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Li J, Ma X, Xu F, Yan Y, Chen W. Babaodan overcomes cisplatin resistance in cholangiocarcinoma via inhibiting YAP1. Pharm Biol 2024; 62:314-325. [PMID: 38571483 PMCID: PMC10997361 DOI: 10.1080/13880209.2024.2331060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024]
Abstract
CONTEXT Cholangiocarcinoma with highly heterogeneous, aggressive, and multidrug resistance has a poor prognosis. Although babaodan (BBD) combined with cisplatin improved non-small cell lung cancer efficacy, its impact on overcoming resistance in cholangiocarcinoma remains unexplored. OBJECTIVE This study explored the role and mechanism of BBD on cisplatin resistance in cholangiocarcinoma cells (CCAs). MATERIALS AND METHODS Cisplatin-resistant CCAs were exposed to varying concentrations of cisplatin (25-400 μg/mL) or BBD (0.25-1.00 mg/mL) for 48 h. IC50 values, inhibition ratios, apoptosis levels, DNA damage, glutathione (GSH) levels, oxidized forms of GSH, total GSH content, and glutaminase relative activity were evaluated using the cell counting kit 8, flow cytometry, comet assay, and relevant assay kits. RESULTS BBD-reduced the cisplatin IC50 in CCAs from 118.8 to 61.83 μg/mL, leading to increased inhibition rate, apoptosis, and DNA damage, and decreased expression of B-cell lymphoma-2, p-Yes-associated protein 1/Yes-associated protein 1, solute carrier family 1 member 5, activating transcription factor 4, and ERCC excision repair 1 in a dose-dependent manner with maximum reductions of 78.97%, 51.98%, 54.03%, 56.59%, and 63.22%, respectively; bcl2-associated X and gamma histone levels were increased by 0.43-115.77% and 22.15-53.39%. The impact of YAP1 knockdown on cisplatin-resistant CCAs resembled BBD. GSH, oxidized GSH species, total GSH content, and glutaminase activity in cisplatin-resistant CCAs with BBD treatment also decreased, while YAP1 overexpression countered BBD's effects. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION This study provides a scientific basis for BBD clinical application and provides a new direction for BBD biological mechanism research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiong Li
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The First People’s Hospital of Lin’an District, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiangjun Ma
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The First People’s Hospital of Lin’an District, Hangzhou, China
| | - Faying Xu
- College of Clinical Medicine, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yuanliang Yan
- Department of Pharmacy, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Weiqing Chen
- Department of General Surgery, The First People’s Hospital of Lin’an District, Hangzhou, China
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Li Z, Li X, Lu Y, Zhu X, Zheng W, Chen K, Liu S, Wu J, Guan W. Improved Photodynamic Therapy Based on Glutaminase Blockage via Tumor Membrane Coated CB-839/IR-780 Nanoparticles. Small 2024; 20:e2305174. [PMID: 37875654 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202305174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has promising applications. However, the lethal function of reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced during PDT is typically limited. This restriction is induced by oxygen shortage in the tumor microenvironment due to tumor cell hypermetabolism and reductive chemicals overexpression in tumor tissues. Glutamine (Gln) metabolism is crucial for malignancy development and is closely associated with redox. Herein, a novel nanoparticle (NP) named IRCB@M is constructed to boost PDT through dual effects. This NP simultaneously blocks aerobic respiration and inhibits cellular reduced substances by blocking the Gln metabolic pathway. Within the nanocomplex, a photosensitizer (IR-780) and a glutaminase inhibitor (CB-839) are self-assembled and then encapsulated by cancer cell membranes for homologous targeting. The Gln metabolism intervention relieves hypoxia and decreases the levels of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) as well as reduced glutathione (GSH) in vitro and in vivo, which are the dual amplification effects on the IR-780-mediated lethal PDT. The antitumor effects against gastric cancer are ultimately evoked in vivo, thus offering a novel concept for enhancing PDT and other ROS-dependent therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyan Li
- Division of Gastric Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, the Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210008, China
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210093, China
| | - Xianghui Li
- Division of Gastric Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, the Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210008, China
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210093, China
- Department of Dermatology, First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, 530021, China
| | - Yanjun Lu
- Division of Gastric Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, the Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210008, China
| | - Xudong Zhu
- Division of Gastric Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, the Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210008, China
| | - Wenxuan Zheng
- Division of Gastric Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, the Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210008, China
| | - Kai Chen
- Division of Gastric Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, the Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210008, China
| | - Song Liu
- Division of Gastric Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, the Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210008, China
| | - Jinhui Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210093, China
- Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210093, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Nano Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210093, China
| | - Wenxian Guan
- Division of Gastric Surgery, Department of General Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, the Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210008, China
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Chen L, Liang B, Xia S, Wang F, Li Z, Shao J, Zhang Z, Chen A, Zheng S, Zhang F. Emodin promotes hepatic stellate cell senescence and alleviates liver fibrosis via a nuclear receptor (Nur77)-mediated epigenetic regulation of glutaminase 1. Br J Pharmacol 2023; 180:2577-2598. [PMID: 37263753 DOI: 10.1111/bph.16156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2022] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Senescence in hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) limits liver fibrosis. Glutaminolysis promotes HSC activation. Here, we investigated how emodin affected HSC senescence involving glutaminolysis. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Senescence, glutaminolysis metabolites, Nur77 nuclear translocation, glutaminase 1 (GLS1) promoter methylation and related signalling pathways were examined in human HSC-LX2 cells using multiple cellular and molecular approaches. Fibrotic mice with shRNA-mediated knockdown of Nur77 were treated with emodin-vitamin A liposome for investigating the mechanisms in vivo. Human fibrotic liver samples were examined to verify the clinical relevance. KEY RESULTS Emodin upregulated several key markers of senescence and inhibited glutaminolysis cascade in HSCs. Emodin promoted Nur77 nuclear translocation, and knockdown of Nur77 abolished emodin blockade of glutaminolysis and induction of HSC senescence. Mechanistically, emodin facilitated Nur77/DNMT3b interaction and increased GLS1 promoter methylation, leading to inhibited GLS1 expression and blockade of glutaminolysis. Moreover, the glutaminolysis intermediate α-ketoglutarate promoted extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) phosphorylation, which in turn phosphorylated Nur77 and reduced its interaction with DNMT3b. This led to decreased GLS1 promoter methylation and increased GLS1 expression, forming an ERK/Nur77/glutaminolysis positive feedback loop. However, emodin repressed ERK phosphorylation and interrupted the feedback cascade, stimulating senescence in HSCs. Studies in mice showed that emodin-vitamin A liposome inhibited glutaminolysis and induced senescence in HSCs, and consequently alleviated liver fibrosis; but knockdown of Nur77 abrogated these beneficial effects. Similar alterations were validated in human fibrotic liver tissues. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Emodin stimulated HSC senescence through interruption of glutaminolysis. HSC-targeted delivery of emodin represented a therapeutic option for liver fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Chen
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Baoyu Liang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Siwei Xia
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Feixia Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhanghao Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
- Law Sau Fai Institute for Advancing Translational Medicine in Bone and Joint Diseases, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Jiangjuan Shao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Zili Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Anping Chen
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Shizhong Zheng
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Feng Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Materia Medica, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
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Li L, Nie L, Jordan A, Cai Q, Liu Y, Li Y, Che Y, Vargas J, Chen Z, Leeming A, Wang W, Yao Y, Wang M, Jiang VC. Targeting glutaminase is therapeutically effective in ibrutinib-resistant mantle cell lymphoma. Haematologica 2023; 108:1616-1627. [PMID: 36420799 PMCID: PMC10230437 DOI: 10.3324/haematol.2022.281538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is an incurable B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma characterized by frequent relapses. The development of resistance to ibrutinib therapy remains a major challenge in MCL. We previously showed that glutaminolysis is associated with resistance to ibrutinib. In this study, we confirmed that glutaminase (GLS), the first enzyme in glutaminolysis, is overexpressed in ibrutinib-resistant MCL cells, and that its expression correlates well with elevated glutamine dependency and glutaminolysis. Furthermore, we discovered that GLS expression correlates with MYC expression and the functioning of the glutamine transporter ASCT2. Depletion of glutamine or GLS significantly reduced cell growth, while GLS overexpression enhanced glutamine dependency and ibrutinib resistance. Consistent with this, GLS inhibition by its specific inhibitor telaglenastat suppressed MCL cell growth both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, telaglenastat showed anti-MCL synergy when combined with ibrutinib or venetoclax in vitro, which was confirmed using an MCL patient-derived xenograft model. Our study provides the first evidence that targeting GLS with telaglenastat, alone or in combination with ibrutinib or venetoclax, is a promising strategy to overcome ibrutinib resistance in MCL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingzhi Li
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center
| | - Lei Nie
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center
| | - Alexa Jordan
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center
| | - Qingsong Cai
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center
| | - Yang Liu
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center
| | - Yijing Li
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center
| | - Yuxuan Che
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center
| | - Jovanny Vargas
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center
| | - Zhihong Chen
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center
| | - Angela Leeming
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center
| | - Yixin Yao
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center
| | - Michael Wang
- Department of Lymphoma and Myeloma, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX; Department of Stem Cell Transplantation and Cellular Therapy, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center
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Mostafa YS, Alamri SA, Alfaifi MY, Alrumman SA, Elbehairi SEI, Taha TH, Hashem M. L-Glutaminase Synthesis by Marine Halomonas meridiana Isolated from the Red Sea and Its Efficiency against Colorectal Cancer Cell Lines. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26071963. [PMID: 33807313 PMCID: PMC8037810 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26071963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Revised: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
L-glutaminase is an important anticancer agent that is used extensively worldwide by depriving cancer cells of L-glutamine. The marine bacterium, Halomonas meridian was isolated from the Red Sea and selected as the more active L-glutaminase-producing bacteria. L-glutaminase fermentation was optimized at 36 h, pH 8.0, 37 °C, and 3.0% NaCl, using glucose at 1.5% and soybean meal at 2%. The purified enzyme showed a specific activity of 36.08 U/mg, and the molecular weight was found to be 57 kDa by the SDS-PAGE analysis. The enzyme was highly active at pH 8.0 and 37 °C. The kinetics’ parameters of Km and Vmax were 12.2 × 10−6 M and 121.95 μmol/mL/min, respectively, which reflects a higher affinity for its substrate. The anticancer efficiency of the enzyme showed significant toxic activity toward colorectal adenocarcinoma cells; LS 174 T (IC50 7.0 μg/mL) and HCT 116 (IC50 13.2 μg/mL). A higher incidence of cell death was observed with early apoptosis in HCT 116 than in LS 174 T, whereas late apoptosis was observed in LS 174 T more than in HCT 116. Also, the L-glutaminase induction nuclear fragmentation in HCT 116 was more than that in the LS 174T cells. This is the first report on Halomonas meridiana as an L-glutaminase producer that is used as an anti-colorectal cancer agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasser S. Mostafa
- Department of Biology, College of Science, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 9004, Abha 61413, Saudi Arabia; (S.A.A.); (M.Y.A.); (S.A.A.); (S.E.I.E.); (M.H.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Saad A. Alamri
- Department of Biology, College of Science, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 9004, Abha 61413, Saudi Arabia; (S.A.A.); (M.Y.A.); (S.A.A.); (S.E.I.E.); (M.H.)
- Prince Sultan Bin Abdulaziz Center for Environmental and Tourism Research and Studies, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 9004, Abha 61413, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammad Y. Alfaifi
- Department of Biology, College of Science, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 9004, Abha 61413, Saudi Arabia; (S.A.A.); (M.Y.A.); (S.A.A.); (S.E.I.E.); (M.H.)
| | - Sulaiman A. Alrumman
- Department of Biology, College of Science, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 9004, Abha 61413, Saudi Arabia; (S.A.A.); (M.Y.A.); (S.A.A.); (S.E.I.E.); (M.H.)
| | - Serag Eldin I. Elbehairi
- Department of Biology, College of Science, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 9004, Abha 61413, Saudi Arabia; (S.A.A.); (M.Y.A.); (S.A.A.); (S.E.I.E.); (M.H.)
- Cell Culture Lab, Egyptian Organization for Biological Products and Vaccines, P.O. Box 12311, Giza, Egypt
| | - Tarek H. Taha
- Environmental Biotechnology Department, Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Institute, City of Scientific Research & Technological Applications, P.O. Box 21934, Alexandria, Egypt;
| | - Mohamed Hashem
- Department of Biology, College of Science, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 9004, Abha 61413, Saudi Arabia; (S.A.A.); (M.Y.A.); (S.A.A.); (S.E.I.E.); (M.H.)
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Assiut University, P.O. Box 61413, Assiut, Egypt
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6
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Chan WK, Horvath TD, Tan L, Link T, Harutyunyan KG, Pontikos MA, Anishkin A, Du D, Martin LA, Yin E, Rempe SB, Sukharev S, Konopleva M, Weinstein JN, Lorenzi PL. Glutaminase Activity of L-Asparaginase Contributes to Durable Preclinical Activity against Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia. Mol Cancer Ther 2019; 18:1587-1592. [PMID: 31209181 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-18-1329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2018] [Revised: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We and others have reported that the anticancer activity of L-asparaginase (ASNase) against asparagine synthetase (ASNS)-positive cell types requires ASNase glutaminase activity, whereas anticancer activity against ASNS-negative cell types does not. Here, we attempted to disentangle the relationship between asparagine metabolism, glutamine metabolism, and downstream pathways that modulate cell viability by testing the hypothesis that ASNase anticancer activity is based on asparagine depletion rather than glutamine depletion per se. We tested ASNase wild-type (ASNaseWT) and its glutaminase-deficient Q59L mutant (ASNaseQ59L) and found that ASNase glutaminase activity contributed to durable anticancer activity against xenografts of the ASNS-negative Sup-B15 leukemia cell line in NOD/SCID gamma mice, whereas asparaginase activity alone yielded a mere growth delay. Our findings suggest that ASNase glutaminase activity is necessary for durable, single-agent anticancer activity in vivo, even against ASNS-negative cancer types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wai-Kin Chan
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Thomas D Horvath
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Lin Tan
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Todd Link
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Karine G Harutyunyan
- Department of Leukemia, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Michael A Pontikos
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Andriy Anishkin
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
| | - Di Du
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Leona A Martin
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Eric Yin
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Susan B Rempe
- Center for Biological and Engineering Sciences, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico
| | - Sergei Sukharev
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
| | - Marina Konopleva
- Department of Leukemia, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - John N Weinstein
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Philip L Lorenzi
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas.
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Abstract
L-glutaminase was produced by Streptomyces canarius FR (KC460654) with an apparent molecular mass of 44 kDa. It has 17.9 purification fold with a final specific activity 132.2 U/mg proteins and 28% yield recovery. The purified L-glutaminase showed a maximal activity against L-glutamine when incubated at pH 8.0 at 40 °C for 30 min. It maintained its stability at wide range of pH from 5.0 11.0 and thermal stable up to 60 °C with Tm value 57.5 °C. It has high affinity and catalytic activity for L-glutamine (Km 0.129 mM, Vmax 2.02 U/mg/min), followed by L-asparagine and L-aspartic acid. In vivo, L-glutaminase showed no observed changes in liver; kidney functions; hematological parameters and slight effect on RBCs and level of platelets after 10 days of rabbit's injection. The anticancer activity of L-glutaminase was also tested against five types of human cancer cell lines using MTT assay in vitro. L-glutaminase has a significant efficiency against Hep-G2 cell (IC50, 6.8 μg/mL) and HeLa cells (IC50, 8.3 μg/mL), while the growth of MCF-7 cells was not affected. L-glutaminase has a moderate cytotoxic effect against HCT-116 cell (IC50, 64.7 μg/mL) and RAW 264.7 cell (IC50, 59.3 μg/mL).
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Affiliation(s)
- Fifi M. Reda
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Zagazig University, Zagazig,
Egypt
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8
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Mahajan RV, Kumar V, Rajendran V, Saran S, Ghosh PC, Saxena RK. Purification and characterization of a novel and robust L-asparaginase having low-glutaminase activity from Bacillus licheniformis: in vitro evaluation of anti-cancerous properties. PLoS One 2014; 9:e99037. [PMID: 24905227 PMCID: PMC4048267 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2014] [Accepted: 05/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
L-asparaginase having low glutaminase has been a key therapeutic agent in the treatment of acute lymphpoblastic leukemia (A.L.L). In the present study, an extracellular L-asparaginase with low glutaminase activity, produced by Bacillus licheniformis was purified to homogeneity. Protein was found to be a homotetramer of 134.8 KDa with monomeric size of 33.7 KDa and very specific for its natural substrate i.e. L-asparagine. The activity of purified L-asparaginase enhanced in presence of cations including Na+ and K+, whereas it was moderately inhibited in the presence of divalent cations and thiol group blocking reagents. The purified enzyme was maximally active over the range of pH 6.0 to 10.0 and temperature of 40°C and enzyme was stable maximum at pH 9.0 and -20°C. CD spectra of L-asparaginase predicted the enzyme to consist of 63.05% α-helix and 3.29% β-sheets in its native form with T222 of 58°C. Fluorescent spectroscopy showed the protein to be stable even in the presence of more than 3 M GdHCl. Kinetic parameters Km, Vmax and kcat of purified enzyme were found as 1.4×10(-5) M, 4.03 IU and 2.68×10(3) s(-1), respectively. The purified L-asparaginase had cytotoxic activity against various cancerous cell lines viz. Jurkat clone E6-1, MCF-7 and K-562 with IC50 of 0.22 IU, 0.78 IU and 0.153 IU respectively. However the enzyme had no toxic effect on human erythrocytes and CHO cell lines hence should be considered potential candidate for further pharmaceutical use as an anticancer drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richi V. Mahajan
- Department of Microbiology, University of Delhi South Campus, New Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Vinod Kumar
- Department of Microbiology, University of Delhi South Campus, New Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Vinoth Rajendran
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Delhi South Campus, New Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Saurabh Saran
- Technology Based Incubator, University of Delhi South Campus, New Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Prahlad C. Ghosh
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Delhi South Campus, New Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Rajendra Kumar Saxena
- Department of Microbiology, University of Delhi South Campus, New Delhi, Delhi, India
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Chia CW, Carlson OD, Kim W, Shin YK, Charles CP, Kim HS, Melvin DL, Egan JM. Exogenous glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide worsens post prandial hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 2009; 58:1342-9. [PMID: 19276444 PMCID: PMC2682676 DOI: 10.2337/db08-0958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), unlike glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-1, lacks glucose-lowering properties in patients with type 2 diabetes. We designed this study to elucidate the underlying pathophysiology. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Twenty-two insulin-naïve subjects with type 2 diabetes were given either synthetic human GIP (20 ng x kg(-1) x min(-1)) or placebo (normal saline) over 180 min, starting with the first bite of a mixed meal (plus 1 g of acetaminophen) on two separate occasions. Frequent blood samples were obtained over 6 h to determine plasma GIP, GLP-1, glucose, insulin, glucagon, resistin, and acetaminophen levels. RESULTS Compared with placebo, GIP induced an early postprandial increase in insulin levels. Intriguingly, GIP also induced an early postprandial augmentation in glucagon, a significant elevation in late postprandial glucose, and a decrease in late postprandial GLP-1 levels. Resistin and acetaminophen levels were comparable in both interventions. By immunocytochemistry, GIP receptors were present on human and mouse alpha-cells. In alphaTC1 cell line, GIP induced an increase in intracellular cAMP and glucagon secretion. CONCLUSIONS; GIP, given to achieve supraphysiological plasma levels, still had an early, short-lived insulinotropic effect in type 2 diabetes. However, with a concomitant increase in glucagon, the glucose-lowering effect was lost. GIP infusion further worsened hyperglycemia postprandially, most likely through its suppressive effect on GLP-1. These findings make it unlikely that GIP or GIP receptor agonists will be useful in treating the hyperglycemia of patients with type 2 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chee W. Chia
- National Institute on Aging, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Olga D. Carlson
- National Institute on Aging, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Wook Kim
- National Institute on Aging, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Yu-Kyong Shin
- National Institute on Aging, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Cornelia P. Charles
- National Institute on Aging, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Hee Seung Kim
- National Institute on Aging, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Denise L. Melvin
- National Institute on Aging, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Josephine M. Egan
- National Institute on Aging, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland
- Corresponding author: Josephine M. Egan,
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Hampson L, Li C, Oliver AW, Kitchener HC, Hampson IN. The PDZ protein Tip-1 is a gain of function target of the HPV16 E6 oncoprotein. Int J Oncol 2004; 25:1249-56. [PMID: 15492812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous work has indicated that the PDZ domain Tax interacting protein 1 (Tip-1) is a target of the HTLV1 Tax protein and is a potential RhoA effector. We have used the yeast two-hybrid system to show that Tip-1 also interacts with the HPV16 E6 protein. This interaction was confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation from E6 expressing C33A cervical carcinoma cells (C33A-E6) which showed that Tip-1 was not degraded by interaction with the HPV16 E6 oncoprotein. During routine passage we observed that C33A-E6 had a less compact morphology and were less adherent than control vector transfected cells C33A-V cells - a known effect of GTP-RhoA. Comparison of C33A-E6 to C33A-V demonstrated that E6 expressing cells had higher levels of phosphorylated myosin light chains (MLC) and increased cell motility, which was inhibited by antisense silencing of Tip-1 expression and by the RhoA kinase (ROCK) inhibitor Y27632. Both C33A-E6 and C33A-V cells were shown to express GTP activated RhoA. Since ROCKs can be activated by GTP RhoA these data indicate that E6 may increase cell motility by augmenting GTP RhoA mediated activation of ROCKs and that this is dependent on the expression of the Tip-1 protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynne Hampson
- University of Manchester Gynaecological Oncology Laboratory, St Mary's Hospital, Whitworth Park, Manchester M13 OJH, UK
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Sun YW. Effects of L-glutamine, glutaminase and glutamine synthetase on CAP threshold of cochlear nerve of guinea pig. Sci China B 1991; 34:184-93. [PMID: 1673614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Negative direct current (-DC 300 microA) stimulation was applied to the round window of the guinea pig cochlea to exhaust the pre-synaptic intracellular reserves of the transmitter in hair cells, and then the scala tympani was perfused respectively with L-glutamine, glutamine synthetase and glutaminase. Experimental results showed that the negative DC electrical stimulation applied to the round window elevated the CAP threshold of the cochlear nerve in the basal turn of the cochlea, which recovered over a period of approximately 17-39 min. The perfusion of L-glutamine apparently elevated the CAP threshold. The recovery of the CAP threshold following electrical stimulation, however, was accelerated by the perfusion of 10 mmol/L L-glutamine. The time for recovery only took about 5-6 min. The perfusion of enzyme glutamine synthetase elevated the CAP threshold by 50 dB, while glutaminase had little effect. These results suggest that the effect of L-glutamine on the CAP threshold in the cochlea of the guinea pig appears to be that of a potent depolarizing agent which accelerates the recovery of the CAP threshold during the depletion of the transmitter, and L-glutamine may be the candidate for the afferent excitatory transmitter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y W Sun
- Department of Biology, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei
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Chang TM, Lister C. Plasma/intestinal concentration patterns suggestive of entero-portal recirculation of amino acids: effects of oral administration of asparaginase, glutaminase and tyrosinase immobilized by microencapsulation in artificial cells. Biomater Artif Cells Artif Organs 1988; 16:915-26. [PMID: 3150943 DOI: 10.3109/10731198809117277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
This study suggests the presence of an entero-portal recirculation of amino acids. Endogenous sources of amino acids are secreted at high concentration into the small intestine. Most of the amino acids are absorbed as the content passes down the small intestine. Plasma amino acid concentrations are on the average only 1-5% of the concentrations in the duodunum. This is true even in rats on 24 hours of water and sugar with no exogenous sources of amino acids. For example, the PLASMA:DUODENUM concentrations (mumole/litre) are: Asparagine 37:7164, Tyrosine 94:9579, and glutamine/histidine 409:9708. This entero-portal recirculation of amino acids means the potential of a method for specific depletion of body amino acids by oral ingestion of bioreactants like immobilized enzymes. Preliminary studies used artificial cells to immobilize asparaginase,glutaminase and tyrosinase by microencapsulation. Six hours after 1 oral administration, asparagine, glutamine and tyrosine in the ileum were lowered to 10% of the level of the control. Artificial cells containing no enzymes were used as the control.
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Affiliation(s)
- T M Chang
- Artificial Cells and Organs Research Centre, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, P.Q., Canada
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Kien CL, Anderson AJ, Holcenberg JS. Tissue nitrogen-sparing effect of high protein diet in mice with or without ascites tumor treated with Acinetobacter glutaminase-asparaginase. Cancer Res 1985; 45:4876-82. [PMID: 4027974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Forty-eight tumor-free mice and 32 mice bearing Ehrlich ascites tumor were randomized into 2 treatments, Acinetobacter glutaminase-asparaginase (AGA) (600 IU/kg/day for 7 days) and 0.9% NaCl controls, and into 2 or 3 isocaloric diets, normal protein (NP) (20 g protein/100 g diet), high protein (HP) (58 g protein/100 g diet), and zero protein (ZP) (tumor-free mice only). In tumor-free, NP-fed mice, AGA caused percentage reductions (P less than 0.01) in the nitrogen content of liver (50%), intestine (42%), thymus (89%), spleen (75%), and carcass (20%), but HP prevented this effect on intestine and carcass and caused percentage increases in the nitrogen content of liver (53%), intestine (36%), thymus (122%), and carcass (25%). In Ehrlich ascites tumor mice (NP or HP fed) AGA caused markedly lower (P less than 0.01) tumor burdens and increased nitrogen content of intestine (HP), kidney (NP and HP), and spleen (NP and HP). Ehrlich ascites tumor, AGA-treated, HP-fed mice ate 31% less food (P less than 0.01) (compared to NP) but HP resulted in percentage increases in the nitrogen content of liver (18%; P = 0.05), intestine (25%; P less than 0.05), and thymus (164%; P less than 0.01). In the Ehrlich ascites tumor, AGA group the HP diet caused higher hematocrit and serum total protein (both, P less than 0.05). Adverse nutritional effects of AGA seen in normal mice were markedly diminished in tumor-bearing animals. The observed nitrogen-sparing effects of the high protein: energy ratio may be relevant to humans and to other forms of neoplasia and chemotherapy.
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Abstract
Depletion of nonessential amino acids and its effect on the immune system can be studied by the administration of bacterial enzymes. Escherichia coli asparaginase hydrolyzes both asparagine and glutamine: administration of this enzyme to mice is rapidly immunosuppressive. Vibrio succinogenes asparaginase hydrolyzes only asparagine and has no apparent effect on immune system function. When the enzymes are rendered nonantigenic and nonimmunogenic by covalent attachment of polyethylene glycol, the effects on immune system function remain the same as described above with the native (nonmodified) enzymes. We believe the data reviewed justify the conclusion that glutamine deficiency is specifically immunosuppressive whereas asparagine deficiency is not. We further believe that enzymatic depletion of nonessential amino acids can be a useful tool for nutritional investigations.
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Bendich A, Kafkewitz D, Abuchowski A, Davis FF. Inhibition of blastogenesis by native and polyethylene glycol-modified asparaginases from Escherichia coli and Vibrio succinogenes. Immunol Commun 1983; 12:273-84. [PMID: 6350165 DOI: 10.3109/08820138309050749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The in vitro blastogenic response of rat splenocytes to concanavalin A stimulation is inhibited by inclusion of asparaginase in the culture medium. The glutaminase-free asparaginase from Vibrio succinogenes is as potent an inhibitor as the Escherichia coli enzyme which has 2% glutaminase activity. The polyethylene glycol-modified forms of both enzymes are also inhibitory. We suggest that previously proposed explanations for the ability of asparaginases to inhibit blastogenesis are not likely to be correct and propose that asparaginase interacts with a mitogenic factor.
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Abuchowski A, Davis FF, Davis S. Immunosuppressive properties and circulating life of Achromobacter glutaminase-asparaginase covalently attached to polyethylene glycol in man. Cancer Treat Rep 1981; 65:1077-81. [PMID: 7296553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The immunosuppressive effects and circulating life of Achromobacter glutaminase-asparaginase (GA) covalently attached to polyethylene glycol (PEG) were examined in human subjects following a single iv dose of 1000 IU/m2. Plasma half-life of PEG-GA was 72 hours. Skin test reactivity to recall antigens (mumps and tuberculin) was lost in all four patients tested. In vitro phytohemagglutinin-induced blastogenesis, "natural killing," and phytohemagglutinin-induced cell cytotoxicity was diminished as long as enzyme levels were detectable. In vivo and in vitro activities returned to normal following total plasma clearance of enzyme.
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Durden DL, Distasio JA. Characterization of the effects of asparaginase from Escherichia coli and a glutaminase-free asparaginase from Vibrio succinogenes on specific ell-mediated cytotoxicity. Int J Cancer 1981; 27:59-65. [PMID: 7019106 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.2910270110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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18
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Mitidieri E, Affonso OR. Effect of the renal glutaminase on the regulation of xanthine dehydrogenase activity. Rev Bras Biol 1980; 40:759-62. [PMID: 6940209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Holcenberg JS, Borella LD, Camitta BM, Ring BJ. Human pharmacology and toxicology of succinylated Acinetobacter glutaminase-asparaginase. Cancer Res 1979; 39:3145-51. [PMID: 455299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Roberts J, Schmid FA, Rosenfeld HJ. Biologic and antineoplastic effects of enzyme-mediated in vivo depletion of L-glutamine, L-tryptophan, and L-histidine. Cancer Treat Rep 1979; 63:1045-54. [PMID: 466643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Baechtel FS, Gregg DE, Prager MD. The influence of glutamine, its decomposition products, and glutaminase on the transformation of human and mouse lymphocytes. Biochim Biophys Acta 1976; 421:33-43. [PMID: 1082349 DOI: 10.1016/0304-4165(76)90167-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The extent of blast transformation for human and BALB/c mouse lymphocytes has been examined over a wide range of glutamine concentrations with several agents which initiate blastogenesis. Maximum [3H] thymidine incorporation was seen at 0.5 mM glutamine for lymphoid tissues stimulated in the following manner: human and BALB/c splenic and peripheral blood lymphocytes with phytohemagglutinin, BALB/c splenic lymphocytes with lipopolysaccharide, and BALB/c vs C3H/HeJ two-way mixed lymphocyte cultures. The inhibition of blastogenesis exerted by glutamine concentrations greater than 0.5 mM could not be reversed by washing and reculturing the cells at 0.5 mM glutamine. To elucidate the reason for inhibition by higher glutamine concentrations, the products of spontaneous glutamine decomposition, L-2-pyrrolidone-5-carboxylic acid and ammonia were tested for their in vitro influence on BALB/c splenocyte blastogenesis. Pyrrolidone-carboxylic acid, in concentrations up to 5 mM, was without effect. In contrast, ammonia concentrations exceeding 1 mM became increasingly more inhibitory. The genesis of inhibitory levels of ammonia in culture medium was confirmed and has been considered as primarily responsible for inhibiton by high glutamine. Addition of Escherichia coli glutaminase (pH optimum 4.9) to cultures of BALB/c splenocytes or human peripheral blood lymphocytes had no effect on either the extent of blastogenesis of these tissues or the glutamine levels in their culture medium.
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Holcenberg JS, Tang E, Dolowy WC. Effect of Acinetobacter glutaminase-asparaginase treatment on free amino acids in mouse tissues. Cancer Res 1975; 35:1320-5. [PMID: 1091350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Acinetobacter glutaminase-asparaginase (AGA) and Escherichia coli asparaginase were compared for their effects on plasma and tissue levels of amino acids, ammonia, and glutamyl transferase activity in the mouse. Free asparagine was depleted similarly in plasma and tissues by both enzymes. AGA treatment produced partial depletion of glutamine concentrations in muscle, spleen, small intestine, and liver. Brain and kidney glutamine concentrations actually rose with treatment. Despite over 100-fold increase in plasma glutamate, only the kidney showed a substantial increase in free glutamate levels during AGA treatment. Glutamine biosynthesis measured by glutamyl transferase activity showed an appreciable increase only in the kidney. Ammonia levels in tissues and plasma rose 1.3- to 4.3-fold. In general, E. coli asparaginase treatment had much less effect on these measurements than did AGA. The changes in these levels are discussed in relation to sites of possible toxicity and antitumor effects.
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White AG. Brain and serum glutamine in nephrectomized, uremic rats. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1973; 143:797-8. [PMID: 4719466 DOI: 10.3181/00379727-143-37416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Schrek R, Batra KV, Holcenberg JS, Roberts J, Dolowy WC. Effect of L-glutaminase on transformation and DNA synthesis of normal lymphocytes. Acta Haematol 1972; 48:12-5. [PMID: 4626960 DOI: 10.1159/000208432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Bauer K, Bierling R, Kaufmann W. [Effect of L-glutaminase from Pseudomonas aureofaciens in experimental tumors]. Naturwissenschaften 1971; 58:526-7. [PMID: 5126346 DOI: 10.1007/bf00623328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Abstract
Continuous exposure to 0.1 international unit or more of Escherichia coli L-glutaminase inhibited responses of human lymphocytes to phytohemagglutinin, streptolysin O, and allogeneic leukocytes. Inhibition was completety reversed by removing the enzyme from the culture or adding L-glutamine but not L-asparagine. Cytoxicity did not occur. L-Glutaminase should be immunosuppressive in vivo.
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Benkö S, Laki K. [The effect of L-asparaginase on fibrinogen and fibrin clot (current data on the tumor-inhibiting mechanism of L-asparaginase)]. Orv Hetil 1969; 110:2083-7. [PMID: 4900425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Lerner AM, Miranda QR. Cellular interactions of several enteroviruses and a reovirus after treatment with sodium borohydride or carbohydrases. Virology 1968; 36:277-85. [PMID: 4300881 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(68)90145-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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31
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el-Asmar FA, Greenberg DM. Studies on the mechanism of inhibition of tumor growth by the enzyme glutaminase. Cancer Res 1966; 26:116-22. [PMID: 5951788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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