Comprehensive review of the phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and toxicology of alkamides (2016-2022)

Alkamides refer to a class of natural active small-molecule products composed of fatty acids and amine groups. These compounds are widely distributed in plants, and their unique structures and various pharmacological activities have caught the attention of scholars. This review provides a collection of literatures related to the phytochemistry, pharmacological effects, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity of alkamides published in 2016-2022 and their summary to provide references for further development of this class of ingredients. A total of 234 components (including chiral isomers) were summarized, pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antidiabetic, analgesic, neuroprotective, insecticidal, antioxidant, and antibacterial, and miscellaneous properties of alkamides were discussed. In addition, the pharmacokinetic characteristics and toxicity of alkamides were reviewed. However, information on the pharmacological mechanisms of the action, drug safety, and pharmacokinetics of alkamides is limited and thus requires further investigation and evaluation.

Neurotoxicity study of ethyl acetate extract of Zanthoxylum armatum DC. on SH-SY5Y based on ROS mediated mitochondrial apoptosis pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Zanthoxylum armatum DC. (ZADC) is a traditional medicinal plant with various pharmacological activities and is widely used in China, Japan, India, and other regions. Previous studies have revealed that the methanol extract of ZADC can cause neurotoxicity symptoms in rats, such as drooling, decreased appetite, decreased movement, and increased respiratory rate. However, the basis of these toxic substances and the mechanism of neurotoxicity remain unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To evaluate the effects of ZADC on nerve cells and their damage mechanisms and discuss the possible toxic substance basis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The ethyl acetate extract of ZADC is obtained by extracting the methanol extract of ZADC with ethyl acetate. The Q-Orbitrap LC-MS/MS method was employed to analyze the chemical composition of the EA extract of ZADC. SH-SY5Y cells were incubated with different concentrations of the ethyl acetate extract of ZADC. The cytotoxicity of the extract was evaluated using CCK-8, LDH, and ROS assays, and the oxidative stress status of cells was assessed using MDA, GSH, and SOD. Cell apoptosis was detected using flow cytometry. Damage to mitochondrial function was evaluated by labeling mitochondria, ATP, and MMP with fluorescence. Cyto-C, Caspase-3, Caspase-9, Apaf-1, Bax, and reduced Bcl2 expression were measured to evaluate the activation of the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. Finally, NAC intervention was used to detect changes in the relevant indicators. The activation of mitochondrial apoptosis pathway was evaluated by measuring Cyto-C, Caspase-3, Caspase-9, Apaf-1, and Bax and Bcl2 expression. Finally, NAC intervention was utilized to detect changes in the relevant indicators.

RESULTS

After treating SY-SY5Y cells with EA extract from ZADC, cell viability decreased significantly, and the intracellular ROS level increased in a dose-dependent manner. Meanwhile, ZADC can cause cellular oxidative stress and increase MDA and SOD concentrations while decreasing GSH concentrations. It can also shorten the mitochondrial cristae and decrease the number of mitochondria. In contrast, it can reduce ATP synthesis in the mitochondria and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP). Furthermore, it increased the apoptosis rate and the expression of Cyto-C, Caspase-3, Caspase-9, Apaf-1, and Bax and reduced Bcl2 expression. NAC intervention alleviated the reduction in SH-SY5Y cell survival and the accumulation of reactive oxygen species induced by the EA extract in ZADC. It also inhibits signaling pathways dominated by proteins, such as Cyto-C, reducing cell apoptosis and cytotoxicity. A total of 46 compounds were identified in the extracts.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that EA extract of ZADC can induce the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway by accumulating ROS in cells, leading to apoptosis. Antioxidants had a good inhibitory and protective effect against cell damage caused by the EA extract of ZADC. The neurotoxic components of ZADC may be organic acids and compounds containing amino groups.

Zanthoxylum bungeanum amides ameliorates nonalcoholic fatty liver via regulating gut microbiota and activating AMPK/Nrf2 signaling

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim. (Rutaceae) is a known herbal medicine with various bioactivities, including anti-obesity, lipid-lowering, learning & memory improving and anti-diabetes, and amides in Z. bungeanum (AZB) are considered as the major active agents for its bioactivities.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This research was carried out to uncover the anti-NAFL effect of AZB and its corresponding molecular mechanisms.

METHODS

The central composite design-response surface methodology (CCD-RSM) was utilized to optimize the AZB extraction process, and the anti-NAFL effect of AZB was investigated on high fat diet (HFD) fed mice (HFD mice). The levels of ROS in liver tissues were determined using laser confocal microscopy with DCFH-DA probe staining, and anti-enzymes (such as HO-1, SOD, CAT & GSH-PX) and MDA in liver tissues were measured using commercial detecting kits. GC-MS was used to determine the short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) contents in feces and blood of mice. 16S high-throughput sequencing, western blotting (WB) assay and immunofluorescence (IF) were used to explore the intestinal flora changes in mice and the potential mechanisms of AZB for treatment of NAFL.

RESULTS

Our results showed AZB reduced body weight, alleviated liver pathological changes, reduced fat accumulation, and improved oxidative stress in HFD mice. In addition, we also found AZB improved OGTT and ITT, reduced TG, TC, LDL-C, whereas increased HDL-C in HFD mice. AZB increased total number of the species and interspecies kinship of gut microbiota and reduced the richness and diversity of gut microbiota in HFD mice. Moreover, AZB decreased the ratio of Firmicutes/Bacteroidota, whereas increased the abundance of Allobaculum, Bacteroides and Dubosiella in feces of HFD-fed mice. Furthermore, AZB increased the production of SCFAs, and up-regulated the phosphorylation of AMPK and increased the nuclear transcription of Nrf2 in liver of HFD mice.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, our results suggested AZB can improve NAFL, which could reduce body weight, reverse liver lesions and fat accumulation, improve oxidative stress in liver tissues of HFD mice. Furthermore, the mechanisms are related to increase of the abundance of high-producing bacteria for SCFAs (e.g. Allobaculum, Bacteroides and Dubosiella) to activate AMPK/Nrf2 signaling.

Hydroxy-α-sanshool from the fruits of Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim. promotes browning of white fat by activating TRPV1 to induce PPAR-γ deacetylation

BACKGROUND

Accumulating evidence suggested increasing energy expenditure is a feasible strategy for combating obesity, and browning of white adipose tissue (WAT) to promote thermogenesis might be one of the attractive ways. Hydroxy-α-sanshool (HAS), a natural amide alkaloid extracted from the fruits of Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim, possesses lots of benefits in lipid metabolism regulation.

METHODS

The anti-obesity effect of HAS was investigated by establishing an animal model of obesity and a 3T3-L1 differentiation cell model. Effects of HAS on the whole-body fat and liver of obese mice, and the role of HAS in inducing browning of white fat were studied by Micro CT, Metabolic cage detection, Cell mitochondrial pressure detection, transmission electron microscopy and cold exposure assays. Furthermore, the Real-time PCR (qPCR), digital PCR (dPCR), western blot, Co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP), molecular docking, drug affinity responsive target stability (DARTS), Cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA) and other methods were used to investigate the target and mechanisms of HAS.

RESULTS

We found that treatment with HAS helped mice combat obesity caused by a high fat diet (HFD) and improve metabolic characteristics. In addition, our results suggested that the anti-obesity effect of HAS is related to increase energy consumption and thermogenesis via induction of browning of WAT. The further investigations uncovered that HAS can up-regulate UCP-1 expression, increase mitochondria number, and elevate the cellular oxygen consumption rates (OCRs) of white adipocytes. Importantly, the results indicated that browning effects of HAS is closely associated with SIRT1-dependent PPAR-γ deacetylation through activating the TRPV1/AMPK pathway, and TRPV1 is the potential drug target of HAS for the browning effects of WAT.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggested the HAS can promote browning of WAT via regulating AMPK/SIRT-1/PPARγ signaling, and the potential drug target of HAS is the membrane receptor of TRPV1.

Characterization of Polysaccharides from the Pericarp of Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim by Saccharide Mapping and Their Neuroprotective Effects

The pericarp of Zanthoxylum bungeanum maxim (PZM) is a commonly used spice and herbal medicine in China. In the present study, the structural characteristics of PPZM were investigated by saccharide mapping after enzymatic digestion by using high-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) and polysaccharide analysis by using carbohydrate gel electrophoresis (PACE). The mechanisms of protective effects of PPZM on Aβ_25-35-induced oxidative damage were explored in PC12 cells. The results showed that PPZM contained 1,4-α-D-galactosidic, 1,4-α-D-galactosiduronic, and (1→4)-β-D-glucosidic linkages. Pretreatment with PPZM significantly increased the cell viability of Aβ_25-35-injured PC12 cells. Flow cytometry and Hoechst/PI staining indicated that PPZM gradually relieved the apoptosis of the Aβ_25-25-treated cells. PPZM markedly decreased the ROS level of PC12 cells and suppressed Aβ_25-35-induced oxidative stress by increasing the SOD level, and decreasing the level of MDA and LDH. The mRNA expressions of caspase-3 and Bax were significantly downregulated, and Bcl-2 expression was upregulated by treatment with PPZM. PPZM significantly increased the mRNA expression of Nrf2 and HO-1 in Aβ_25-35 treated cells. The results indicated that PPZM alleviated apoptosis and oxidative stress induced by Aβ_25-25 through the inhibition of mitochondrial dependent apoptosis and activation of Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. PPZM can be used as a potential protective agent against Aβ_25-25-induced neurotoxicity.

Hydroxy-α-sanshool isolated from Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim. has antidiabetic effects on high-fat-fed and streptozotocin-treated mice via increasing glycogen synthesis by regulation of PI3K/Akt/GSK-3β/GS signaling

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a chronic metabolic disease characterized by hyperglycemia. The fruits of Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim. is a common spice and herbal medicine in China, and hydroxy-α-sanshool (HAS) is the most abundant amide in Z. bungeanum and reported to have significant hypoglycemic effects. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the ameliorative effects of HAS on T2DM and the potential mechanisms responsible for those effects. An acute toxicity test revealed the median lethal dose (LD50) of HAS is 73 mg/kg. C57BL/6 J mice were fed a high-fat diet and given an intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin (STZ) to induce T2DM in mice to evaluate the hypoglycemic effects of HAS. The results showed that HAS significantly reduced fasting blood glucose, reduced pathological changes in the liver and pancreas, and increased liver glycogen content. In addition, glucosamine (GlcN)-induced HepG2 cells were used to establish an insulin resistance cell model and explore the molecular mechanisms of HAS activity. The results demonstrated that HAS significantly increases glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis in HepG2 cells and activates the PI3K/Akt pathway in GlcN-induced cells, as well as increases GSK-3β phosphorylation, suppresses phosphorylation of glycogen synthase (GS) and increases glycogen synthesis in liver cells. Furthermore, these effects of HAS were blocked by the PI3K inhibitor LY294002. The results of our study suggest that HAS reduces hepatic insulin resistance and increases hepatic glycogen synthesis by activating the PI3K/Akt/GSK-3β/GS signaling pathway.

Fructus Zanthoxyli extract improves glycolipid metabolism disorder of type 2 diabetes mellitus via activation of AMPK/PI3K/Akt pathway: Network pharmacology and experimental validation

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated the potential mechanisms behind the beneficial effects of Fructus Zanthoxyli (FZ) against type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) based on network pharmacology and experimental validation.

METHODS

Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with hybrid quadrupole-orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry were used to identify the constituents of FZ. Next, the differentially expressed genes linked to the treatment of diabetes with FZ were screened using online databases (including Gene Expression Omnibus database and Swiss Target Prediction online database), and the overlapping genes and their enrichment were analyzed by Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG). Finally, the pathway was verified by in vitro experiments, and cell staining with oil red and Nile red showed that the extract of FZ had a therapeutic effect on T2DM.

RESULTS

A total of 43 components were identified from FZ, and 39 differentially expressed overlapping genes were screened as the possible targets of FZ in T2DM. The dug component-target network indicated that PPARA, PPARG, PIK3R3, JAK2 and GPR88 might be the core genes targeted by FZ in the treatment of T2DM. Interestingly, the enrichment analysis of KEGG showed that effects of FZ against T2DM were closely correlated with the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) signaling pathways. In vitro experiments further confirmed that FZ significantly inhibited palmitic acid-induced lipid formation in HepG2 cells. Moreover, FZ treatment was able to promote the AMPK and PI3K/Akt expressions in HepG2 cells.

CONCLUSION

Network pharmacology combined with experimental validation revealed that FZ extract can improve the glycolipid metabolism disorder of T2DM via activation of the AMPK/PI3K/Akt pathway.

Analisis Senyawa Aktif Trigeminal Andaliman dengan Variasi Metode Pengeringan dengan Pendekatan GC-MS

Sanshool compounds are the trigeminal active compounds in andaliman (Zanthoxylum acantho-podium DC) with a numbing and tingling sensation. The analysis of such compounds is usually done through HPLC approach; however, limited studies have reported that the analysis of such compounds could be conducted with Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). This method could save research time and funding by analyzing both sanshools and volatiles simultaneously, which would describe the complete profile of andaliman flavor compounds. This study aimed to confirm the potency of GC-MS in analyzing sanshool compounds and to utilize this method in studying the impact of different drying methods towards andaliman trigeminal active compounds. Andaliman was dried with five drying methods (sun, sunshade, air, oven, and freeze-drying) and was macerated with chloroform, concentrated, and analyzed with GC-MS. The results of this study showed that GC-MS was able to analyze sanshool compounds efficiently. Drying had no statistically significant impact on sanshool quantities extracted from andaliman. Fresh andaliman contained 0.69 % (dry weight basis) of α-sanshool, the main sanshool in andaliman. On the other hand, dried andaliman contained 0.80-1.08% of α-sanshool (dry weight basis). As oven drying managed to produce andaliman with a similar concentration of α-sanshool at a faster time and more affordable cost than other drying methods, oven drying was suggested as the ideal drying method to extend the shelf life of andaliman.

A Mixture of Ginkgo biloba L. Leaf and Hericium erinaceus (Bull.) Pers. Fruit Extract Attenuates Scopolamine-Induced Memory Impairments in Mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease that is characterized by loss of memory and cognitive impairment via dysfunction of the cholinergic nervous system. In cholinergic dysfunction, it is well known that impaired cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling are major pathological markers and are some of the strategies for the development of AD therapy. Therefore, this study is aimed at evaluating whether a mixture comprising Ginkgo biloba L. leaf (GL) and Hericium erinaceus (Bull.) Pers. (HE) fruit extract (GH mixture) alleviated cognitive impairment induced in a scopolamine-induced model. It was discovered that GH reduced neuronal apoptosis and promoted neuronal survival by activating BDNF signaling in an in vitro assay. In addition, the GH (p.o. 240 mg/kg) oral administration group significantly restored the cognitive deficits of the scopolamine-induced mouse group (i.p. 1.2 mg/kg) in the behavior tests such as Y-maze and novel object recognition task (NORT) tests. This mixture also considerably enhanced cholinergic system function in the mouse brain. Furthermore, GH markedly upregulated the expressed levels of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), CREB, and BDNF protein levels. These results demonstrated that GH strongly exerted a neuroprotective effect on the scopolamine-induced mouse model, suggesting that an optimized mixture of GL and HE could be used as a good material for developing functional foods to aid in the prevention of neurodegenerative diseases, including AD.

Protective effects of hydroxy-α-sanshool from the pericarp of Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim. On D-galactose/AlCl3-induced Alzheimer's disease-like mice via Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways

Hydroxy-α-sanshool (HAS) is an unsaturated fatty acid amide from Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim. with hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory, and neurotrophic effects, etc. In this study, results indicated that HAS effectively ameliorated spontaneous locomotion deficit of mice induced by D-galactose (D-gal) and AlCl₃ treatment in open field test. Results of Morris water maze test (MWM) showed that HAS significantly improved the spatial learning and memory ability of aging mice. Histopathological evaluations revealed that HAS markedly alleviated morphological changes and increased number of Nissl neurons in hippocampus of D-gal/AlCl₃-induced Alzheimer's disease (AD)-like mice. HAS markedly reduced malondialdehyde (MDA) production, and increased the activity of antioxidative enzymes including superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and catalase (CAT), showing an inhibitory effect on oxidative stress. Furthermore, HAS treatment obviously reversed the inhibitory expressions of mRNA and protein of HO-1 and Nrf2 in the hippocampus of AD mice, suggesting that neuroprotective effects of HAS against oxidative stress might be mediated by the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. Meanwhile, HAS significantly inhibited neuronal apoptosis by decreasing mRNA and protein expressions of Cyt-c, Bax and Caspase 3, and increasing Bcl-2 expression in the hippocampus of AD mice. These results suggest that HAS have the potential to be developed as antioxidant drug for the prevention and early therapy of AD.

Development and in vivo Evaluation of Hydroxy-α-Sanshool Intranasal Liposomes as a Potential Remedial Treatment for Alzheimer’s Disease

Purpose

Hydroxy-α-sanshool (HAS) improves cognitive dysfunction, but its structural instability has limited its clinical application. The present study was conducted to investigate the optimal formulation of hydroxy-α-sanshool liposomes (HAS-LPs) and its effect on ameliorating learning and memory disorders in an Alzheimer’s disease (AD) model.

Methods

In this study, HAS was prepared as HAS-LP using a thin film dispersion method. After selecting the optimal preparation conditions, HAS-LP was characterized using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and by measuring the zeta potential, particle size, and in vitro drug release. Next, evaluated the effect of HAS-LP on the rat nasal mucosa and then applied it to AD mice. By performing behaviour experiments, pathological test and related pharmacokinetic parameters, we explored its effect on attenuating learning and memory impairment in mice.

Results

When the mass ratio of HAS:cholesterol:soybean lecithin was 1:4:16 and 15 mL of ultrapure water were added, the highest encapsulation efficiency and drug loading were obtained. HAS-LP had a particle size of 181.77 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.207 and a zeta potential of −53.8 mV, and it remained stable at 25 °C for 1 week and 4 °C for 8 weeks. Moreover, HAS-LP exhibited slow drug release and was highly consistent with the Higuchi release model. HAS-LP was not significantly toxic to the nasal mucosa and effectively alleviated D-galactose-induced learning memory deficits and protected mouse hippocampal neuronal cells. HAS-LP was highly enriched in plasma and brain tissue after administration via the nasal route and obtained some ability to target the brain.

Conclusion

HAS encapsulated in soybean lecithin and cholesterol was successfully developed, suggesting that treatment with the nanoparticles might reverse some AD symptoms. Therefore, these nanoparticles might be used as promising new candidates for the delivery of HAS to treat AD.

Volatile Oil Profile of Prickly Ash (Zanthoxylum) Pericarps from Different Locations in China

Volatile oils of prickly ash (Zanthoxylum) pericarps have various potential biological functions with considerable relevance to food, pharmacological, and industrial applications. The volatile profile of oils extracted from prickly ash pericarps obtained from 72 plantations in China was determined by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Several chemometric analyses were used to better understand the volatile oil profile differences among different pericarps and to determine the key factors that affected geographical variations in the main volatile constituents of oils. A total of 47 constituents were detected with D-limonene, alfa-myrcene, and linalool as the most abundant. The volatile profile of pericarp oils was significantly affected by prickly ash species and some environmental factors, and the key factors that affected volatile profile variations for different prickly ash species were diverse. Chemometric analyses based on the volatile oil profile could properly distinguish Z. armatum pericarps from other pericarps. This study provides comprehensive information on the volatile oil profile of pericarps from different prickly ash species and different plantations, and it can be beneficial to a system for evaluating of pericarp quality. Moreover, this study speculates on the key environmental factors that cause volatile oil variations for each species, and can help to obtain better prickly ash pericarp volatile oils by improving the cultivated environments.

Neuroprotective effects of NDEELNK from sea cucumber ovum against scopolamine-induced PC12 cell damage through enhancing energy metabolism and upregulation of the PKA/BDNF/NGF signaling pathway

The aim of the study was to evaluate the neuroprotective function of sea cucumber ovum peptide-derived NDEELNK and explore the underlying molecular mechanisms. NDEELNK exerted the neuroprotective effect by improving the acetylcholine (ACh) level and reducing the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in PC12 cells. By molecular docking, we confirmed that the NDEELNK backbone and AChE interacted through hydrophobic and hydrogen bonds in contact with the amino acid residues of the cavity wall. NDEELNK increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, thereby reducing mitochondrial dysfunction and enhancing energy metabolism. Our results demonstrated that NDEELNK supplementation alleviated scopolamine-induced PC12 cell damage by improving the cholinergic system, increasing energy metabolism and upregulating the expression of phosphorylated protein kinase A (p-PKA), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BNDF) and nerve growth factor (NGF) signaling proteins in in vitro experiments. These results demonstrated that the sea cucumber ovum peptide-derived NDEELNK might play a protective role in PC12 cells.

Inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome activation and pyroptosis with the ethyl acetate fraction of Bungeanum ameliorated cognitive dysfunction in aged mice

Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim (Rutaceae), a medicinal herb and foodstuff, has previously been demonstrated as useful for the potential prevention of age-related cognitive dysfunction. However, the mechanisms and material basis remain elusively understood. The prevention of cognitive impairment by four fractions of Z. bungeanum was evaluated in d-galactose-induced aging mice, including petroleum ether (PE), methylene chloride (DCM), ethyl acetate (EA), and n-butanol (N-BAI). The results showed that mice treated with EA and N-BAI had significantly alleviated d-galactose-induced memory deficit. In addition, EA could clearly protect neurons from cell death, alleviate oxidative damage and inhibit the activation of microglia in aging mice. Our data also showed that the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, the expression of pyroptosis-related proteins, and the release of IL-1β and IL-18 could be remarkably inhibited by the EA fraction in aging mice and LPS/ATP-induced BV-2 microglial cells. Besides, the chemical composition of an active EA fraction was qualitatively analyzed by using HPLC-MS/MS. Thirty-four compounds were tentatively identified based on their retention times, accurate mass, and MS/MS spectra. Moreover, eighteen reference compounds were analyzed by HPLC-MS/MS and their contents of EA were determined. The work demonstrated that the ethyl acetate fraction of Bungeanum ameliorated cognitive deficits, and its effects may be related to ameliorating oxidative stress and suppressing the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway and GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis in aging mice.

Zanthoxylum alkylamides ameliorate protein metabolism in type 2 diabetes mellitus rats by regulating multiple signaling pathways

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) can easily induce insulin resistance (IR) in skeletal muscle, causing protein metabolism disorder and inflammation. The present study aimed to investigate whether Zanthoxylum alkylamides (ZA) could ameliorate T2DM through regulating protein metabolism disorder by using a rat model of T2DM. The predominant bioactive constituents found in ZA were hydroxyl-α-sanshool, hydroxyl-β-sanshool and hydroxyl-γ-sanshool. The results showed that ZA improved a series of biochemical indices associated with protein metabolism and inflammation in T2DM rats. Our mechanistic finding indicated that ZA promoted protein anabolism in T2DM rats by up-regulating the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway. ZA also promoted glucose transportation in skeletal muscle to ameliorate skeletal muscle IR and energy metabolism through regulating the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling pathway. Moreover, ZA inhibited protein degradation and improved protein catabolism disorder in T2DM rats by down-regulating the PI3K/Akt/forkhead box O (FoxO) signaling pathway, and ZA further ameliorated inflammation to inhibit protein catabolism via regulating the tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α)/nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) pathway in the skeletal muscle of T2DM rats. Collectively, the ameliorating effect of ZA on protein metabolism disorder in T2DM rats was the common result of regulating multiple signaling pathways. ZA decreased skeletal muscle IR to promote protein anabolism and inhibit protein catabolism for improving protein metabolism disorder, thus ultimately ameliorating T2DM. In sum, our findings demonstrated that ZA treatment could effectively ameliorate T2DM through improving protein metabolism, providing a new treatment target for T2DM.

Alkylamide Profiling of Pericarps Coupled with Chemometric Analysis to Distinguish Prickly Ash Pericarps

Because of extensive cultivation areas, various cultivars, nonstandard naming notations, and morphology similarity among relative cultivars, adulteration and associated business fraud may happen in the marketplaces of prickly ash pericarps due to higher financial gain and high-frequency trading. This study presents variations in the chemical components and contents of different prickly ash species from different plantations. Alkylamide profiling of pericarps derived from Zanthoxylum armatum, Z. bungeanum, and some relative Zanthoxylum species from 72 plantations across China were tested using ultra-performance liquid chromatography. Then, several chemometrics were applied to classify the prickly ash pericarps to reveal potential indicators that distinguish prickly ash pericarps and to identify the key factors that affect pericarp alkylamide profiling. The dominating alkylamides in the prickly ash pericarps were Z. piperitum (ZP)-amide C (0–20.64 mg/g) and ZP-amide D (0–30.43 mg/g). Alkylamide profiling of prickly ash pericarps varied significantly across species and geographical variations. ZP-amide D in prickly ash pericarps was identified as a potential indicator to distinguish prickly ash species. Longitude and aluminum content in soils were identified as key factors that affected alkylamide profiling of prickly ash pericarps. This study provides a useful tool to classify prickly ash species based on pericarp alkylamide profiling and to determine the key influence factors on pericarp alkylamide variations.

The Volatile Oil of Zanthoxylum bungeanum Pericarp Improved the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis and Gut Microbiota to Attenuate Chronic Unpredictable Stress-Induced Anxiety Behavior in Rats

Background

Anxiety disorders (ADs) are the most prevalent mental disorders worldwide. Stress-induced activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and dysbiosis of gut microbiota seem to contribute to the onset of ADs. This study was designed to investigate the ameliorative effect of volatile oil of Zanthoxylum bungeanum (VOZB) on chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) induced anxiety behavior, as well as the altered HPA axis and gut microbiota.

Methods

Experimental rats were exposed to the CUS for 14 consecutive days. Meanwhile, VOZB was administered at doses of 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg/day for 14 days. The anxiety behavior was evaluated by elevated plus-maze (EPM) and open field (OF). The protein expressions and mRNA levels of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) in hypothalamus was determined, as well the hormone levels of HPA axis in serum. Furthermore, gut microbiota was detected by16S rRNA gene sequencing. The chemical constituents of VOZB were identified by GC-MS analysis.

Results

VOZB treatment (100 and 200 mg/kg/day) increased the ratio of open-arm entries and time in EPM test, as well as the central zone entries and time in OF test. Moreover, VOZB treatment reduced the protein expressions and mRNA levels of CRH, but elevated those of GR in hypothalamus. Similarly, the hormone levels of the HPA axis in serum were decreased by VOZB treatment. Besides, VOZB treatment restored the CUS-induced dysbiosis of gut microbiota, raising the Sobs and Chao indexes, inhibiting Lachnospiraceae, but facilitating Bacteroidales_S24-7_group, Lactobacillaceae, and Prevotellaceae. Additionally, Sobs and Chao indexes were negatively correlated to the serum corticosterone and CRH levels.

Conclusion

VOZB showed an ameliorative effect on CUS-induced anxiety behavior, potentially via inhibiting activation of the HPA axis and restoring the dysbiosis of gut microbiota, thus improving the stress-induced abnormality of the microbiota-gut-brain axis.

Protective Effect of Processed Polygoni multiflori Radix and Its Major Substance during Scopolamine-Induced Cognitive Dysfunction

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common cognitive disorder in the elderly population. However, effective pharmacological agents targeting AD have not been developed. The processed Polygoni multiflori Radix (PPM) and its main active substance, 2,3,5,4′-tetrahydroxystilbene-2-O-β-glucoside (TSG), has received considerable attention, majorly due to its neuroprotective activities against multiple biological activities within the human body. In this study, we provide new evidence on the therapeutic effect of PPM and TSG during cognitive impairment by evaluating the ameliorative potential of PPM and TSG in scopolamine-induced amnesia in ICR mice. PPM (100 or 200 mg/kg) was orally administered during the experimental period (days 1–15), and scopolamine was intraperitoneally injected to induce cognitive deficits during the behavioural test periods (days 8–15). The administration of PPM and TSG significantly improved memory loss and cognitive dysfunction in behavioural tests and regulated the cholinergic function, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and neural apoptosis. The present study suggests that PPM and TSG improved scopolamine-induced cognitive dysfunction, but further study has to be supported for the clinical application of PPM and TSG for AD prevention and treatment.

Effect of Zanthoxylum alkylamides on lipid metabolism and its mechanism in rats fed with a high-fat diet

This research aimed at exploring the effect of Zanthoxylum alkylamides on lipid metabolism and its potential mechanisms using high-fat diet rat model. Treatment with Zanthoxylum alkylamides for 6 weeks, food efficiency and atherogenic index of the low, medium, and high doses of Zanthoxylum alkylamides-treated groups were significantly reduced. Meanwhile, the histopathological structure of the livers showed that hepatic steatosis in the groups treated with Zanthoxylum alkylamides was reduced, particularly the HD group. Moreover, the related genes were studied, such as, liver X receptor (LXR), cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase (CYP7A1), hepatic 3-hydroxyl-2-methylglutaryl CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase, sterol regulatory element-binding protein 2 (SREBP-2), ileal bile acid-binding protein (IBABP), sodium-dependent bile acid transporter (ASBT), and transient receptor potential vanilloid subtype1 (TRPV1). These results demonstrated that Zanthoxylum alkylamides could ameliorate abnormal lipid metabolism in rats fed with a high-fat diet. The underlying mechanism may be the downregulation of the expression levels of cholesterol synthesis and bile acid reabsorption-related genes, reduction of endogenous cholesterol synthesis, and increase in bile acid and neutral sterol excretion. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: High-energy diet is a potential risk of lipid metabolic disorder. Many studies have shown that hyperlipidemia can lead to atherosclerosis and even hemangioma, cerebral thrombosis, coronary heart disease, and other diseases, which seriously threaten human health. Therefore, seeking an effective and safe way to prevent the obesity-related disease is necessary. This research found that Zanthoxylum alkylamide could ameliorate abnormal lipid metabolism in rats fed with a high-fat diet. The underlying mechanism may be the downregulation of the expression levels of cholesterol synthesis and ileal absorption of bile acid genes, reduction of endogenous cholesterol synthesis, and increase in bile acid and neutral sterol excretion. Therefore, Zanthoxylum alkylamide has the potential for preventing or alleviating high-energy intake-related obesity.

Fatty Acid Profiling and Chemometric Analyses for Zanthoxylum Pericarps from Different Geographic Origin and Genotype

Zanthoxylum plants, important aromatic plants, have attracted considerable attention in the food, pharmacological, and industrial fields because of their potential health benefits, and they are easily accessible because of the wild distribution in most parts of China. The chemical components vary with inter and intraspecific variations, ontogenic variations, and climate and soil conditions in compositions and contents. To classify the relationships between different Zanthoxylum species and to determine the key factors that influence geographical variations in the main components of the plant, the fatty acid composition and content of 72 pericarp samples from 12 cultivation regions were measured and evaluated. Four fatty acids, palmitic acid (21.33-125.03 mg/g), oleic acid (10.66-181.37 mg/g), linoleic acid (21.98-305.32 mg/g), and linolenic acid (0.06-218.84 mg/g), were the most common fatty acid components in the Zanthoxylum pericarps. Fatty acid profiling of Zanthoxylum pericarps was significantly affected by Zanthoxylum species and geographical variations. Stearic acid and oleic acid in pericarps were typical fatty acids that distinguished Zanthoxylum species based on the result of DA. Palmitic acid, palmitoleic acid, trans-13-oleic acid, and linoleic acid were important differential indicators in distinguishing given Zanthoxylum pericarps based on the result of OPLS-DA. In different Zanthoxylum species, the geographical influence on fatty acid variations was diverse. This study provides information on how to classify the Zanthoxylum species based on pericarp fatty acid compositions and determines the key fatty acids used to classify the Zanthoxylum species.

New Lead Discovery of Herbicide Safener for Metolachlor Based on a Scaffold-Hopping Strategy

The use of herbicide safeners can significantly alleviate herbicide injury to protect crop plants and expand the application scope of the existing herbicides in the field. Sanshools, which are well known as spices, are N-alkyl substituted compounds extracted from the Zanthoxylum species and have several essential physiological and pharmacological functions. Sanshools display excellent safener activity for the herbicide metolachlor in rice seedlings. However, the high cost of sanshools extraction and difficulties in the synthesis of their complicated chemical structures limit their utilization in agricultural fields. Thus, the present study designed and synthesized various N-alkyl amide derivatives via the scaffold-hopping strategy to solve the challenge of complicated structures and find novel potential safeners for the herbicide metolachlor. In total, 33 N-alkyl amide derivatives (2a–k, 3a–k, and 4a–k) were synthesized using amines and saturated and unsaturated fatty acids as starting materials through acylation and condensation. The identity of all the target compounds was well confirmed by ¹H-NMR, ¹³C-NMR, and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). The primary evaluation of safener activities for the compounds by the agar method indicated that most of the target compounds could protect rice seedlings from injury caused by metolachlor. Notably, compounds 2k and 4k displayed excellent herbicide safener activities on plant height and demonstrated relatively similar activities to the commercialized compound dichlormid. Moreover, we showed that compounds 2k and 4k had higher glutathione S-transferase (GST), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activities in rice seedlings, compared to the metolachlor treatment. In particular, 2k and 4k are safer for aquatic organisms than dichlormid. Results from the current work exhibit that compounds 2k and 4k have excellent crop safener activities toward rice and can, thus, be promising candidates for further structural optimization in rice protection.

Hydroxy-α-sanshool Possesses Protective Potentials on H2O2-Stimulated PC12 Cells by Suppression of Oxidative Stress-Induced Apoptosis through Regulation of PI3K/Akt Signal Pathway

Zanthoxylum bungeanum pericarp is a commonly used herbal medicine in China with effects of anti-inflammatory and analgesic, improving learning and memory ability, while hydroxy-α-sanshool (HAS) is the most important active ingredient of Z. bungeanum pericarps. The purpose of this study was to investigate the neuroprotective effect of HAS and its related possible mechanisms using a H₂O₂-stimulated PC12 cell model. CCK-8 assay results showed that HAS had a significant protective effect on H₂O₂-stimulated PC12 cells without obvious cytotoxicity on normal PC12 cells. Flow cytometry and fluorescence microscope (DAPI staining and DCFH-DA staining) indicated that HAS could reduce the H₂O₂-induced apoptosis in PC12 cells via reduction of intracellular ROS and increase of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP). Subsequently, results of malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) determination suggested that HAS could increase the enzyme activities of SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px whereas it could decrease the MDA contents in H₂O₂-stimulated PC12 cells. Furthermore, the western blotting assays showed that HAS could upregulate the expressions of p-PI3k, Akt, p-Akt, and Bcl-2, while it could downregulate the expressions of cleaved caspase-3 and Bax in H₂O₂-stimulated PC12 cells. Collectively, it could be concluded according to our results that HAS possesses protective potentials on H₂O₂-stimulated PC12 cells through suppression of oxidative stress-induced apoptosis via regulation of PI3K/Akt signal pathway.

Nose to brain drug delivery - A promising strategy for active components from herbal medicine for treating cerebral ischemia reperfusion

Cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury (CIRI), one of the major causes of death from stroke in the world, not only causes tremendous damage to human health, but also brings heavy economic burden to society. Current available treatments for CIRI, including mechanical therapies and drug therapies, are often accompanied by significant side-effects. Therefore, it is necessary to discovery new strategies for treating CIRI. Many studies have confirmed that the herbal medicine has the advantages of abundant resources, good curative effect and little side effects, which can be used as potential drug for treatment of CIRI through multiple targets. It's known that oral administration commonly has low bioavailability, and injection administration is inconvenient and unsafe. Many drugs can't delivery to brain through routine pathways due to the blood-brain-barrier (BBB). Interestingly, increasing evidences have suggested the nasal administration is a potential direct route to transport drug into brain avoiding the BBB and has the characteristics of high bioavailability for treating brain diseases. Therefore, intranasal administration can be treated as an alternative way to treat brain diseases. In the present review, effective methods to treat CIRI by using active ingredients derived from herbal medicine through nose to brain drug delivery (NBDD) are updated and discussed, and some related pharmacological mechanisms have also been emphasized. Our present study would be beneficial for the further drug development of natural agents from herbal medicines via NBDD.