Conservation and divergence within the clathrin interactome of Trypanosoma cruzi

The secretory pathway in Tetrahymena is organized for efficient constitutive secretion at ciliary pockets

In ciliates, membrane cisternae called alveoli interpose between the plasma membrane and the cytoplasm, posing a barrier to endocytic and exocytic membrane trafficking. One exception to this barrier is plasma membrane invaginations called parasomal sacs, which are adjacent to ciliary basal bodies. By following a fluorescent secretory marker called ESCargo, we imaged secretory compartments and secretion in these cells. A cortical endoplasmic reticulum is organized along cytoskeletal ridges and cradles a cohort of mitochondria. One cohort of Golgi are highly mobile in a subcortical layer, while the remainder appear stably positioned at periodic sites close to basal bodies, except near the cell tip where, interestingly, Golgi are more closely spaced. Strikingly, ESCargo secretion was readily visible at positions aligned with basal bodies and parasomal sacs. Thus peri-ciliary zones in ciliates are organized, like ciliary pockets in the highly unrelated trypanosomids, as unique hubs of exo-endocytic trafficking.

Biogenesis of EVs in Trypanosomatids

Trypanosomes are protozoan parasites responsible for human diseases such as Chagas disease, African trypanosomiasis, and leishmaniasis. These organisms' growth in various environments and exhibit multiple morphological stages, while adapting their surface components. They acquire and release materials extensively to get nutrients and manage interactions with the extracellular environment. They acquire and utilize proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates for growth via using membrane transport and endocytosis. Endocytosis takes place through distinct membrane areas known as the flagellar pocket and cytostome, depending on the parasite species and its developmental stage. Some forms establish a complex endocytic system to either store or break down the absorbed materials. In contrast, membrane transport facilitates the uptake of small molecules like amino acids, carbohydrates, and iron via particular receptors on the plasma membrane. Concurrently, these parasites secrete various molecules such as proteins, enzymes, nucleic acids, and glycoconjugates either in soluble form or enclosed in extracellular vesicles, which significantly contribute to their parasitic behavior. These activities require exocytosis through a secretory pathway in certain membrane domains such as the flagellum, flagellar pocket, and plasma membrane, which are controlled at various developmental stages. The main features of the endocytic and exocytic mechanisms, as well as the organelles involved, are discussed in this chapter along with their connection to the formation of exosomes and extracellular vesicles in the Tritryp species.

Lessons from the deep: mechanisms behind diversification of eukaryotic protein complexes

Genetic variation is the major mechanism behind adaptation and evolutionary change. As most proteins operate through interactions with other proteins, changes in protein complex composition and subunit sequence provide potentially new functions. Comparative genomics can reveal expansions, losses and sequence divergence within protein-coding genes, but in silico analysis cannot detect subunit substitutions or replacements of entire protein complexes. Insights into these fundamental evolutionary processes require broad and extensive comparative analyses, from both in silico and experimental evidence. Here, we combine data from both approaches and consider the gamut of possible protein complex compositional changes that arise during evolution, citing examples of complete conservation to partial and total replacement by functional analogues. We focus in part on complexes in trypanosomes as they represent one of the better studied non-animal/non-fungal lineages, but extend insights across the eukaryotes by extensive comparative genomic analysis. We argue that gene loss plays an important role in diversification of protein complexes and hence enhancement of eukaryotic diversity.

The old and the new about the contractile vacuole of Trypanosoma cruzi

Osmoregulation is a conserved cellular process required for the survival of all organisms. In protists, the need for robust compensatory mechanisms that can maintain cell volume and tonicity within physiological range is even more relevant, as their life cycles are often completed in different environments. Trypanosoma cruzi, the protozoan pathogen responsible for Chagas disease, is transmitted by an insect vector to multiple types of mammalian hosts. The contractile vacuole complex (CVC) is an organelle that senses and compensates osmotic changes in the parasites, ensuring their survival upon ionic and osmotic challenges. Recent work shows that the contractile vacuole is also a key component of the secretory and endocytic pathways, regulating the selective targeting of surface proteins during differentiation. Here we summarize our current knowledge of the mechanisms involved in the osmoregulatory processes that take place in the vacuole, and we explore the new and exciting functions of this organelle in cell trafficking and signaling.

Extracellular Vesicles: Potential Role in Remote Signaling and Inflammation in Trypanosoma cruzi-Triggered Disease

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) act as cell communicators and immune response modulators and may be employed as disease biomarkers and drug delivery systems. In infectious diseases, EVs can be released by the pathogen itself or by the host cells (infected or uninfected), potentially impacting the outcome of the immune response and pathological processes. Chagas disease (CD) is caused by infection by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi and is the main cause of heart failure in endemic areas. This illness attracted worldwide attention due to the presence of symptomatic seropositive subjects in North America, Asia, Oceania, and Europe. In the acute phase of infection, nonspecific signs, and symptoms contribute to miss diagnosis and early etiological treatment. In this phase, the immune response is crucial for parasite control; however, parasite persistence, dysregulated immune response, and intrinsic tissue factors may contribute to the pathogenesis of chronic CD. Most seropositive subjects remain in the indeterminate chronic form, and from 30 to 40% of the subjects develop cardiac, digestive, or cardio-digestive manifestations. Identification of EVs containing T. cruzi antigens suggests that these vesicles may target host cells and regulate cellular processes and the immune response by molecular mechanisms that remain to be determined. Parasite-released EVs modulate the host-parasite interplay, stimulate intracellular parasite differentiation and survival, and promote a regulatory cytokine profile in experimental models of CD. EVs derived from the parasite-cell interaction inhibit complement-mediated parasite lysis, allowing evasion. EVs released by T. cruzi-infected cells also regulate surrounding cells, maintaining a proinflammatory profile. After a brief review of the basic features of EVs, the present study focuses on potential participation of T. cruzi-secreted EVs in cell infection and persistence of low-grade parasite load in the chronic phase of infection. We also discuss the role of EVs in shaping the host immune response and in pathogenesis and progression of CD.

Transcriptional remodeling during metacyclogenesis in Trypanosoma cruzi I

Metacyclogenesis is one of the most important processes in the life cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi. In this stage, noninfective epimastigotes become infective metacyclic trypomastigotes. However, the transcriptomic changes that occur during this transformation remain uncertain. Illumina RNA-sequencing of epimastigotes and metacyclic trypomastigotes belonging to T. cruzi DTU I was undertaken. Sequencing reads were aligned and mapped against the reference genome, differentially expressed genes between the two life cycle stages were identified, and metabolic pathways were reconstructed. Gene expression differed significantly between epimastigotes and metacyclic trypomastigotes. The cellular pathways that were mostly downregulated during metacyclogenesis involved glucose energy metabolism (glycolysis, pyruvate metabolism, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation), amino acid metabolism, and DNA replication. By contrast, the processes where an increase in gene expression was observed included those related to autophagy (particularly Atg7 and Atg8 transcripts), corroborating its importance during metacyclogenesis, endocytosis, by an increase in the expression of the AP-2 complex subunit alpha, protein processing in the endoplasmic reticulum and meiosis. Study findings indicate that in T. cruzi metacyclic trypomastigotes, metabolic processes are decreased, and expression of genes involved in specific cell cycle processes is increased to facilitate transformation to this infective stage.

Trypanosomatid Flagellar Pocket from Structure to Function

The trypanosomatids Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi, and Leishmania spp. are flagellate eukaryotic parasites that cause serious diseases in humans and animals. These parasites have cell shapes defined by a subpellicular microtubule array and all share a number of important cellular features. One of these is the flagellar pocket, an invagination of the cell membrane around the proximal end of the flagellum, which is an important organelle for endo/exocytosis. The flagellar pocket plays a crucial role in parasite pathogenicity and persistence in the host and has a great influence on cell morphogenesis and cell division. Here, we compare the morphology and function of the flagellar pockets between different trypanosomatids, with their life cycles and ecological niches likely influencing these differences.

Immunoprecipitation for the Analysis of Macromolecular Complexes in Trypanosoma cruzi

Immunoprecipitation is a helpful tool to assess interactions between proteins and proteins or nucleic acids (DNA or RNA). Its principle consists in capturing and enriching one or multiple target proteins from a complex sample with a specific antibody conjugated to a solid matrix and isolating the RNA and/or protein molecules associated to those target(s) group of proteins that can be further identified by advanced techniques such as RNA-seq and/or mass spectrometry. Since this technique allows for identifying, mapping, and checking new protein-protein and protein-RNA interactions, its use is very convenient in situations where many proteins remain with their functions uncharacterized, as is the case of the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi. Here we describe a protocol that is based on the cryogrinding method for cell lysis and the use of antibodies conjugated to magnetic beads to capture and purify protein complexes in a robust and efficient way.

The Plasmodium falciparum Artemisinin Susceptibility-Associated AP-2 Adaptin μ Subunit is Clathrin Independent and Essential for Schizont Maturation

The efficacy of current antimalarial drugs is threatened by reduced susceptibility of Plasmodium falciparum to artemisinin, associated with mutations in pfkelch13 Another gene with variants known to modulate the response to artemisinin encodes the μ subunit of the AP-2 adaptin trafficking complex. To elucidate the cellular role of AP-2μ in P. falciparum, we performed a conditional gene knockout, which severely disrupted schizont organization and maturation, leading to mislocalization of key merozoite proteins. AP-2μ is thus essential for blood-stage replication. We generated transgenic P. falciparum parasites expressing hemagglutinin-tagged AP-2μ and examined cellular localization by fluorescence and electron microscopy. Together with mass spectrometry analysis of coimmunoprecipitating proteins, these studies identified AP-2μ-interacting partners, including other AP-2 subunits, the K10 kelch-domain protein, and PfEHD, an effector of endocytosis and lipid mobilization, but no evidence was found of interaction with clathrin, the expected coat protein for AP-2 vesicles. In reverse immunoprecipitation experiments with a clathrin nanobody, other heterotetrameric AP-complexes were shown to interact with clathrin, but AP-2 complex subunits were absent.IMPORTANCE We examine in detail the AP-2 adaptin complex from the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum In most studied organisms, AP-2 is involved in bringing material into the cell from outside, a process called endocytosis. Previous work shows that changes to the μ subunit of AP-2 can contribute to drug resistance. Our experiments show that AP-2 is essential for parasite development in blood but does not have any role in clathrin-mediated endocytosis. This suggests that a specialized function for AP-2 has developed in malaria parasites, and this may be important for understanding its impact on drug resistance.

Roles of Phosphoinositides and Their binding Proteins in Parasitic Protozoa

Phosphoinositides (or phosphatidylinositol phosphates, PIPs) are low-abundance membrane phospholipids that act, in conjunction with their binding partners, as important constitutive signals defining biochemical organelle identity as well as membrane trafficking and signal transduction at eukaryotic cellular membranes. In this review, we present roles for PIP residues and PIP-binding proteins in endocytosis and autophagy in protist parasites such as Trypanosoma brucei, Toxoplasma gondii, Plasmodium falciparum, Entamoeba histolytica, and Giardia lamblia. Molecular parasitologists with an interest in comparative cell and molecular biology of membrane trafficking in protist lineages beyond the phylum Apicomplexa, along with cell and molecular biologists generally interested in the diversification of membrane trafficking in eukaryotes, will hopefully find this review to be a useful resource.

Transcriptome, proteome and draft genome of Euglena gracilis

BACKGROUND

Photosynthetic euglenids are major contributors to fresh water ecosystems. Euglena gracilis in particular has noted metabolic flexibility, reflected by an ability to thrive in a range of harsh environments. E. gracilis has been a popular model organism and of considerable biotechnological interest, but the absence of a gene catalogue has hampered both basic research and translational efforts.

RESULTS

We report a detailed transcriptome and partial genome for E. gracilis Z1. The nuclear genome is estimated to be around 500 Mb in size, and the transcriptome encodes over 36,000 proteins and the genome possesses less than 1% coding sequence. Annotation of coding sequences indicates a highly sophisticated endomembrane system, RNA processing mechanisms and nuclear genome contributions from several photosynthetic lineages. Multiple gene families, including likely signal transduction components, have been massively expanded. Alterations in protein abundance are controlled post-transcriptionally between light and dark conditions, surprisingly similar to trypanosomatids.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data provide evidence that a range of photosynthetic eukaryotes contributed to the Euglena nuclear genome, evidence in support of the 'shopping bag' hypothesis for plastid acquisition. We also suggest that euglenids possess unique regulatory mechanisms for achieving extreme adaptability, through mechanisms of paralog expansion and gene acquisition.

Tridimensional Electron Microscopy Analysis of the Early Endosomes and Endocytic Traffic in Trypanosoma cruzi Epimastigotes

Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes internalize macromolecules avidly by endocytosis. Previously, we identified a tubule-vesicular network likely to correspond to the early-endosomes. However, a detailed ultrastructural characterization of these endosomes was missing. Here, we combined endocytosis assays with ultrastructural data from high-resolution electron microscopy to produce a 3D analysis of epimastigote endosomes and their interactions with endocytic organelles. We showed that endocytic cargo was found in carrier vesicles budding from the cytopharynx. These vesicles appeared to fuse with a tubule-vesicular network of early endosomes identified by ultrastructural features including the presence of intermembrane invaginations and coated membrane sections. Within the posterior region of the cell, endosomes localized preferentially on the side nearest to the cytopharynx microtubules. At 4°C, cargo accumulated at a shortened cytopharynx, and subsequent temperature shift to 12°C led to slow cargo delivery to endosomes and, later, to reservosomes. Bridges between reservosomes and endosomes resemble heterotypic fusion. Reservosomes are excluded from the posterior end of the cell, with no preferential cargo delivery to reservosomes closer to the nucleus. Our 3D analysis indicates that epimastigotes accomplish high-speed endocytic traffic by cargo transfer to a bona fide early-endosome and then directly from endosomes to reservosomes, via multiple and simultaneous heterotypic fusion events.

Evolutionary origins and specialisation of membrane transport

From unicellular protists to the largest megafauna and flora, all eukaryotes depend upon the organelles and processes of the intracellular membrane trafficking system. Well-defined machinery selectively packages and delivers material between endomembrane organelles and imports and exports material from the cell surface. This process underlies intracellular compartmentalization and facilitates myriad processes that define eukaryotic biology. Membrane trafficking is a landmark in the origins of the eukaryotic cell and recent work has begun to unravel how the revolution in cellular structure occurred.

Single-subunit oligosaccharyltransferases of Trypanosoma brucei display different and predictable peptide acceptor specificities

Trypanosoma brucei causes African trypanosomiasis and contains three full-length oligosaccharyltransferase (OST) genes; two of which, TbSTT3A and TbSTT3B, are expressed in the bloodstream form of the parasite. These OSTs have different peptide acceptor and lipid-linked oligosaccharide donor specificities, and trypanosomes do not follow many of the canonical rules developed for other eukaryotic N-glycosylation pathways, raising questions as to the basic architecture and detailed function of trypanosome OSTs. Here, we show by blue-native gel electrophoresis and stable isotope labeling in cell culture proteomics that the TbSTT3A and TbSTT3B proteins associate with each other in large complexes that contain no other detectable protein subunits. We probed the peptide acceptor specificities of the OSTs in vivo using a transgenic glycoprotein reporter system and performed glycoproteomics on endogenous parasite glycoproteins using sequential endoglycosidase H and peptide:N-glycosidase-F digestions. This allowed us to assess the relative occupancies of numerous N-glycosylation sites by endoglycosidase H-resistant N-glycans originating from Man5GlcNAc2-PP-dolichol transferred by TbSTT3A, and endoglycosidase H-sensitive N-glycans originating from Man9GlcNAc2-PP-dolichol transferred by TbSTT3B. Using machine learning, we assessed the features that best define TbSTT3A and TbSTT3B substrates in vivo and built an algorithm to predict the types of N-glycan most likely to predominate at all the putative N-glycosylation sites in the parasite proteome. Finally, molecular modeling was used to suggest why TbSTT3A has a distinct preference for sequons containing and/or flanked by acidic amino acid residues. Together, these studies provide insights into how a highly divergent eukaryote has re-wired protein N-glycosylation to provide protein sequence-specific N-glycan modifications. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifiers PXD007236, PXD007267, and PXD007268.

Quantitative proteome and phosphoproteome analyses highlight the adherent population during Trypanosoma cruzi metacyclogenesis

Trypanosoma cruzi metacyclogenesis is a natural process that occurs inside the triatomine vector and corresponds to the differentiation of non-infective epimastigotes into infective metacyclic trypomastigotes. The biochemical alterations necessary for the differentiation process have been widely studied with a focus on adhesion and nutritional stress. Here, using a mass spectrometry approach, a large-scale phospho(proteome) study was performed with the aim of understanding the metacyclogenesis processes in a quantitative manner. The results indicate that major modulations in the phospho(proteome) occur under nutritional stress and after 12 and 24 h of adhesion. Significant changes involve key cellular processes, such as translation, oxidative stress, and the metabolism of macromolecules, including proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. Analysis of the signalling triggered by kinases and phosphatases from 7,336 identified phosphorylation sites demonstrates that 260 of these sites are modulated throughout the differentiation process, and some of these modulated proteins have previously been identified as drug targets in trypanosomiasis treatment. To the best of our knowledge, this study provides the first quantitative results highlighting the modulation of phosphorylation sites during metacyclogenesis and the greater coverage of the proteome to the parasite during this process. The data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier number PXD006171.

Knockout of the gamma subunit of the AP-1 adaptor complex in the human parasite Trypanosoma cruzi impairs infectivity and differentiation and prevents the maturation and targeting of the major protease cruzipain

The AP-1 Adaptor Complex assists clathrin-coated vesicle assembly in the trans-Golgi network (TGN) of eukaryotic cells. However, the role of AP-1 in the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi-the Chagas disease parasite-has not been addressed. Here, we studied the function and localization of AP-1 in different T. cruzi life cycle forms, by generating a gene knockout of the large AP-1 subunit gamma adaptin (TcAP1-γ), and raising a monoclonal antibody against TcAP1-γ. Co-localization with a Golgi marker and with the clathrin light chain showed that TcAP1-γ is located in the Golgi, and it may interact with clathrin in vivo, at the TGN. Epimastigote (insect form) parasites lacking TcAP1-γ (TcγKO) have reduced proliferation and differentiation into infective metacyclic trypomastigotes (compared with wild-type parasites). TcγKO parasites have also displayed significantly reduced infectivity towards mammalian cells. Importantly, TcAP1-γ knockout impaired maturation and transport to lysosome-related organelles (reservosomes) of a key cargo-the major cysteine protease cruzipain, which is important for parasite nutrition, differentiation and infection. In conclusion, the defective processing and transport of cruzipain upon AP-1 ablation may underlie the phenotype of TcγKO parasites.

Lineage-specific proteins essential for endocytosis in trypanosomes

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) is the most evolutionarily ancient endocytic mechanism known, and in many lineages the sole mechanism for internalisation. Significantly, in mammalian cells CME is responsible for the vast bulk of endocytic flux and has likely undergone multiple adaptations to accommodate specific requirements by individual species. In African trypanosomes, we previously demonstrated that CME is independent of the AP-2 adaptor protein complex, that orthologues to many of the animal and fungal CME protein cohort are absent, and that a novel, trypanosome-restricted protein cohort interacts with clathrin and drives CME. Here, we used a novel cryomilling affinity isolation strategy to preserve transient low-affinity interactions, giving the most comprehensive trypanosome clathrin interactome to date. We identified the trypanosome AP-1 complex, Trypanosoma brucei (Tb)EpsinR, several endosomal SNAREs plus orthologues of SMAP and the AP-2 associated kinase AAK1 as interacting with clathrin. Novel lineage-specific proteins were identified, which we designate TbCAP80 and TbCAP141. Their depletion produced extensive defects in endocytosis and endomembrane system organisation, revealing a novel molecular pathway subtending an early-branching and highly divergent form of CME, which is conserved and likely functionally important across the kinetoplastid parasites.

Summary: Endocytosis is a vital process in most cells, and here we identify important proteins required for this process in trypanosomes. Significantly, these are unique and not present in animals, fungi or plants.