Non-invasive determination of ethanol, propylene glycol and water in a multi-component pharmaceutical oral liquid by direct measurement through amber plastic bottles using Fourier transform near-infrared spectroscopy

Non-destructive Raman Method Development for Quantifying Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient in an Oral Suspension Through Plastic Dosing Syringes

For liquid drug products, e.g., solutions or suspensions for oral or parenteral dosing, stability needs to be demonstrated in primary packaging during storage and in dosing devices during in-use periods per quality guidelines from the International Conference on Harmonisation (ICH) and the European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products (EMEA). One aspect of stability testing for liquid drug products is in-use stability, which typically includes transferring the liquid samples into another container for further sample preparation with extraction diluent and necessary agitation. Samples are then analyzed with traditional chromatography methods, which are laborious, prone to human errors, and time-consuming, especially when this process needs to be repeated multiple times during storage and in-use periods. Being able to analyze the liquid samples non-destructively would significantly improve testing efficiency. We investigated different Raman techniques, including transmission Raman (TRS) and back scatter Raman with a non-contact optic (NCO) probe, as alternative non-destructive tools to the UHPLC method for API quantitation in in-use liquid samples pulled into plastic dosing syringes. The linearity of the chemometric methods for these two techniques was demonstrated by cross-validation sample sets at three levels over an API concentration range of 60 to 80 mg/mL. The accuracy of the chemometric models was demonstrated by the accurate prediction of the API concentrations in independent samples from four different pilot plant batches manufactured at different sites. Both techniques were successful in measuring a signal through a plastic oral dosing syringe, and predicting the suspension API concentration to within 4% of the UHPLC-measured value. For future work, there are opportunities to improve the methodology by exploring additional probes or to expand the range of applications by using different sample presentations (such as prefilled syringes) or formulation matrices for solutions and suspensions.

A feasibility study on improving the non-invasive detection accuracy of bottled Shuanghuanglian oral liquid using near infrared spectroscopy

The ultimate goal of the study is to present a strategy to improve the accuracy of near-infrared spectroscopy detection of Shuanghuanglian oral liquid in glass bottles without damaging the primary packaging. we adopted the multi-position spectral modeling (MPSM) method to correct the spectral variation caused by the difference of bottle and measuring position, so as to improve the measurement accuracy and find the best site combination for measuring Shuanghuanglian oral liquid. Baicalin, total flavonoids and soluble solid contents were considered as the quality indicators of the oral liquid, and partial least squares (PLS) models were employed for the single-position and multi-position spectra, respectively. The root mean square error of the validation set (RMSEP) of the optimum multi-position models are 0.7412 mg/mL for baicalin, 1.1259 mg/mL for total flavonoids and 0.9491% for soluble solids contents. Compared with the traditional single-position spectral modeling method (SPSM method), MPSM method improved the prediction accuracy of baicalin, total flavonoids and soluble solid contents by 26.84%, 31.97% and 58.14% respectively. The results showed that the MPSM method can improve the measurement accuracy of bottled oral liquid and is an effective method to eliminate the uncertainty of measurement conditions.

Influence of the quality of capsule shell on the non-invasive monitoring of medicines using Terizidone as an example

The aim of this study is to investigate the influence of hard capsule shells on the possibility of non-invasive monitoring and authentication of medicines presented in capsules dosage form. It is shown that the NIR measurements followed by the chemometric analysis, reflects all macro-components of the analyzed samples, which are the PVC blister, the capsule shell, and the capsule contents. The special variable selection procedure, based on the pure spectra of all components, makes it possible to develop a model that is insensitive to small variations of the capsule shell. The shrinkage of spectral region can greatly affect the results of the classification. Consequently, in case we are interested in the whole remedy, capsules with deviations in shell properties should be rejected as the substandard ones. If we are only interested in the quality of capsules' content, the developed model is effective and applicable in the routine testing. The final model helps to understand and demonstrate the reason for the rejection of substandard samples authentication. It also gives a practical signal to the manufacturer to pay attention to the quality of the capsule shells.

Process Analytical Technology Tools for Monitoring Pharmaceutical Unit Operations: A Control Strategy for Continuous Process Verification

Various frameworks and methods, such as quality by design (QbD), real time release test (RTRT), and continuous process verification (CPV), have been introduced to improve drug product quality in the pharmaceutical industry. The methods recognize that an appropriate combination of process controls and predefined material attributes and intermediate quality attributes (IQAs) during processing may provide greater assurance of product quality than end-product testing. The efficient analysis method to monitor the relationship between process and quality should be used. Process analytical technology (PAT) was introduced to analyze IQAs during the process of establishing regulatory specifications and facilitating continuous manufacturing improvement. Although PAT was introduced in the pharmaceutical industry in the early 21st century, new PAT tools have been introduced during the last 20 years. In this review, we present the recent pharmaceutical PAT tools and their application in pharmaceutical unit operations. Based on unit operations, the significant IQAs monitored by PAT are presented to establish a control strategy for CPV and real time release testing (RTRT). In addition, the equipment type used in unit operation, PAT tools, multivariate statistical tools, and mathematical preprocessing are introduced, along with relevant literature. This review suggests that various PAT tools are rapidly advancing, and various IQAs are efficiently and precisely monitored in the pharmaceutical industry. Therefore, PAT could be a fundamental tool for the present QbD and CPV to improve drug product quality.

Trends in Process Analytical Technology: Present State in Bioprocessing

Process analytical technology (PAT), the regulatory initiative for incorporating quality in pharmaceutical manufacturing, is an area of intense research and interest. If PAT is effectively applied to bioprocesses, this can increase process understanding and control, and mitigate the risk from substandard drug products to both manufacturer and patient. To optimize the benefits of PAT, the entire PAT framework must be considered and each elements of PAT must be carefully selected, including sensor and analytical technology, data analysis techniques, control strategies and algorithms, and process optimization routines. This chapter discusses the current state of PAT in the biopharmaceutical industry, including several case studies demonstrating the degree of maturity of various PAT tools. Graphical Abstract Hierarchy of QbD components.

Simultaneous determination of alcohols including diols and triols by HPLC with ultraviolet detection based on the formation of a copper(II) complex

We developed a reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography method with ultraviolet detection using on-line complexation with Cu(II) ion for analysis of five alcohols including diols and triol (methanol, ethanol, 1,2-propanediol, 1,3-propanediol, and glycerol). The Cu(II) ion concentration in the mobile phase had a great influence on the peak areas of these alcohols, but not on their retention times. Column temperature (25-40°C) and pH of the mobile phase did not affect the separation of analytes. The optimum separation conditions were determined as 5 mM CuSO₄ , 3 mM H₂ SO₄ , and 3 mM NaOH at 30°C. The ratio of the peak areas for three alcohols (methanol, 1,2-propanediol, and glycerol) was in good agreement with that calculated from the obtained stability constants, molar absorption coefficients for the 1:1 Cu(II) complexes with the three alcohols, and the injected molar quantities. This fact strongly suggests that the observed high-performance liquid chromatography signals resulted from formation of the 1:1 Cu(II)-alcohol complexes. Using the proposed method, these five alcohols in spirit, liquid for electronic cigarette, mouthwash, and nail enamel remover samples were successfully analyzed with only a simple pretreatment.

Discrimination and quantification of two isomeric antineoplastic drugs by rapid and non-invasive analytical control using a handheld Raman spectrometer

Raman spectroscopy is a rapid, non-destructive and non-invasive method that is a promising tool for real-time analytical control of drug concentrations. This study evaluated a handheld Raman device to discriminate and quantify two isomeric drugs used to treat cancer. Doxorubicin (DOXO) and epirubicin (EPIR) samples were analyzed at therapeutic concentrations from 0.1 to 2mg/mL (n=90) and 0.08-2mg/mL (n=90) by non-invasive measurements using a portable Raman spectrometer. The discrimination of these two molecules was demonstrated for all concentrations (n=180) by qualitative analysis using partial least square discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) with 100% classification accuracy, sensitivity and specificity and 0% error rate. For each molecule, quantitative analyses were performed using PLS regression. The validity of the model was evaluated using root mean square error of cross validation (RMSECV) and prediction (RMSEP) that furnished 0.05 and 0.02mg/mL for DOXO and 0.17 and 0.16mg/mL for EPIR after pretreatment optimization. Based on the accuracy profile, the linearity range was from 1.256 to 2.000mg/mL for DOXO (R²=0.9988) and from 0.553 to 2.000mg/Ml for EPIR (R²=0.9240) and repeatability (CV% max of 1.8% for DOXO and 3.2% for EPIR) and intermediate precision (CV% max of 2.8% for DOXO and 4.5% for EPIR) were both acceptable. Despite the narrow validated concentration range for quantitative analysis, this study shows the potential of a handheld Raman spectrometer coupled to chemometric approaches for real-time quantification of cytotoxic drugs, as well for discriminating between two drugs with similar UV absorption profiles. Finally, the use of a handheld spectrometer with the possibility of a direct measurement of substances in containers is a potentially valuable tool for combining patient safety with security of healthcare workers.

On-line monitoring of vacuum drying of theophylline using NIR spectroscopy: solid-state transitions, water content and semi-empirical modeling

The aim of this work was to monitor in-line and at a real time, the solid-state forms during pharmaceuticals manufacturing. It concerns the dehydration behavior and the solid-state transitions of theophylline in an agitated vacuum contact dryer. First, a near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) method was performed using a reflectance diffuse probe to measure the in-line and in-situ exact composition of the mixture of different forms of theophylline and water content during drying. A multivariate modeling has been investigated to build a robust model which can predict four components at the same time during drying process. The XRPD analysis was used as a reference method in the process of calibration of NIRS. The indicators of the accuracy in quantitative spectral analysis confirm the robustness of the model and the efficiency of the method of calibration. Second, the kinetics of solid state transformations were investigated. It was shown that the dehydration advanced first by the formation of the metastable anhydrate and after a lag time of the stable one. Once the stable form appeared, formation of the metastable form came to an end. The temperature was found out to be the main factor controlling the overall process rate but also the final contents of the stable and metastable anhydrates for the considered dryer and operating conditions range. Finally, a semi-empirical drying model was proposed and significant quantitative differences were found, particularly at the product temperature which was probably caused by the excessive simplicity of the model.

Near-infrared imaging of liquid mixtures utilizing multi-channel photonic crystal wavelength filters

We demonstrate a near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy-based real-time imaging system of aqueous alcohol solutions (ethanol containing water). The system obtains a set of NIR images by the combination of an InGaAs area sensor and four-channel patterned photonic crystal wavelength filters. Acquired pictures were decomposed into a set of NIR images and processed by principal component analysis (PCA). According to a preliminary experiment for water/ethanol mixture samples, we confirmed that the system was capable of identifying the mixture ratio with accuracy of the order of a few percentage points at a frame rate of approximately 24 frames per second (fps).

Non-invasive quantification of 5 fluorouracil and gemcitabine in aqueous matrix by direct measurement through glass vials using near-infrared spectroscopy

Fourier transform near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) was used for quantitative analysis of two cytotoxic drugs used in pharmaceutical infusion, 5-fluorouracil (5FU) and gemcitabine (GEM), at therapeutic concentrations in aqueous matrix. Spectra were collected from 4000 cm(-1) to 13,000 cm(-1) by direct measurement through standard glass vials and calibration models were developed for 5FU and GEM using partial least-squares regression. NIR determination coefficient (R(2)) greater than 0.9992, root-mean-square-error of cross-validation (RMESCV) of 0.483 mg/ml for 5FU and 0.139 mg/ml for GEM and the root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) of 0.519 for 5FU and 0.108 mg/ml for GEM show a good prediction ability of NIR spectroscopy to predict 5FU and GEM concentrations directly through a glass packaging. According to accuracy profile, the linearity was validated from 7 to 50mg/ml and 2 to 40 mg/ml for 5-fluorouracil and gemcitabine respectively. This new approach for cytotoxic drugs control at hospital has shown the feasibility of near infrared spectroscopy to quantify antineoplastic drugs in aqueous matrix by a direct measurement through glass vial in less than 1 min and by non-invasive measurement perfect to limit exposure of operator to cytotoxic drugs.

Direct Determination Methods Without Sample Preparation

The greenest alternatives to the traditional methods of analysis based on sample digestion and/or analyte extraction, are clearly those that permit the direct determination of as many analytes as possible without any sample pretreatment. This chapter deals with the main aspects and applications of remote sensing and teledetection systems, and the use of non-invasive methods of analysis, which permit a direct analysis of samples without any sample damage. In addition, the possibilities offered by several techniques to analyse solids directly without the use of reagents through the direct atomization of small portions of samples, the arc, spark or laser ablation of materials for their analysis by optical emission or mass spectrometry, are evaluated. This chapter attempts to provide a literature survey of all the aforementioned tools which have been evaluated from the perspective of greening analytical practices.

Characterization of aqueous alcohol solutions in bottles with THz reflection spectroscopy

We demonstrate a method based on self-referenced THz time-domain spectroscopy for inspection of aqueous liquids, and in particular alcohol solutions, inside closed containers. We demonstrate that it is possible to determine the alcohol content of an aqueous solution, and that liquids can be classified as either harmless or inflammable. The method operates in reflection mode with the result that liquids opaque to THz radiation can be characterized with little influence of the bottle shape. The method works with plastic bottles as well as glass bottles, with absorption of THz radiation by the plastic or the glass being the limiting factor. The reflection mode allows for automatic control of the validity of the measurement. The method will be useful in liquid scanning systems at security checkpoints.

Simultaneous determination of diethylene glycol and propylene glycol in pharmaceutical products by HPLC after precolumn derivatization with p-toluenesulfonyl isocyanate

A simple and reliable HPLC method was developed for the simultaneous quantitative analysis of diethylene glycol (DEG) and propylene glycol (PG) in pharmaceutical products by precolumn derivatization. The derivatization reagent p-toluenesulfonyl isocyanate (TSIC, 10 microL, 20% in ACN v/v) was added to 100 microL of the sample, and then 10 muL of water was added. The resulting derivatives were separated using a C(18)analytical column and a mobile phase composed of 0.01 M KH(2)PO(4)buffer (adjusted to pH 2.5 with phosphoric acid) and ACN (47:53 v/v) at 1 mL/min and 25 degrees C. For detection, UV light at 227 nm was used. The derivatization conditions including reaction time, temperature, and concentration of TSIC were optimized. The calibration curves were linear from 0.062 to 18.6 microg/mL (r(2)= 0.9999) and from 0.071 to 21.3 microg/mL (r(2) = 0.9999) for DEG and PG, respectively. The RSD values of intra- and interday assays were all below 4% for DEG and PG. The proposed method was then successfully applied to analyze two Armillarisin A injection samples and two spiked syrup samples.

A review of near infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics in pharmaceutical technologies

Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) is a fast and non-destructive analytical method. Associated with chemometrics, it becomes a powerful tool for the pharmaceutical industry. Indeed, NIRS is suitable for analysis of solid, liquid and biotechnological pharmaceutical forms. Moreover, NIRS can be implemented during pharmaceutical development, in production for process monitoring or in quality control laboratories. This review focuses on chemometric techniques and pharmaceutical NIRS applications. The following topics are covered: qualitative analyses, quantitative methods and on-line applications. Theoretical and practical aspects are described with pharmaceutical examples of NIRS applications.

A new non-invasive, quantitative Raman technique for the determination of an active ingredient in pharmaceutical liquids by direct measurement through a plastic bottle

The concentration of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (povidone) in a commercial eyewash solution has been measured directly through a plastic (low-density polyethylene: LDPE) container using a wide area illumination (WAI) Raman scheme. The WAI scheme allows excitation using a 6mm laser spot (focal length: 248 mm) that is designed to cover a wide sample area. As a result, it has the potential to improve the reliability Raman measurements by significantly enhancing representative sample interrogation, thus improving the reproducibility of sampling. It also decreases the sensitivity of sample placement with regard to the excitation focal plane. Simultaneously, isobutyric anhydride was placed in front of the bottles to use for a synchronous external standard configuration. This helps to correct the problematic variation of Raman intensity from the inherent fluctuation in laser power. Using the WAI Raman scheme combined with the synchronous standard method, the povidone concentration was successfully measured with spectral collection that was performed through a plastic barrier. The conventional Raman scheme was difficult to employ for the same purpose because of the degraded spectral reproducibility resulting from the smaller laser illumination area and the sensitivity of such an approach to the position of the sample bottle. The result from this study suggests that the WAI scheme exhibits a strong potential for the non-destructive quantitative analysis of pharmaceuticals measured directly in plastic containers. Preliminary work also shows that similar measurements can also be made in glass bottles. If implemented, this technique could be utilized as a simple and rugged method for quality assurance of final products in a manner consistent with Process analytical technology (PAT) requirements.

A feasibility study on the use of visible and short wavelengths in the near-infrared region for the non-destructive measurement of wine composition

The aim of this study was to explore the capability of spectroscopy in the visible (Vis) and short wavelength near-infrared (NIR) regions for the non-destructive measurement of wine composition in intact bottles. In this study we analysed a wide range of commercial wines obtained in Australia in different types of bottles (e.g. colours, diameters and heights), including different wine styles and varieties. Wine bottles were scanned in the Vis-NIR region (600-1,100 nm) in a monochromator instrument in transflectance mode. Principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least-squares (PLS) regression were used to interpret the spectra and develop calibrations for wine composition. Due to the relatively small number of samples available full cross-validation (leave-one-out) was used as validation. The coefficient of correlation in calibration [Formula: see text] and the standard error of cross-validation (SECV) were 0.67 (SECV: 0.48%), 0.83 (SECV: 4.01 mg L-1), 0.70 (SECV: 28.6 mg L-1) and 0.50 (SECV: 0.15) for alcohol content, total SO2, free SO2 and pH, respectively, in the set of wine samples analysed. These preliminary results showed that the assessment of wine composition by Vis and short wavelengths in the NIR is possible for either qualitative analysis (e.g. low-, medium- and high-quality grading), or for screening of composition during bottling and storage. Although low accuracy and precision were obtained for the chemical parameters routinely analysed in wine, calibration models for the chemical parameters were considered acceptable for screening purposes in terms of the standard errors obtained.

Construction of universal quantitative models for determination of roxithromycin and erythromycin ethylsuccinate in tablets from different manufacturers using near infrared reflectance spectroscopy

Universal quantitative models using NIR reflectance spectroscopy were developed for the analysis of API contents (active pharmaceutical ingredient) in roxithromycin and erythromycin ethylsuccinate tablets from different manufacturers in China. The two quantitative models were built from 78 batches of roxithromycin samples from 18 different manufacturers with the API content range from 19.5% to 73.9%, and 66 batches erythromycin ethylsuccinate tablets from 36 manufacturers with the API content range from 28.1% to 70.9%. Three different spectrometers were used for model construction in order to have robust and universal models. The root mean square errors of cross validation (RMSECV) and the root mean square errors of prediction (RMSEP) of the model for roxithromycin tablets were 1.84% and 1.45%, respectively. The values of RMSECV and RMSEP of the model for erythromycin ethylsuccinate tablets were 2.31% and 2.16%, respectively. Based on the ICH guidelines and characteristics of NIR spectroscopy, the quantitative models were then evaluated in terms of specificity, linearity, accuracy, precision, robustness and model transferability. Our study has shown that it is feasible to build a universal quantitative model for quick analysis of pharmaceutical products from different manufacturers. Therefore, the NIR method could be used as an effective method for quick, non-destructive inspection of medicines in the distribution channels or open market.

Application of N-PLS calibration to the simultaneous determination of Cu2+, Cd2+ and Pb2+ using peptide modified electrochemical sensors

The simultaneous determination of Cu(2+), Cd(2+) and Pb(2+) is demonstrated at four modified gold electrodes using N-PLS calibration. Three of the electrodes were modified with the peptides Gly-Gly-His, gamma-Glu-Cys Gly and human angiotensin I which were covalently attached to thioctic acid self-assembled monolayers and the fourth electrode was modified with thioctic acid only. Voltammetry at the modified electrodes in the presence of the three metal ions revealed one peak due to the reduction of copper and another due to the overlapping peaks of cadmium and lead which made quantification using conventional methods difficult. N-PLS was used to calibrate and predict trace concentrations (100 nM to 10 microM) of mixtures of Cu(2+), Cd(2+) and Pb(2+).

Multivariate Analysis and Classification of the Chemical Quality of 7-Aminocephalosporanic Acid Using Near-Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy

The capability of near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy in comparison to conventional chemical testing to control the chemical quality of a pharmaceutical intermediate has been investigated. Multivariate projection methods including principal component analysis, partial least-squares discriminant analysis and soft independent modeling of class analogy have been evaluated. 7-Aminocephalosporanic acid has been chosen as an example providing a large variation of quality due to its relative chemical instability. Three sets of production lots have been selected to study the extent of quality information extractable from NIR spectra. The first set of 91 lots covers a very broad range of chemical quality assessed by 8 parameters with a partially extended characterization by physical properties. The general congruence of spectral, chemical, and physical information has been investigated. The second set of 110 lots covers a very narrow range of chemical quality assessed by 11 parameters. With extended quality information, the intrinsic selectivity within the spectral data structure has been studied. The third set of 228 lots characterized by 8 parameters is a selection out of more than 1000 lots over a production period of two years. The ruggedness of the multivariate approach has been confirmed by a cross validation of the classification test.