
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Safrhansova L, Hlozkova K, Starkova J. Targeting amino acid metabolism in cancer. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2022; 373:37-79. [PMID: 36283767 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2022.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Metabolic rewiring is a characteristic hallmark of cancer cells. This phenomenon sustains uncontrolled proliferation and resistance to apoptosis by increasing nutrients and energy supply. However, reprogramming comes together with vulnerabilities that can be used against tumor and can be applied in targeted therapy. In the last years, the genetic background of tumors has been identified thoroughly and new therapies targeting those mutations tested. Nevertheless, we propose that targeting the phenotype of cancer cells could be another way of treatment aiming to avoid drug resistance and non-responsiveness of cancer patients. Amino acid metabolism is part of the altered processes in cancer cells. Amino acids are building blocks and also sensors of signaling pathways regulating main biological processes. In this comprehensive review, we described four amino acids (asparagine, arginine, methionine, and cysteine) which have been actively investigated as potential targets for anti-tumor therapy. Asparagine depletion is successfully used for decades in the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia and there is a strong implication to apply it to other types of tumors. Arginine auxotrophic tumors are great candidates for arginine-starvation therapy. Higher requirement for essential amino acids such as methionine and cysteine point out promising targetable weaknesses of cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Safrhansova
- CLIP - Childhood Leukaemia Investigation Prague, Prague, Czech Republic; Dept. of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Katerina Hlozkova
- CLIP - Childhood Leukaemia Investigation Prague, Prague, Czech Republic; Dept. of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Julia Starkova
- CLIP - Childhood Leukaemia Investigation Prague, Prague, Czech Republic; Dept. of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic; University Hospital Motol, Prague, Czech Republic.
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Darwesh DB, Al-Awthan YS, Elfaki I, Habib SA, Alnour TM, Darwish AB, Youssef MM. Anticancer Activity of Extremely Effective Recombinant L-Asparaginase from Burkholderia pseudomallei. J Microbiol Biotechnol 2022; 32:551-563. [PMID: 35354764 PMCID: PMC9628870 DOI: 10.4014/jmb.2112.12050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
L-asparaginase (E.C. 3.5.1.1) purified from bacterial cells is widely used in the food industry, as well as in the treatment of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. In the present study, the Burkholderia pseudomallei L-asparaginase gene was cloned into the pGEX-2T DNA plasmid, expressed in E. coli BL21 (DE3) pLysS, and purified to homogeneity using Glutathione Sepharose chromatography with 7.26 purification fold and 16.01% recovery. The purified enzyme exhibited a molecular weight of ~33.6 kDa with SDS-PAGE and showed maximal activity at 50°C and pH 8.0. It retained 95.1, 89.6%, and 70.2% initial activity after 60 min at 30°C, 40°C, and 50°C, respectively. The enzyme reserved its activity at 30°C and 37°C up to 24 h. The enzyme had optimum pH of 8 and reserved 50% activity up to 24 h. The recombinant enzyme showed the highest substrate specificity towards L-asparaginase substrate, while no detectable specificity was observed for L-glutamine, urea, and acrylamide at 10 mM concentration. THP-1, a human leukemia cell line, displayed significant morphological alterations after being treated with recombinant L-asparaginase and the IC50 of the purified enzyme was recorded as 0.8 IU. Furthermore, the purified recombinant L-asparaginase improved cytotoxicity in liver cancer HepG2 and breast cancer MCF-7 cell lines, with IC50 values of 1.53 and 18 IU, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doaa B. Darwesh
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Tabuk University, Tabuk 71491, Saudi Arabia,Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
| | - Yahya S. Al-Awthan
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Tabuk University, Tabuk 71491, Saudi Arabia,Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ibb University, 70270 Ibb, Yemen
| | - Imadeldin Elfaki
- Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Tabuk University, Tabuk 71491, Saudi Arabia
| | - Salem A. Habib
- Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Tabuk University, Tabuk 71491, Saudi Arabia
| | - Tarig M. Alnour
- Medical Laboratory Technology Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Tabuk University, Tabuk 71491, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed B. Darwish
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Suez University, El Salam-1, Suez 43533, Egypt
| | - Magdy M. Youssef
- Biochemistry Division, Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt,Corresponding author Phone: +201003429355 E-mail:
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Fan K, Liu Z, Gao M, Tu K, Xu Q, Zhang Y. Targeting Nutrient Dependency in Cancer Treatment. Front Oncol 2022; 12:820173. [PMID: 35178349 PMCID: PMC8846368 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.820173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabolic reprogramming is one of the hallmarks of tumor. Growing evidence suggests metabolic changes that support oncogenic progression may cause selective vulnerabilities that can be exploited for cancer treatment. Increasing demands for certain nutrients under genetic determination or environmental challenge enhance dependency of tumor cells on specific nutrient, which could be therapeutically developed through targeting such nutrient dependency. Various nutrients including several amino acids and glucose have been found to induce dependency in genetic alteration- or context-dependent manners. In this review, we discuss the extensively studied nutrient dependency and the biological mechanisms behind such vulnerabilities. Besides, existing applications and strategies to target nutrient dependency in different cancer types, accompanied with remaining challenges to further exploit these metabolic vulnerabilities to improve cancer therapies, are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kexin Fan
- The Institute of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, China
| | - Zhan Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xinjiang Second Medical College, Karamay, China
| | - Min Gao
- The Institute of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, China
| | - Kangsheng Tu
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, the First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Qiuran Xu
- The Key Laboratory of Tumor Molecular Diagnosis and Individualized Medicine of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Affiliated People's Hospital, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, China.,Research Center of Diagnosis and Treatment Technology for Hepatocellular Carcinoma of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yilei Zhang
- The Institute of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, China
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Mutant p53-reactivating compound APR-246 synergizes with asparaginase in inducing growth suppression in acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells. Cell Death Dis 2021; 12:709. [PMID: 34267184 PMCID: PMC8282662 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-021-03988-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Asparaginase depletes extracellular asparagine in the blood and is an important treatment for acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) due to asparagine auxotrophy of ALL blasts. Unfortunately, resistance occurs and has been linked to expression of the enzyme asparagine synthetase (ASNS), which generates asparagine from intracellular sources. Although TP53 is the most frequently mutated gene in cancer overall, TP53 mutations are rare in ALL. However, TP53 mutation is associated with poor therapy response and occurs at higher frequency in relapsed ALL. The mutant p53-reactivating compound APR-246 (Eprenetapopt/PRIMA-1Met) is currently being tested in phase II and III clinical trials in several hematological malignancies with mutant TP53. Here we present CEllular Thermal Shift Assay (CETSA) data indicating that ASNS is a direct or indirect target of APR-246 via the active product methylene quinuclidinone (MQ). Furthermore, combination treatment with asparaginase and APR-246 resulted in synergistic growth suppression in ALL cell lines. Our results thus suggest a potential novel treatment strategy for ALL.
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Jiang J, Batra S, Zhang J. Asparagine: A Metabolite to Be Targeted in Cancers. Metabolites 2021; 11:metabo11060402. [PMID: 34205460 PMCID: PMC8234323 DOI: 10.3390/metabo11060402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Amino acids play central roles in cancer progression beyond their function as building blocks for protein synthesis. Thus, targeting amino acid acquisition and utilization has been proved to be therapeutically beneficial in various pre-clinical models. In this regard, depletion of circulating asparagine, a nonessential amino acid, by L-asparaginase has been used in treating pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) for decades. Of interest, unlike most solid tumor cells, ALL cells lack the ability to synthesize their own asparagine de novo effectively. However, only until recently, growing evidence suggests that solid tumor cells strive to acquire adequate amounts of asparagine to support tumor progression. This process is subjected to the regulation at various levels, including oncogenic signal, tumor-niche interaction, intratumor heterogeneity and dietary accessibility. We will review the literature on L-asparaginase-based therapy as well as recent understanding of asparagine metabolism in solid tumor progression, with the hope of shedding light into a broader cancer therapeutic strategy by perturbing its acquisition and utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Jiang
- Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research, School of Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA;
| | - Sandeep Batra
- Riley Hospital for Children at Indiana University Health; Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
- Correspondence: (S.B.); (J.Z.)
| | - Ji Zhang
- Herman B Wells Center for Pediatric Research, School of Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA;
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Indiana University; Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
- Correspondence: (S.B.); (J.Z.)
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7
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Saeed H, Hemida A, Abdel-Fattah M, Eldoksh A, Shalaby M, Nematalla H, El-Nikhely N, Elkewedi M. Pseudomonas aeruginosa recombinant L-asparaginase: Large scale production, purification, and cytotoxicity on THP-1, MDA-MB-231, A549, Caco2 and HCT-116 cell lines. Protein Expr Purif 2021; 181:105820. [PMID: 33440252 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2021.105820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Revised: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 01/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In previous studies Pseudomonas aeruginosal-ASNase complete coding sequence gene, 984 bp (GenBank accession number KU161101.2) was isolated by PCR, cloned into pET28a(+) vector, expressed in E. coli DE3(BL21) pLysS, purified to apparent homogeneity and biochemically characterized. In the present work we highlight large scale production, affinity purification of the recombinant enzyme, effect of osmolytes on the stability of the l-ASNase and cytotoxicity on different cancer cell lines. Successful overexpression was achieved in E. coli as a 6-His-Tag fusion protein after 18 h of induction with lactose at a concentration of 2 g/L in fermentation medium and at 37 °C. The recombinant enzyme was purified to homogeneity using Ni2+ chelated Fast Flow Sepharose resin with 19758.8 specific activity and 10.28 purification fold. With respect to the effect of osmolytes on the stability of the purified enzyme, the majority of the tested osmolytes namely 5% maltose, 5% mannitol, 30% glycerol and 5% BSA were found to increase the stability of the recombinant l-ASNase as compared to the free enzyme. Triple negative breast cancer cell line, MDA-MB-231 treated with recombinant l-ASNase showed significant morphological changes and the IC50 of the purified enzyme was found to be 3.1 IU. Human leukemia cell line, THP-1 treated with l-ASNase showed apoptotic bodies and morphological changes with IC50 of the purified enzyme 1.75 IU. Moreover, the purified recombinant l-ASNase was found to induced cytotoxic effects on colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line, Caco-2 with IC50 of 68.28 IU. Results of apoptosis assay on THP-1 cells revealed that the purified l-ASNase induced early and late apoptosis at 14.16% and 7.56 respectively as compared to the control untreated cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hesham Saeed
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Graduate Studies and Research, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt.
| | - Asmaa Hemida
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Graduate Studies and Research, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Manal Abdel-Fattah
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Graduate Studies and Research, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Ahmad Eldoksh
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Graduate Studies and Research, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Manal Shalaby
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Institute (GEBRI), City for Scientific Research and Technology Applications, New Borg Al-Arab City, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Hisham Nematalla
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Damanhur University, Damnhour, Egypt
| | - Nefertiti El-Nikhely
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Graduate Studies and Research, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Mohamed Elkewedi
- Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Health Sciences Technology, Pharos University in Alexandria, Alexandria, Egypt
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8
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Saeed H, Hemida A, El-Nikhely N, Abdel-Fattah M, Shalaby M, Hussein A, Eldoksh A, Ataya F, Aly N, Labrou N, Nematalla H. Highly efficient Pyrococcus furiosus recombinant L-asparaginase with no glutaminase activity: Expression, purification, functional characterization, and cytotoxicity on THP-1, A549 and Caco-2 cell lines. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 156:812-828. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.04.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 04/10/2020] [Accepted: 04/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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9
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Chan WK, Horvath TD, Tan L, Link T, Harutyunyan KG, Pontikos MA, Anishkin A, Du D, Martin LA, Yin E, Rempe SB, Sukharev S, Konopleva M, Weinstein JN, Lorenzi PL. Glutaminase Activity of L-Asparaginase Contributes to Durable Preclinical Activity against Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia. Mol Cancer Ther 2019; 18:1587-1592. [PMID: 31209181 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-18-1329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2018] [Revised: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We and others have reported that the anticancer activity of L-asparaginase (ASNase) against asparagine synthetase (ASNS)-positive cell types requires ASNase glutaminase activity, whereas anticancer activity against ASNS-negative cell types does not. Here, we attempted to disentangle the relationship between asparagine metabolism, glutamine metabolism, and downstream pathways that modulate cell viability by testing the hypothesis that ASNase anticancer activity is based on asparagine depletion rather than glutamine depletion per se. We tested ASNase wild-type (ASNaseWT) and its glutaminase-deficient Q59L mutant (ASNaseQ59L) and found that ASNase glutaminase activity contributed to durable anticancer activity against xenografts of the ASNS-negative Sup-B15 leukemia cell line in NOD/SCID gamma mice, whereas asparaginase activity alone yielded a mere growth delay. Our findings suggest that ASNase glutaminase activity is necessary for durable, single-agent anticancer activity in vivo, even against ASNS-negative cancer types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wai-Kin Chan
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Thomas D Horvath
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Lin Tan
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Todd Link
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Karine G Harutyunyan
- Department of Leukemia, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Michael A Pontikos
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Andriy Anishkin
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
| | - Di Du
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Leona A Martin
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Eric Yin
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Susan B Rempe
- Center for Biological and Engineering Sciences, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico
| | - Sergei Sukharev
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
| | - Marina Konopleva
- Department of Leukemia, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - John N Weinstein
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Philip L Lorenzi
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas.
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Lanvers-Kaminsky C. Asparaginase pharmacology: challenges still to be faced. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2017; 79:439-450. [DOI: 10.1007/s00280-016-3236-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2016] [Accepted: 12/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Nagel R, Semenova EA, Berns A. Drugging the addict: non-oncogene addiction as a target for cancer therapy. EMBO Rep 2016; 17:1516-1531. [PMID: 27702988 PMCID: PMC5090709 DOI: 10.15252/embr.201643030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Historically, cancers have been treated with chemotherapeutics aimed to have profound effects on tumor cells with only limited effects on normal tissue. This approach was followed by the development of small‐molecule inhibitors that can target oncogenic pathways critical for the survival of tumor cells. The clinical targeting of these so‐called oncogene addictions, however, is in many instances hampered by the outgrowth of resistant clones. More recently, the proper functioning of non‐mutated genes has been shown to enhance the survival of many cancers, a phenomenon called non‐oncogene addiction. In the current review, we will focus on the distinct non‐oncogenic addictions found in cancer cells, including synthetic lethal interactions, the underlying stress phenotypes, and arising therapeutic opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Remco Nagel
- Division of Molecular Genetics, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ekaterina A Semenova
- Division of Molecular Genetics, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anton Berns
- Division of Molecular Genetics, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Thomas X, Le Jeune C. Erythrocyte encapsulated l-asparaginase (GRASPA) in acute leukemia. Int J Hematol Oncol 2016; 5:11-25. [PMID: 30302200 PMCID: PMC6172001 DOI: 10.2217/ijh-2016-0002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 04/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
l-asparaginase, an enzyme originally derived from Escherichia coli, represents a major drug in the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. However, the occurrence of major adverse effects often leads to early withdrawal of the enzyme. Main side effects include immune-allergic reactions, coagulopathy, pancreatitis and hepatic disorders. Novel asparaginase formulations and alternative sources have been developed to address this issue, but the results were not totally satisfactory. l-asparaginase loaded red blood cells (RBCs; GRASPA) represent a new asparaginase presentation with reduced immunological adverse reactions. RBCs protect l-asparaginase, enhance its half-life and reduce the occurrence of adverse events. We reviewed the history, biology and clinical experiences with l-asparaginase, and the characteristics and first clinical experiences with GRASPA in the treatment of acute leukemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Thomas
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hematology Department, Lyon-Sud Hospital, Bât.1G, 165 chemin du Grand Revoyet, 69495 Pierre-Bénite, France
| | - Caroline Le Jeune
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hematology Department, Lyon-Sud Hospital, Bât.1G, 165 chemin du Grand Revoyet, 69495 Pierre-Bénite, France
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Parmentier JH, Maggi M, Tarasco E, Scotti C, Avramis VI, Mittelman SD. Glutaminase activity determines cytotoxicity of L-asparaginases on most leukemia cell lines. Leuk Res 2015; 39:757-62. [PMID: 25941002 DOI: 10.1016/j.leukres.2015.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2014] [Revised: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 04/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
L-Asparaginase (ASNase) is a front-line chemotherapy for acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), which acts by deaminating asparagine and glutamine. To evaluate the importance of glutaminase activity, we exploited a recently developed mutant of Helicobacter pylori ASNase (dm HpA), with amino acid substitutions M121C/T169M. The mutant form has the same asparaginase activity as wild-type but lacks glutaminase activity. Wild-type and dm HpA were compared with the clinically used ASNases from Escherichia coli (l-ASP) and Erwinia chrysanthemi (ERWase). Asparaginase activity was similar for all isoforms, while glutaminase activity followed the rank order: ERWase>l-ASP>wild-type HpA>dm HpA. Cytotoxic efficacy of ASNases was tested on 11 human leukemia cell lines and two patient-derived ALL samples. Two cell lines which we had previously shown to be asparagine-dependent were equally sensitive to the asparaginase isoforms. The other nine lines and the two patient-derived samples were more sensitive to isoforms with higher glutaminase activities. ERWase was overall the most effective ASNase on all cell lines tested whereas dm HpA, having the lowest glutaminase activity, was the least effective. These data demonstrate that asparaginase activity alone may not be sufficient for ASNase cytotoxicity, and that glutaminase activity may be required for full anti-leukemic efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Hugues Parmentier
- Center for Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Maristella Maggi
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Unit of Immunology and General Pathology, University of Pavia, Italy
| | - Erika Tarasco
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Unit of Immunology and General Pathology, University of Pavia, Italy
| | - Claudia Scotti
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Unit of Immunology and General Pathology, University of Pavia, Italy
| | - Vassilios I Avramis
- Center for Childhood Cancer and Blood Diseases, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Department of Pediatrics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Steven D Mittelman
- Center for Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Department of Pediatrics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Department of Physiology & Biophysics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States.
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Chien WW, Le Beux C, Rachinel N, Julien M, Lacroix CE, Allas S, Sahakian P, Cornut-Thibaut A, Lionnard L, Kucharczak J, Aouacheria A, Abribat T, Salles G. Differential mechanisms of asparaginase resistance in B-type acute lymphoblastic leukemia and malignant natural killer cell lines. Sci Rep 2015; 5:8068. [PMID: 25626693 PMCID: PMC5389037 DOI: 10.1038/srep08068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Accepted: 01/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial L-asparaginase (ASNase), hydrolyzing L-asparagine (Asn), is an important drug for treating patients with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) and natural killer (NK) cell lymphoma. Although different native or pegylated ASNase-based chemotherapy are efficient, disease relapse is frequently observed, especially in adult patients. The neo-synthesis of Asn by asparagine synthetase (AsnS) following ASNase treatment, which involves the amino acid response and mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathways, is believed to be the basis of ASNase-resistance mechanisms. However, AsnS expression has not emerged as an accurate predictive factor for ASNase susceptibility. The aim of this study was to identify possible ASNase sensitivity/resistance-related genes or pathways using a new asparaginase, namely a pegylated r-crisantaspase, with a focus on classic Asn-compensatory responses and cell death under conditions of Asn/L-glutamine limitation. We show that, for B-ALL cell lines, changes in the expression of apoptosis-regulatory genes (especially NFκB-related genes) are associated with ASNase susceptibility. The response of malignant NK cell lines to ASNase may depend on Asn-compensatory mechanisms and other cellular processes such as cleavage of BCL2A1, a prosurvival member of the Bcl-2 protein family. These results suggest that according to cellular context, factors other than AsnS can influence ASNase susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Wen Chien
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, UMR 5239 CNRS ENS HCL, Faculté de Médecine Lyon Sud, 165 Chemin du Grand Revoyet, 69921, BP12, Oullins, FRANCE
| | - Céline Le Beux
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, UMR 5239 CNRS ENS HCL, Faculté de Médecine Lyon Sud, 165 Chemin du Grand Revoyet, 69921, BP12, Oullins, FRANCE
| | - Nicolas Rachinel
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, UMR 5239 CNRS ENS HCL, Faculté de Médecine Lyon Sud, 165 Chemin du Grand Revoyet, 69921, BP12, Oullins, FRANCE
| | - Michel Julien
- Alizeé Pharma, 15 Chemin du Saquin, Espace Européen, Building G, 69130, Ecully, FRANCE
| | - Claire-Emmanuelle Lacroix
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, UMR 5239 CNRS ENS HCL, Faculté de Médecine Lyon Sud, 165 Chemin du Grand Revoyet, 69921, BP12, Oullins, FRANCE
| | - Soraya Allas
- Alizeé Pharma, 15 Chemin du Saquin, Espace Européen, Building G, 69130, Ecully, FRANCE
| | - Pierre Sahakian
- Alizeé Pharma, 15 Chemin du Saquin, Espace Européen, Building G, 69130, Ecully, FRANCE
| | - Aurélie Cornut-Thibaut
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, UMR 5239 CNRS ENS HCL, Faculté de Médecine Lyon Sud, 165 Chemin du Grand Revoyet, 69921, BP12, Oullins, FRANCE
| | - Loïc Lionnard
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, UMR 5239 CNRS ENS HCL, Faculté de Médecine Lyon Sud, 165 Chemin du Grand Revoyet, 69921, BP12, Oullins, FRANCE
| | - Jérôme Kucharczak
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, UMR 5239 CNRS ENS HCL, Faculté de Médecine Lyon Sud, 165 Chemin du Grand Revoyet, 69921, BP12, Oullins, FRANCE
| | - Abdel Aouacheria
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, UMR 5239 CNRS ENS HCL, Faculté de Médecine Lyon Sud, 165 Chemin du Grand Revoyet, 69921, BP12, Oullins, FRANCE
| | - Thierry Abribat
- Alizeé Pharma, 15 Chemin du Saquin, Espace Européen, Building G, 69130, Ecully, FRANCE
| | - Gilles Salles
- 1] Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, UMR 5239 CNRS ENS HCL, Faculté de Médecine Lyon Sud, 165 Chemin du Grand Revoyet, 69921, BP12, Oullins, FRANCE [2] Hospices Civils de Lyon, Service d'Hématologie, 165 Chemin du Grand Revoyet, 69495 Pierre-Bénite, FRANCE
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15
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Balasubramanian MN, Butterworth EA, Kilberg MS. Asparagine synthetase: regulation by cell stress and involvement in tumor biology. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2013; 304:E789-99. [PMID: 23403946 PMCID: PMC3625782 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00015.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Asparagine synthetase (ASNS) catalyzes the conversion of aspartate and glutamine to asparagine and glutamate in an ATP-dependent reaction. The enzyme is ubiquitous in its organ distribution in mammals, but basal expression is relatively low in tissues other than the exocrine pancreas. Human ASNS activity is highly regulated in response to cell stress, primarily by increased transcription from a single gene located on chromosome 7. Among the genomic elements that control ASNS transcription is the C/EBP-ATF response element (CARE) within the promoter. Protein limitation or an imbalanced dietary amino acid composition activate the ASNS gene through the amino acid response (AAR), a process that is replicated in cell culture through limitation for any single essential amino acid. Endoplasmic reticulum stress also increases ASNS transcription through the PERK-eIF2-ATF4 arm of the unfolded protein response (UPR). Both the AAR and UPR lead to increased synthesis of ATF4, which binds to the CARE and induces ASNS transcription. Elevated expression of ASNS protein is associated with resistance to asparaginase therapy in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia and may be a predictive factor in drug sensitivity for certain solid tumors as well. Activation of the GCN2-eIF2-ATF4 signaling pathway, leading to increased ASNS expression appears to be a component of solid tumor adaptation to nutrient deprivation and/or hypoxia. Identifying the roles of ASNS in fetal development, tissue differentiation, and tumor growth may reveal that ASNS function extends beyond asparagine biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mukundh N Balasubramanian
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shands Cancer Center and Center for Nutritional Sciences, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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16
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Ehsanipour EA, Sheng X, Behan JW, Wang X, Butturini A, Avramis VI, Mittelman SD. Adipocytes cause leukemia cell resistance to L-asparaginase via release of glutamine. Cancer Res 2013; 73:2998-3006. [PMID: 23585457 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-12-4402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Obesity is a significant risk factor for cancer. A link between obesity and a childhood cancer has been identified: obese children diagnosed with high-risk acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) had a 50% greater risk of relapse than their lean counterparts. l-asparaginase (ASNase) is a first-line therapy for ALL that breaks down asparagine and glutamine, exploiting the fact that ALL cells are more dependent on these amino acids than other cells. In the present study, we investigated whether adipocytes, which produce significant quantities of glutamine, may counteract the effects of ASNase. In children being treated for high-risk ALL, obesity was not associated with altered plasma levels of asparagine or glutamine. However, glutamine synthetase was markedly increased in bone marrow adipocytes after induction chemotherapy. Obesity substantially impaired ASNase efficacy in mice transplanted with syngeneic ALL cells and, like in humans, without affecting plasma asparagine or glutamine levels. In coculture, adipocytes inhibited leukemic cell cytotoxicity induced by ASNase, and this protection was dependent on glutamine secretion. These findings suggest that adipocytes work in conjunction with other cells of the leukemia microenvironment to protect leukemia cells during ASNase treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ehsan A Ehsanipour
- Division of Endocrinology, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA
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17
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Scotti C, Sommi P, Pasquetto MV, Cappelletti D, Stivala S, Mignosi P, Savio M, Chiarelli LR, Valentini G, Bolanos-Garcia VM, Merrell DS, Franchini S, Verona ML, Bolis C, Solcia E, Manca R, Franciotta D, Casasco A, Filipazzi P, Zardini E, Vannini V. Cell-cycle inhibition by Helicobacter pylori L-asparaginase. PLoS One 2010; 5:e13892. [PMID: 21085483 PMCID: PMC2976697 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2010] [Accepted: 10/15/2010] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a major human pathogen causing chronic gastritis, peptic ulcer, gastric cancer, and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma. One of the mechanisms whereby it induces damage depends on its interference with proliferation of host tissues. We here describe the discovery of a novel bacterial factor able to inhibit the cell-cycle of exposed cells, both of gastric and non-gastric origin. An integrated approach was adopted to isolate and characterise the molecule from the bacterial culture filtrate produced in a protein-free medium: size-exclusion chromatography, non-reducing gel electrophoresis, mass spectrometry, mutant analysis, recombinant protein expression and enzymatic assays. L-asparaginase was identified as the factor responsible for cell-cycle inhibition of fibroblasts and gastric cell lines. Its effect on cell-cycle was confirmed by inhibitors, a knockout strain and the action of recombinant L-asparaginase on cell lines. Interference with cell-cycle in vitro depended on cell genotype and was related to the expression levels of the concurrent enzyme asparagine synthetase. Bacterial subcellular distribution of L-asparaginase was also analysed along with its immunogenicity. H. pylori L-asparaginase is a novel antigen that functions as a cell-cycle inhibitor of fibroblasts and gastric cell lines. We give evidence supporting a role in the pathogenesis of H. pylori-related diseases and discuss its potential diagnostic application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Scotti
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Section of General Pathology, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy.
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18
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Abstract
This article comprises detailed information about L-asparaginase, encompassing topics such as microbial and plant sources of L-asparaginase, treatment with L-asparaginase, mechanism of action of L-asparaginase, production, purification, properties, expression and characteristics of l-asparaginase along with information about studies on the structure of L-asparaginase. Although L-asparaginase has been reviewed by Savitri and Azmi (2003), our effort has been to include recent and updated information about the enzyme covering new aspects such as structural modification and immobilization of L-asparaginase, recombinant L-asparaginase, resistance to L-asparaginase, methods of assay of L-asparagine and L-asparaginase activity using the biosensor approach, L-asparaginase activity in soil and the factors affecting it. Also, side-effects of L-asparaginase treatment in acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) have been discussed in the current review. L-asparaginase has been and is still one of the most widely studied therapeutic enzymes by researchers and scientists worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neelam Verma
- Biosensor Technology Lab, Department of Biotechnology, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India.
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19
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Estes DA, Lovato DM, Khawaja HM, Winter SS, Larson RS. Genetic alterations determine chemotherapy resistance in childhood T-ALL: modelling in stage-specific cell lines and correlation with diagnostic patient samples. Br J Haematol 2007; 139:20-30. [PMID: 17854304 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2141.2007.06763.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Acquired drug resistance eventually leads to treatment failure in T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (T-ALL). Immunophenotypic and cytogenetic heterogeneities within T-ALL influence susceptibility to cytotoxic therapy, and little is known about the mechanisms of drug resistance at specific stages of T-cell ontogeny. We developed tolerance to therapeutic concentrations of daunorubicin (DNR) and L-asparaginase (L-asp) in Jurkat (CD1a(-), sCD3(+)) and Sup T1 (CD1a(+), sCD3(-)) cell lines, having respective 'mature' and 'cortical' stages of developmental arrest. DNR resistant cells acquired multidrug resistance: 310-fold increased resistance to vincristine (VCR) and a 120-fold increased resistance to prednisolone (PRED). Microarray analysis identified upregulation of asparagine synthetase (ASNS) and argininosuccinate synthase 1 (ASS1) to cell lines with acquired resistance to L-asp, and in the case of DNR, upregulation of ATP-binding cassette B1 (ABCB1). Suppression of ABCB1, ASNS and ASS1 by RNA interference revealed their functional relevance to acquired drug resistance. Expression profiling of these genes in 80 T-ALL patients showed correlation with treatment response. This study expands the pool of available drug resistant cell lines having cortical and mature stages of developmental arrest, introduces three new drug resistant T-ALL cell lines, and identifies gene interactions leading to L-asp and DNR resistance.
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MESH Headings
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 1/genetics
- Argininosuccinate Synthase/genetics
- Asparaginase/therapeutic use
- Aspartate-Ammonia Ligase/genetics
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Child
- Daunorubicin/therapeutic use
- Drug Resistance, Neoplasm/genetics
- Gene Expression Profiling
- Gene Expression Regulation, Leukemic
- Genes, MDR
- Humans
- Jurkat Cells
- Leukemia-Lymphoma, Adult T-Cell/drug therapy
- Leukemia-Lymphoma, Adult T-Cell/genetics
- Leukemia-Lymphoma, Adult T-Cell/pathology
- Oligonucleotide Array Sequence Analysis
- Prednisolone/therapeutic use
- RNA Interference
- RNA, Small Interfering/administration & dosage
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Vincristine/therapeutic use
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Estes
- Department of Pathology, University of New Mexico Cancer Research and Treatment Center, Albuquerque, NM 87112, USA
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20
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Iwamoto S, Mihara K, Downing JR, Pui CH, Campana D. Mesenchymal cells regulate the response of acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells to asparaginase. J Clin Invest 2007; 117:1049-57. [PMID: 17380207 PMCID: PMC1821067 DOI: 10.1172/jci30235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 243] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2006] [Accepted: 01/30/2007] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Because of their low asparagine synthetase (ASNS) expression and asparagine biosynthesis, acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) cells are exquisitely sensitive to asparagine depletion. Consequently, asparaginase is a major component of ALL therapy, but the mechanisms regulating the susceptibility of leukemic cells to this agent are unclear. In 288 children with ALL, cellular ASNS expression was more likely to be high in T-lineage ALL and low in B-lineage ALL with TEL-AML1 or hyperdiploidy. However, ASNS expression levels in bone marrow-derived mesenchymal cells (MSCs), which form the microenvironment where leukemic cells grow, were on average 20 times higher than those in ALL cells. MSCs protected ALL cells from asparaginase cytotoxicity in coculture experiments. This protective effect correlated with levels of ASNS expression: downregulation by RNA interference decreased the capacity of MSCs to protect ALL cells from asparaginase, whereas enforced ASNS expression conferred enhanced protection. Asparagine secretion by MSCs was directly related to their ASNS expression levels, suggesting a mechanism - increased concentrations of asparagine in the leukemic cell microenvironment - for the protective effects we observed. These results provide what we believe to be a new basis for understanding asparaginase resistance in ALL and indicate that MSC niches in the bone marrow can form a safe haven for leukemic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shotaro Iwamoto
- Department of Oncology and
Department of Pathology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA.
University of Tennessee College of Medicine, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Keichiro Mihara
- Department of Oncology and
Department of Pathology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA.
University of Tennessee College of Medicine, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - James R. Downing
- Department of Oncology and
Department of Pathology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA.
University of Tennessee College of Medicine, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Ching-Hon Pui
- Department of Oncology and
Department of Pathology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA.
University of Tennessee College of Medicine, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Dario Campana
- Department of Oncology and
Department of Pathology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA.
University of Tennessee College of Medicine, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
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21
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Akagi T, Yin D, Kawamata N, Bartram CR, Hofmann WK, Wolf I, Miller CW, Koeffler HP. Methylation analysis of asparagine synthetase gene in acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells. Leukemia 2006; 20:1303-6. [PMID: 16598302 DOI: 10.1038/sj.leu.2404216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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22
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Hurteau GJ, Broome JD, Brock GJ. Accurate detection of asparagine synthetase (ASNS) using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR), without requiring DNaseI treatment. Leukemia 2006; 19:2368-70. [PMID: 16270045 DOI: 10.1038/sj.leu.2403969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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23
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24
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Affiliation(s)
- John Holcenberg
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington 98105, USA.
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