A highly sensitive nanoscale pH-sensor using Au nanoparticles linked by a multifunctional Raman-active reporter molecule

Plasmonic nanoparticle sensors: current progress, challenges, and future prospects

Plasmonic nanoparticles (NPs) have played a significant role in the evolution of modern nanoscience and nanotechnology in terms of colloidal synthesis, general understanding of nanocrystal growth mechanisms, and their impact in a wide range of applications. They exhibit strong visible colors due to localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) that depends on their size, shape, composition, and the surrounding dielectric environment. Under resonant excitation, the LSPR of plasmonic NPs leads to a strong field enhancement near their surfaces and thus enhances various light-matter interactions. These unique optical properties of plasmonic NPs have been used to design chemical and biological sensors. Over the last few decades, colloidal plasmonic NPs have been greatly exploited in sensing applications through LSPR shifts (colorimetry), surface-enhanced Raman scattering, surface-enhanced fluorescence, and chiroptical activity. Although colloidal plasmonic NPs have emerged at the forefront of nanobiosensors, there are still several important challenges to be addressed for the realization of plasmonic NP-based sensor kits for routine use in daily life. In this comprehensive review, researchers of different disciplines (colloidal and analytical chemistry, biology, physics, and medicine) have joined together to summarize the past, present, and future of plasmonic NP-based sensors in terms of different sensing platforms, understanding of the sensing mechanisms, different chemical and biological analytes, and the expected future technologies. This review is expected to guide the researchers currently working in this field and inspire future generations of scientists to join this compelling research field and its branches.

Highly porous gold supraparticles as surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) substrates for sensitive detection of environmental contaminants

Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) has great potential as an analytical technique for environmental analyses. In this study, we fabricated highly porous gold (Au) supraparticles (i.e., ∼100 μm diameter agglomerates of primary nano-sized particles) and evaluated their applicability as SERS substrates for the sensitive detection of environmental contaminants. Facile supraparticle fabrication was achieved by evaporating a droplet containing an Au and polystyrene (PS) nanoparticle mixture on a superamphiphobic nanofilament substrate. Porous Au supraparticles were obtained through the removal of the PS phase by calcination at 500 °C. The porosity of the Au supraparticles was readily adjusted by varying the volumetric ratios of Au and PS nanoparticles. Six environmental contaminants (malachite green isothiocyanate, rhodamine B, benzenethiol, atrazine, adenine, and gene segment) were successfully adsorbed to the porous Au supraparticles, and their distinct SERS spectra were obtained. The observed linear dependence of the characteristic Raman peak intensity for each environmental contaminant on its aqueous concentration reveals the quantitative SERS detection capability by porous Au supraparticles. The limit of detection (LOD) for the six environmental contaminants ranged from ∼10 nM to ∼10 μM, which depends on analyte affinity to the porous Au supraparticles and analyte intrinsic Raman cross-sections. The porous Au supraparticles enabled multiplex SERS detection and maintained comparable SERS detection sensitivity in wastewater influent. Overall, we envision that the Au supraparticles can potentially serve as practical and sensitive SERS devices for environmental analysis applications.

Surface-enhanced Raman scattering in ETPTA inverse photonic crystals with gold nanoparticles

We present a substrate design for surface-enhanced Raman scattering by decorating three-dimensional inverse photonic crystals with a small amount of Au nanoparticles. Photonic crystals with different positions of the photonic stop band were fabricated by inverting opal-type templates using photopolymerization of a trimethylolpropane ethoxylate triacrylate (ETPTA) photocurable resin. Then Au nanoparticles were embedded into inverse ETPTA films by multiple infiltration. Using the methylene blue dye as a test compound, we found that the enhancement factor of the Raman signal is strongly dependent on the spectral position of the photonic stop band, reaching a value of about 1-2 × 10⁵ when it coincides with the laser wavelength. The detection limit for methylene blue in solution is of the order of 10^-7 M.

Bioinspired protein corona strategy enhanced biocompatibility of Ag-Hybrid hollow Au nanoshells for surface-enhanced Raman scattering imaging and on-demand activation tumor-phototherapy

Silver-based hybrid nanoprobes for surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) imaging show their tremendous potential for precise biological detection and mediated phototherapy. However, the severe toxicity induced by Ag to normal mammalian cells hinders its further application. Herein, we presented a versatile bioinspired protein corona strategy through assembling bovine serum albumin (BSA) protected Raman tag DTTC-conjugated Ag-hybrid hollow Au nanoshells (hollow AgAu-DTTC-BSA), which their silver ion release and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation are significantly suppressed, enabling no damage to normal cells and tissues, but can be reactivated on-demand under laser-irradiation at the tumor site. These nanoshells could also produce strong localized surface plasmon resonance for efficient-stable photothermal effect and enhanced SERS activity under laser irradiation, approved by both theoretical and experimental calculations. Furthermore, the biocompatible hollow AgAu-DTTC-BSA could detect both primary tumor tissues and tiny liver metastases (~0.18 mm) in orthotopic/subcutaneous CT26 colon tumor-bearing mice models. We also demonstrate their excellent therapeutic efficacy for colorectal solid neoplasms by accurate SERS imaging-guided photothermal therapy, simultaneously assisted with toxic Ag ion and ROS. These results suggest that hollow AgAu-DTTC-BSA is promising imaging assisted photothermal agents for solid tumor theranostics and enhancing the potential of Ag-based nanoparticles for practical treatment.

Two-dimensional self-assembled Au-Ag core-shell nanorods nanoarray for sensitive detection of thiram in apple using surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy

The development of substrate with high sensitivity and good reproducibility for surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) detection of contaminants in foods has attracted more and more attention. Herein, a stable two-dimensional (2D) Au-Ag core-shell nanorods (Au@Ag NRs) nanoarray substrate with high-performance SERS activity was developed based on interface self-assembly strategy and successfully applied to the detection of thiram in apple sample. A broad linearity range of 0.01-10 mg/L and a low limit of detection of 0.018 mg/L were achieved for thiram solution. The substrate was stable and exhibited satisfactory sensitivity after preserving at ambient temperature for 4 weeks. Furthermore, this method presented the comparable result to that acquired from high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with satisfactory recoveries of 93-116%. The study indicated that the prepared Au@Ag NRs nanoarray substrate was promising for SERS detection of contaminants such as pesticides in foods.

Bromide ion-functionalized nanoprobes for sensitive and reliable pH measurement by surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy

4-Mercaptopyridine (4-Mpy) is a pH reporter molecule commonly used to functionalize nanoprobes for surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) based pH measurements. However, nanoprobes functionalized by 4-Mpy alone have low pH sensitivity and are subject to interference by halide ions in sample media. To improve nanoprobe pH sensitivity and reliability, we functionalized gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) with both 4-Mpy and bromide ion (Br^-). Br^- electrostatically stabilizes protonated 4-Mpy, thus enabling sensitive SERS detection of the protonation state of 4-Mpy as a function of pH while also reducing variability caused by external halide ions. Through optimization of the functionalization parameters, including suspension pH, [4-Mpy], and [Br^-], the developed nanoprobes enable monitoring of pH from 2.1 to 10 with high SERS activity and minimal interference from halide ions within the sample matrix. As a proof of concept, we were able to track nanoprobe location and image the pH distribution inside individual cancer cells. This study provides a novel way to engineer reliable 4-Mpy-functionalized SERS nanoprobes for the sensitive analysis of spatially localized pH features in halide ion-containing microenvironments.

Gold nanostructures for the sensing of pH using a smartphone

Recently, metal nanostructures have been found to be capable of recognizing small changes in their surrounding environment, which can be utilized as significant sensing tools. In this study, we demonstrated colorimetric sensing of pH by gold nanostructures (GNs) using a simple smartphone. An indigenously developed Android app based on the CIELab 1931 analysis, which could run in a smartphone, was used for the precise determination of the pH value of liquid media. The pH value of an unknown solution obtained from the developed Android app was also compared with that obtained from the conventional ratiometric technique and a commercial pH meter. In another endeavor, it was found that the synthesized GNs demonstrated a high energy transfer efficiency from a donor (namely, the rhodamine 6G, (Rh 6G)) dye. This property of the GNs can be utilized further in the future for studying different bimolecular activities within the human body. It was found that the photoluminescence (PL) of Rh 6G was quenched when it was kept in the vicinity of the synthesized GNs, which was explained in terms of the Förster energy transfer mechanism. Thus, the present study will open up a plethora of opportunities for researchers to employ the nanostructures of gold and other metals in developing low-cost and Internet of Things (IoT)-based sensing devices using only a smart phone.

Exploring the Potentiality of a SERS-Active pH Nano-Biosensor

The merging of the molecular specificity of Raman spectroscopy with the extraordinary optical properties of metallic nanoarchitectures is at the heart of Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS), which in the last few decades proved its worth as powerful analytical tool with detection limits pushed to the single molecule recognition. Within this frame, SERS-based nanosensors for localized pH measurements have been developed and employed for a wide range of applications. Nevertheless, to improve the performances of such nanosensors, many key issues concerning their assembling, calibration and stability, that could significantly impact on the outcome of the pH measurements, need to be clarified. Here, we report on the detailed characterization of a case study SERS-active pH nanosensor, based on the conjugation of gold nanoparticles with the pH-sensitive molecular probe 4-mercaptobenzoic acid (4MBA). We analyzed and optimized all the aspects of the synthesis procedure and of the operating conditions to preserve the sensor stability and provide the highest responsiveness to pH. Exploiting the dependence of the SERS spectrum on the protonation degree of the carboxylic group at the edge of the 4MBA molecules, we derived a calibration curve for the nanosensor. The extrapolated working point, i.e., the pH value corresponding to the highest sensitivity, falls at pH 5.6, which corresponds to the pKa value of the molecule confined at the nanoparticle surface. A shift of the pKa of 4MBA, observed on the molecules confined at the nanostructured interface respect to the bulk counterpart, unveils the opportunity to assembly a SERS-based pH nanosensor with the ability to select its working point in the sensitivity region of interest, by acting on the nanostructured surface on which the molecular probe is confined. As a proof-of-concept, the nanosensor was successfully employed to measure the extracellular pH of normal and cancer cells, demonstrating the capability to discriminate between them.

Highly Sensitive and Reproducible SERS Sensor for Biological pH Detection Based on a Uniform Gold Nanorod Array Platform

Conventional research on surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)-based pH sensors often depends on nanoparticle aggregation, whereas the variability in nanoparticle aggregation gives rise to poor repeatability in the SERS signal. Herein, we fabricated a gold nanorod array platform via an efficient evaporative self-assembly method. The platform exhibits great SERS sensitivity with an enhancement factor of 5.6 × 10⁷ and maintains excellent recyclability and reproducibility with relative standard deviation (RSD) values of less than 8%. On the basis of the platform, we developed a highly sensitive bovine serum albumin (BSA)-coated 4-mercaptopyridine (4-MPy)-linked (BMP) SERS-based pH sensor to report pH ranging from pH 3.0 to pH 8.0. The intensity ratio variation of 1004 and 1096 cm^-1 in 4-MPy showed excellent pH sensitivity, which decreased as the surrounding pH increased. Furthermore, this BMP SERS-based pH sensor was employed to measure the pH value in C57BL/6 mouse blood. We have demonstrated that the pH sensor has great advantages such as good stability, reliability, and accuracy, which could be extended for the design of point-of-care devices.

A novel colorimetric and fluorescence turn-on pH sensor with a notably large Stokes shift for its application

A novel naked-eye colorimetric and fluorescent turn-on pH sensor based on a naphthalenone scaffold was rationally designed and facilely synthesized.

Bioanalytical Measurements Enabled by Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) Probes

Since its discovery in 1974, surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) has gained momentum as an important tool in analytical chemistry. SERS is used widely for analysis of biological samples, ranging from in vitro cell culture models, to ex vivo tissue and blood samples, and direct in vivo application. New insights have been gained into biochemistry, with an emphasis on biomolecule detection, from small molecules such as glucose and amino acids to larger biomolecules such as DNA, proteins, and lipids. These measurements have increased our understanding of biological systems, and significantly, they have improved diagnostic capabilities. SERS probes display unique advantages in their detection sensitivity and multiplexing capability. We highlight key considerations that are required when performing bioanalytical SERS measurements, including sample preparation, probe selection, instrumental configuration, and data analysis. Some of the key bioanalytical measurements enabled by SERS probes with application to in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo biological environments are discussed.

Highly stable SERS pH nanoprobes produced by co-solvent controlled AuNP aggregation

Production of gold nanoparticle (AuNP) surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) nanoprobes requires replicable aggregation to produce multimers with high signal intensity. Herein, we illustrate a novel, yet simple, approach to produce SERS nanoprobes through control of co-solvent composition. AuNP multimers were produced by mixing AuNP monomers in water : ethanol co-solvent for variable periods of time. By varying the water : ethanol ratio and the amount of 4-mercaptobenzoic acid (4-MBA) present, the aggregation rate can be systematically controlled. Thiolated poly(ethylene glycol) was then added to halt the aggregation process and provide steric stability. This approach was used to produce pH nanoprobes with excellent colloidal stability in high ionic strength environments and in complex samples. The pH probe exhibits broad pH sensitivity over the range 6-11 and we calculate that a single AuNP dimer in a 35 fL volume is sufficient to generate a detectable SERS signal. As a proof-of-concept, the probes were used to detect the intracellular pH of human prostate cancer cells (PC-3). The internalized probes exhibit a strong 4-MBA signal without any interfering bands from either the cells or the culture media and produce exceptionally detailed pH maps. pH maps obtained from 19 xy surface scans and 14 yz depth scans exhibit highly consistent intracellular pH in the range of 5 to 7, thus indicating the greater reliability and reproducibility of our pH probes compared with other probes previously reported in the literature. Our water : ethanol co-solvent production process is fast, simple, and efficient. Adjustment of solvent composition may become a powerful way to produce SERS tags or nanoprobes in the future.

Bio-Enabled Gold Superstructures with Built-In and Accessible Electromagnetic Hotspots

The bio-enabled synthesis of a novel class of surface enhanced Raman scattering probes is presented for functional imaging with built-in and accessible electromagnetic hotspots formed between densely packed satellites grown on a plasmonic core. The superstructures serve as nanoscale sensors to spatiotemporally map intravesicular pH changes along endocytic pathways inside live cells.

Au nanoflower–Ag nanoparticle assembled SERS-active substrates for sensitive MC-LR detection

Au nanoflower–Ag nanoparticle core–satellite assembly engineered Raman aptasensors achieved the sensitive detection of microcystin-LR in Tai lake water.

Towards high-throughput microfluidic Raman-activated cell sorting

Raman-activated cell sorting (RACS) is a promising single-cell analysis technology that is able to identify and isolate individual cells of targeted type, state or environment from an isogenic population or complex consortium of cells, in a label-free and non-invasive manner.

Morphology-controlled dual clickable nanoparticles via ultrasonic-assisted click polymerization

Morphology-controlled dual clickable nanoparticles (DCNPs) were synthesized in one stepviaultrasonic-assisted azide–alkyne click polymerization.