Preparation and applications of electrochemical chemosensors based on carbon-nanomaterial-modified molecularly imprinted polymers

Metal-organic frameworks-molecularly imprinted polymers (MOF-MIP): Synthesis, properties, and applications in detection and control of microorganisms

Microbial contamination poses a significant threat to human health, food safety, and the ecological environment. Its rapid spread and potential pathogenicity create an urgent global challenge for efficient detection and control. However, existing methods have several shortcomings such as traditional techniques like culture methods and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) are time-consuming, while nanomaterials and aptamers often lack selectivity, stability, and affordability. Additionally, conventional disinfectants can be inefficient, lead to drug resistance, and harm the environment. To address these challenges, developing new materials and technologies that are efficient, sensitive, and stable is crucial for microbial detection and control. In this context, metal-organic frameworks (MOF) and molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP) have emerged as promising functional materials due to their unique structural advantages. The high porosity of MOF provides ample imprinting sites for MIP, while MIP enhance selective adsorption and inactivation of target microorganisms by MOF. This synergistic combination results in a composite material that offers a novel solution for microbial detection, significantly improving sensitivity, selectivity, antibacterial efficiency, and environmental friendliness. This paper reviews the synthesis strategies of metal-organic frameworks-molecularly imprinted polymers (MOF-MIP), highlighting their structural properties and innovative applications in microbial detection, which aim to inspire researchers in related fields. Looking ahead, future advancements in material science and biotechnology are expected to lead to widespread use of MOF-MIP composites in food safety, environmental monitoring, medical diagnosis, and public health-providing robust support against microbial pollution. By studying the collaborative mechanisms of MOF and MIP while optimizing design processes will enhance precision speed cost-effectiveness in microbial detection technology significantly contributing to human health and environmental safety.

Advancements and prospects of molecularly imprinted polymers as chemical sensors: A comprehensive review

The scientific literature on molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) has grown significantly in the past decades, reflecting an increasing interest in their potential applications. MIPs are valued for their ability to selectively detect a broad range of analytes and mimic biological recognition in different environmental conditions. This review utilises data (Scopus data from 2010 to 2024) from a bibliometric visualisation with VOSviewer (version 1.6.2) to identify trends and research hotspots in developing MIP-based sensors. The findings from this review indicated notable advancements in molecular imprinting technology (MIT) and the challenges MIP technology faces. It also discusses how various optimisation preparation techniques can be used to overcome the inherent limitations of MIP synthesis. The review also presents a case investigation and suggests classifying MIPs as chemosensors (chemical sensors) rather than biosensors to resolve the confusion and classification difficulties encountered in the existing literature on MIP sensors. It also addresses critical issues regarding the paradoxical lack of MIP-based sensors in the commercial market despite a marked increase in scientific output. The review outlines future research directions to enhance MIP sensor technology further. It emphasises the need for more collaboration between academia and industry to bridge existing gaps and accelerate commercialisation.

Recent advances on nanomaterial-based glutathione sensors

Glutathione (GSH) is one of the most common thiol-containing molecules discovered in biological systems, and it plays an important role in many cellular functions, where changes in physiological glutathione levels contribute to the progress of a variety of diseases. Molecular imaging employing fluorescent probes is thought to be a sensitive technique for online fluorescence detection of GSH. Although various molecular probes for (intracellular) GSH sensing have been reported, some aspects remain unanswered, such as quantitative intracellular analysis, dynamic monitoring, and compatibility with biological environment. Some of these drawbacks can be overcome by sensors based on nanostructured materials, that have attracted considerable attention owing to their exceptional properties, including a large surface area, heightened electro-catalytic activity, and robust mechanical resilience, for which they have become integral components in the development of highly sensitive chemo- and biosensors. Additionally, engineered nanomaterials have demonstrated significant promise in enhancing the precision of disease diagnosis and refining treatment specificity. The aim of this review is to investigate recent advancements in fabricated nanomaterials tailored for detecting GSH. Specifically, it examines various material categories, encompassing carbon, polymeric, quantum dots (QDs), covalent organic frameworks (COFs), metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), metal-based, and silicon-based nanomaterials, applied in the fabrication of chemo- and biosensors. The fabrication of nano-biosensors, mechanisms, and methodologies employed for GSH detection utilizing these fabricated nanomaterials will also be elucidated. Remarkably, there is a noticeable absence of existing reviews specifically dedicated to the nanomaterials for GSH detection since they are not comprehensive in the case of nano-fabrication, mechanisms and methodologies of detection, as well as applications in various biological environments. This research gap presents an opportune moment to thoroughly assess the potential of nanomaterial-based approaches in advancing GSH detection methodologies.

The Evaluation of Clinical Applications for the Detection of the Alzheimer's Disease Biomarker GFAP

One of the most prevalent neurodegenerative diseases is Alzheimer's disease (AD). The hallmarks of AD include the accumulation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, which cause related secondary diseases, progressive neurodegeneration, and ultimately death. The most prevalent cell type in the human central nervous system, astrocytes, are crucial for controlling neuronal function. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) is released from tissue into the bloodstream due to astrocyte breakdown in neurological diseases. Increased levels of GFAP in the serum can function as blood markers and be an effective prognostic indicator to help diagnose neurological conditions early on, from stroke to neurodegenerative diseases. The human central nervous system (CNS) is greatly affected by diseases associated with blood GFAP levels. These include multiple sclerosis, intracerebral hemorrhage, glioblastoma multiforme, traumatic brain injuries, and neuromyelitis optica. GFAP demonstrates a strong diagnostic capacity for projecting outcomes following an injury. Furthermore, the increased ability to identify GFAP protein fragments helps facilitate treatment, as it allows continuous screening of CNS injuries and early identification of potential recurrences. GFAP has recently gained attention due to data showing that the plasma biomarker is effective in identifying AD pathology. AD accounts for 60-70% of the approximately 50 million people with dementia worldwide. It is critical to develop molecular markers for AD, whose number is expected to increase to about 3 times and affect humans by 2050, and to investigate possible targets to confirm their effectiveness in the early diagnosis of AD. In addition, most diagnostic methods currently used are image-based and do not detect early disease, i.e. before symptoms appear; thus, treatment options and outcomes are limited. Therefore, recently developed methods such as point-of-care (POC), on-site applications, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay-polymerase chain reaction (ELISA-PCR) that provide both faster and more accurate results are gaining importance. This systematic review summarizes published studies with different approaches such as immunosensor, lateral flow, POC, ELISA-PCR, and molecularly imprinted polymer using GFAP, a potential blood biomarker to detect neurological disorders. Here, we also provide an overview of current approaches, analysis methods, and different future detection strategies for GFAP, the most popular biosensing field.

Electrochemical Synthesis of Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for L-Tyrosine Detection

L-Tyrosine (L-Tyr), a critical amino acid whose aberrant levels impact melanin and dopamine levels in human body while also increasing insulin resistance thereby increasing the risk of type 2 diabetes. The objective of this study was to detect the amount of L-Tyr in human fluids by tailored electrochemical synthesis of well adhered, homogenous and thin molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) by the electro-polymerization of pyrrole on glassy carbon electrode modified functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes. The key benefits of this procedure over previous imprinting techniques were the elimination of expensive materials like Au and tedious multi-step synthesis, for L-Tyr detection using a handheld potentiostat. The developed particles were characterized using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscope, Chronoamperometry, and Cyclic Voltammetry. With strong reproducibility and stability, this optimized approach provides a rapid and effective method of preparing and sensing MIPs for the target analyte with a broad linear range of [Formula: see text] to [Formula: see text]. The Limit of Detection and Limit of Quantification were [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text], respectively. The engineered sensor was validated for quantifying the concentrations of L-Tyr in human blood and serum samples, yielding satisfactory recovery and can be expanded in future to detect analytes simultaneous.

Electrochemical sensors based on molecularly imprinted polymers for the detection of chlorophenols as emergent distributing chemicals (EDCs): a review

Environmental pollutants like chlorophenol chemicals and their derivatives are commonplace. These compounds serve as building blocks in the production of medicines, biocides, dyes, and agricultural chemicals. Chlorophenols enter the environment through several different pathways, including the breakdown of complex chlorinated hydrocarbons, industrial waste, herbicides, and insecticides. Chlorophenols are destroyed thermally and chemically, creating dangerous chemicals that pose a threat to public health. Water in particular is affected, and thorough monitoring is required to find this source of pollution because it can pose a major hazard to both human and environmental health. For the detection of chlorophenols, molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) have been incorporated into a variety of electrochemical sensing systems and assay formats. Due to their long-term chemical and physical stability as well as their simple and affordable synthesis process, MIPs have become intriguing synthetic alternatives over the past few decades. In this review, we concentrate on the commercial potential of the MIP technology. Additionally, we want to outline the most recent advancements in their incorporation into electrochemical sensors with a high commercial potential for detecting chlorophenols.

Recent advance of nanomaterials modified electrochemical sensors in the detection of heavy metal ions in food and water

As one of the main pollutants, heavy metal ions can accumulate in the human body and cause a cascade of damage. Electrochemical sensors provide great prospects for tracing heavy metal ions because of their properties of high sensitivity, low detection limits and fast response. Electrode surface modification materials play a key role in enhancing the performance of electrochemical sensors. Herein, we summarize in detail the recent work on electrochemical sensors modified by carbon nanomaterials (graphene and its derivatives, carbon nanofibers and carbon nanotubes), metal nanomaterials (gold, silver, bismuth and iron), complexes (MOFs, ZIFs and MXenes) and their composites for the detection of heavy metal ions (mainly include Cd(II), Hg(II), Pb(II), As(III), Cu(II) and Zn(II)) in food and water. The synthetic strategies, mechanisms, innovations, advantages, challenges and prospects of various electrode modification nanomaterials for the detection of heavy metal ions in food and water are discussed.

Molecularly imprinted electrochemical biosensor for thrombin detection by comparing different monomers

Aim: Investigating molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) in electrochemical biosensors for thrombin detection, an essential protein biomarker. Comparing different monomers to showcase distinct sensitivity, specificity and stability advantages. Materials & methods: Dopamine, thionine and ethanolamine serve as monomers for MIP synthesis. Electrochemical methods and atomic force microscopy characterize sensor surfaces. Performance is evaluated, emphasizing monomer-specific electrochemical responses. Results: Monomer-specific electrochemical responses highlight dopamine's superior signal change and stability over 30 days. Notably, a low 5 pg/ml limit of detection, a broad linear range (5-200 pg/ml) and enhanced selectivity against interferents are observed. Conclusion: Dopamine-based MIPs show promise for high-performance electrochemical thrombin biosensors, suggesting significant applications in clinical diagnostics.

An Overview to Molecularly Imprinted Electrochemical Sensors for the Detection of Bisphenol A

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an industrial chemical used extensively in plastics and resins. However, its endocrine-disrupting properties pose risks to human health and the environment. Thus, accurate and rapid detection of BPA is crucial for exposure monitoring and risk mitigation. Molecularly imprinted electrochemical sensors (MIES) have emerged as a promising tool for BPA detection due to their high selectivity, sensitivity, affordability, and portability. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advances in MIES for BPA detection. We discuss the operating principles, fabrication strategies, materials, and methods used in MIES. Key findings show that MIES demonstrate detection limits comparable or superior to conventional methods like HPLC and GC-MS. Selectivity studies reveal excellent discrimination between BPA and structural analogs. Recent innovations in nanomaterials, novel monomers, and fabrication techniques have enhanced sensitivity, selectivity, and stability. However, limitations exist in reproducibility, selectivity, and stability. While challenges remain, MIES provide a low-cost portable detection method suitable for on-site BPA monitoring in diverse sectors. Further optimization of sensor fabrication and characterization will enable the immense potential of MIES for field-based BPA detection.

Molecularly Imprinted Polymers Using Yeast as a Supporting Substrate

Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) have gained significant attention as artificial receptors due to their low cost, mild operating conditions, and excellent selectivity. To optimize the synthesis process and enhance the recognition performance, various support materials for molecular imprinting have been explored as a crucial research direction. Yeast, a biological material, offers advantages such as being green and environmentally friendly, low cost, and easy availability, making it a promising supporting substrate in the molecular imprinting process. We focus on the preparation of different types of MIPs involving yeast and elaborate on the specific roles it plays in each case. Additionally, we discuss the advantages and limitations of yeast in the preparation of MIPs and conclude with the challenges and future development trends of yeast in molecular imprinting research.

Vapor-Phase Synthesis of Molecularly Imprinted Polymers on Nanostructured Materials at Room-Temperature

Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) have recently emerged as robust and versatile artificial receptors. MIP synthesis is carried out in liquid phase and optimized on planar surfaces. Application of MIPs to nanostructured materials is challenging due to diffusion-limited transport of monomers within the nanomaterial recesses, especially when the aspect ratio is >10. Here, the room temperature vapor-phase synthesis of MIPs in nanostructured materials is reported. The vapor phase synthesis leverages a >1000-fold increase in the diffusion coefficient of monomers in vapor phase, compared to liquid phase, to relax diffusion-limited transport and enable the controlled synthesis of MIPs also in nanostructures with high aspect ratio. As proof-of-concept application, pyrrole is used as the functional monomer thanks to its large exploitation in MIP preparation; nanostructured porous silicon oxide (PSiO2 ) is chosen to assess the vapor-phase deposition of PPy-based MIP in nanostructures with aspect ratio >100; human hemoglobin (HHb) is selected as the target molecule for the preparation of a MIP-based PSiO2 optical sensor. High sensitivity and selectivity, low detection limit, high stability and reusability are achieved in label-free optical detection of HHb, also in human plasma and artificial serum. The proposed vapor-phase synthesis of MIPs is immediately transferable to other nanomaterials, transducers, and proteins.

Biomimetic Electrochemical Sensors Based on Core-Shell Imprinted Polymers for Targeted Sunset Yellow Estimation in Environmental Samples

Magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers (MMIPs) contain the predesigned specialized recognition capability that can be chosen to build credible functional materials, that are easy to handle and have a good degree of specificity. Hence, the given piece of work is intended to design a novel electrochemical sensor incorporating magnetite-based molecularly imprinted polymers. The building materials consisted of a cross-linker (EGDMA), reaction-initiator (AIBN), monomer (methylene succinic acid-MSA), and template molecule (Sunset Yellow-SY dye). MMIPs exhibited a diameter of 57 nm with an irregular shape due to the presence of cavities based on SEM analysis. XRD patterns exhibited crystallinity, as well as amorphous peaks that are attributed to polymeric and non-polymeric frameworks of MMIPs. The crystallite size of the MMIPs from XRD analysis was found to be 16.28 nm based on the Debye-Scherrer's equation. Meanwhile, the FTIR bands showed the synthesis of MMIPs using monomer and methylene succinic acid. The sorption data at the optimized operating conditions (pH 2, sorbent dosage 3 mg, time 18 min) showed the highest sorption capacity of 40 mg/g. The obtained data best fitted to the Langmuir sorption isotherm and followed the pseudo-second-order kinetics. The magneto-sensors were applied for ultrasensitive, rapid, and simple sensing of SY dye. The electrochemical experiments were run at the operating condition range of (scan rate 10-50 mV/s, tads 0-120 s, pH 5-9, potential range 1-1.5 V for CV and 1-1.3 V for SWAdASV). The linear range of detection was set to 1.51 × 10^-6 M to 1.51 × 10^-6 M posing LOD and LOQ values of 8.6242 × 10^-5 M and 0.0002874 M, respectively. The regression analysis value for the calibration was found to be 0.950. Additionally, high adsorption efficiency, selectivity, reusability, and strong structural stability of the magneto-sensors showed potential use for SY detection in real samples. These characteristics make MMIPs a viable electrochemical substrate for the detection of chemical contaminants in the environment and in health-related products.

A Fusion of Molecular Imprinting Technology and Siloxane Chemistry: A Way to Advanced Hybrid Nanomaterials

Molecular imprinting technology is a well-known strategy to synthesize materials with a predetermined specificity. For fifty years, the "classical" approach assumed the creation of "memory sites" in the organic polymer matrix by a template molecule that interacts with the functional monomer prior to the polymerization and template removal. However, the phenomenon of a material's "memory" provided by the "footprint" of the chemical entity was first observed on silica-based materials nearly a century ago. Through the years, molecular imprinting technology has attracted the attention of many scientists. Different forms of molecularly imprinted materials, even on the nanoscale, were elaborated, predominantly using organic polymers to induce the "memory". This field has expanded quickly in recent years, providing versatile tools for the separation or detection of numerous chemical compounds or even macromolecules. In this review, we would like to emphasize the role of the molecular imprinting process in the formation of highly specific siloxane-based nanomaterials. The distinct chemistry of siloxanes provides an opportunity for the facile functionalization of the surfaces of nanomaterials, enabling us to introduce additional properties and providing a way for vast applications such as detectors or separators. It also allows for catalyzing chemical reactions providing microreactors to facilitate organic synthesis. Finally, it determines the properties of siloxanes such as biocompatibility, which opens the way to applications in drug delivery and nanomedicine. Thus, a brief outlook on the chemistry of siloxanes prior to the discussion of the current state of the art of siloxane-based imprinted nanomaterials will be provided. Those aspects will be presented in the context of practical applications in various areas of chemistry and medicine. Finally, a brief outlook of future perspectives for the field will be pointed out.

TESTOSTERONE BIOSENSOR IN SPORTS DOPING

ABSTRACT Introduction: Testosterone is a steroid that can help with blood disorders, sexual dysfunctions, connective tissue diseases, some malignancies, intractable pain, and other serious diseases. However, it must be prescribed under medical supervision because of the risk of major adverse effects such as liver disease, heart disease, stroke, blood clots, and cancer. There is an urgent need for research on developing an electrochemical sensor to detect testosterone as a doping substance in sports. Objective: Develop an electrochemical sensor of poly(ionic liquid)-graphene oxide molecularly printed polymers (PIL/MIs/GO) to detect testosterone as a doping substance in sports. Methods: Morphological characterization of modified electrodes was performed by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), allowing the GO to be surface-mounted with fragments and apertures. Due to the holes generated by the agglomeration of PIL and MIs molecules on the wavy edges of the GO nanosheets, the surface morphology of PIL/MIs/GO/GCE also revealed a high porosity structure. Results: Compared to other synergistic influences of GO nanosheets with PIL and MIs molecules, electrochemical investigations using a differential pulse voltammetry approach indicated high selectivity, good stability, appropriate linear range, lower detection limit, and higher selectivity. Conclusion: In pharmaceutical samples and human biological fluids, the validity and accuracy of PIL/MIs/GO/GCE for the determination of testosterone demonstrated practical application. PIL/MIs/GO/GCE can thus be used as an accurate and reliable sensor for detecting testosterone as a doping agent in sports. Level of evidence II; Therapeutic studies - investigation of treatment outcomes.

Advances in fabrication of molecularly imprinted electrochemical sensors for detection of contaminants and toxicants

Worldwide growing concerns about water contamination and pollution have increased significant interest in trace level sensing of variety of contaminants. Thus, there is demand for fabrication of low cost, miniaturized sensing device for in-situ detection of contaminants from the complex environmental matrices capable of providing selective and sensitive detection. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) has portrayed a substantial potential for selective recognition of various toxicants from a variety of environmental matrices, thus widely used as artificial recognition element in the electrochemical sensors (ECS) owing to their chemical stability, easy and low cost synthesis. The combination of nanomaterials modifiers with MIPs has endowed MIP-ECS with significantly improved sensing performance in the recent years, as the nanomaterial provide properties such as increased surface area, increased conductivity and electrocatalytic activity with enhanced electron transport phenomena, whereas MIPs provide selective recognition effect. In the present review, we have summarized the advances of MIP-ECS electrochemical sensors reported in last six years (2017-2022) for sensing of variety of contaminates including drugs, metal ions, hormones and emerging contaminates. Scope of computational modelling in design of sensitive and selective MIP-ECS is reviewed. We have focused particularly on the synthetic protocols for MIPs preparation including bulk, precipitation, electropolymerization, sol-gel and magnetic MIPs. Moreover, use of various nanomaterial as modifiers and sensitizers and their effects on the sensing performance of resulting MIP-ECS is described. Finally, the potential challenges and future prospects in the research area of MIP-ECS have been discussed.

Molecularly imprinted copolymer/reduced graphene oxide for the electrochemical detection of herbicide propachlor

The toxicity of propachlor (PROP) with its chloroacetanilide members is reported. Rapid and sensitive detection of PROP is critical for ecotoxicity evaluation and the removal process. A novel voltammetric sensor is developed based on imprinted poly (o-phenylene diamine-co-pyrrole) (o-PD-co-Py) and electrochemically reduced graphene oxide (ERGO) to detect PROP at a trace level. The use of ERGO provides a high density of imprinted cavities for better sensitivity. The imprinted layer of poly (o-PD-co-Py) improves the selectivity of the sensor. The electrode modification was characterized by scanning electron microscopy and electrochemical approaches. The working parameters of the sensor were investigated and optimized. The redox behavior of an external probe of [Fe(CN)6]3−/4− was recorded as the sensor signal for PROP selective binding. The proposed sensor presented wide linear responses to logarithmic PROP concentrations from 0.1 pM to 0.1 µM with a LOD of 0.08 pM. The sensor’s selectivity against some interference was demonstrated. This sensor was applied successfully to detect PROP in spiked water (lake and tap), red tea, and soil samples with good recoveries and reasonable RSD % values.

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Progress and challenges in sensing of mycotoxins using molecularly imprinted polymers

Mycotoxin is toxic secondary metabolite formed by certain filamentous fungi. This toxic compound can enter the food chain through contamination of food (e.g., by colonization of toxigenic fungi on food). In light of the growing concerns on the health hazards posed by mycotoxins, it is desirable to develop reliable analytical tools for their detection in food products in both sensitive and efficient manner. For this purpose, the potential utility of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) has been explored due to their meritful properties (e.g., large number of tailor-made binding sites, sensitive template molecules, high recognition specificity, and structure predictability). This review addresses the recent advances in the application of MIPs toward the sensing of various mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxins and patulin) along with their fabrication strategies. Then, performance evaluation is made for various types of MIP- and non-MIP-based sensing platforms built for the listed target mycotoxins in terms of quality assurance such as limit of detection (LOD). Further, the present challenges in the MIP-based sensing application of mycotoxins are discussed along with the future outlook in this research field.

Electrochemical sensing of macromolecules based on molecularly imprinted polymers: challenges, successful strategies, and opportunities

Looking at the literature focused on molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) for protein, it soon becomes apparent that a remarkable increase in scientific interest and exploration of new applications has been recorded in the last several years, from 42 documents in 2011 to 128 just 10 years later, in 2021 (Scopus, December 2021). Such a rapid threefold increase in the number of works in this field is evidence that the imprinting of macromolecules no longer represents a distant dream of optimistic imprinters, as it was perceived until only a few years ago, but is rapidly becoming an ever more promising and reliable technology, due to the significant achievements in the field. The present critical review aims to summarize some of them, evidencing the aspects that have contributed to the success of the most widely used strategies in the field. At the same time, limitations and drawbacks of less frequently used approaches are critically discussed. Particular focus is given to the use of a MIP for protein in the assembly of electrochemical sensors. Sensor design indeed represents one of the most active application fields of imprinting technology, with electrochemical MIP sensors providing the broadest spectrum of protein analytes among the different sensor configurations.

Recent Advances of Point-of-Care Devices Integrated with Molecularly Imprinted Polymers-Based Biosensors: From Biomolecule Sensing Design to Intraoral Fluid Testing

Recent developments of point-of-care testing (POCT) and in vitro diagnostic medical devices have provided analytical capabilities and reliable diagnostic results for rapid access at or near the patient's location. Nevertheless, the challenges of reliable diagnosis still remain an important factor in actual clinical trials before on-site medical treatment and making clinical decisions. New classes of POCT devices depict precise diagnostic technologies that can detect biomarkers in biofluids such as sweat, tears, saliva or urine. The introduction of a novel molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) system as an artificial bioreceptor for the POCT devices could be one of the emerging candidates to improve the analytical performance along with physicochemical stability when used in harsh environments. Here, we review the potential availability of MIP-based biorecognition systems as custom artificial receptors with high selectivity and chemical affinity for specific molecules. Further developments to the progress of advanced MIP technology for biomolecule recognition are introduced. Finally, to improve the POCT-based diagnostic system, we summarized the perspectives for high expandability to MIP-based periodontal diagnosis and the future directions of MIP-based biosensors as a wearable format.

Molecularly imprinted electrochemical aptasensor based on functionalized graphene and nitrogen-doped carbon quantum dots for trace cortisol assay

This paper proposes a novel electrochemical aptasensor that integrates molecular imprinting techniques for trace analysis of cortisol. This sensor is based on functionalized graphene and nitrogen-doped carbon quantum dots. The morphology and structure of the modified electrode were characterized by scanning electron microscopy and Raman spectroscopy. The functional monomer aptamer and the template molecule cortisol were adsorbed on the electrode by electrostatic adsorption to construct an imprinted sensing platform. Under the optimal conditions, such as the concentration of template molecule, the ratio of template to functional monomer, the elution and adsorption time, the sensor exhibits linearity and a low detection limit of 10^-12-10^-8 M and 3.3 × 10^-13 M, which is more sensitive than other reported cortisol analysis methods. In addition, this sensor can realize the determination of cortisol in salivary samples with high recovery values, showing great development potential in the field of life sciences.

Synthesis of an organic phosphoric acid-based multilayered SERS imprinted sensor for selective detection of dichlorophenol

A novel SERS imprinted sensor (AIM@MIPs) was prepared, which could improve the detection ability of analysis detection. The AIM@MIPs presented sensitive and selective detection property to 2,6-DCP.

Nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots coated with molecularly imprinted polymers as a fluorescent sensor for selective determination of warfarin

The strong photoluminescence of NGQDs and the selectivity of MIPs were combined to construct a fluorescent sensor for rapid determination of warfarin.

Enhancement of Electrochemical Detection of Gluten with Surface Modification Based on Molecularly Imprinted Polymers Combined with Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles

Novel molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) represent a selectively recognized technique for electrochemical detection design. This rapid and simple method prepared via chemical synthesis consists of a monomer crosslinked with an initiator, whereas low sensitivity remains a drawback. Nanomaterials can improve charge transfer for MIP surface modification in order to overcome this problem. SPIONs have semiconductor and superparamagnetic properties that can enhance carrier mobility, causing high sensitivity of electrochemical detection. In this work, surface modification was achieved with a combination of MIP and SPIONs for gluten detection. The SPIONs were synthesized via the chemical co-precipitation method and mixed with MIPs by polymerizing gluten and methyl methacrylate (MMA), presented as a template and a monomer. Magnetic MIP (MMIP) was modified on a carbon-plate electrode. The morphology of modified electrode surfaces was determined by scanning electron microscopy-energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry. The performance of the MMIP electrode was confirmed by cyclic voltammetry, amperometry, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The MMIP electrode for gluten detection shows a dynamic linear range of 5-50 ppm, with a correlation coefficient of 0.994 and a low detection limit of 1.50 ppm, which is less than the U.S. Food and Drug Administration requirements (20 ppm); moreover, it exhibits excellent selectivity, sensitivity, stability, and reproducibility.

Dual-template rectangular nanotube molecularly imprinted polypyrrole for label-free impedimetric sensing of AFP and CEA as lung cancer biomarkers

A high-performance sensing layer based on dual-template molecularly imprinted polymer (DMIP) was fabricated and successfully applied for one-by-one detection of carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) and alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) as lung cancer biomarkers. The plastic antibodies of AFP and CEA were created into the electropolymerized polypyrrole (PPy) on a fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) electrode. Raman spectroscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), cyclic voltammetry (CV), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) tests were performed to pursue the formation and characterization of the sensing layer. Methyl orange (MO) increased the conductivity of PPy and induced the formation of MO doped PPy (PPy-MO) rectangular-shaped nanotubes. Using impedimetric detection, the rebinding of the template antigens was evaluated, the charge transfer resistance increased as the concentration of AFP and CEA increased. The linear dynamic ranges of 5-10⁴ and 10-10⁴ pg mL^-1 and detection limits of 1.6 and 3.3 pg mL^-1 were obtained for CEA and AFP, respectively. Given satisfactory results in the determination of AFP and CEA in the human serum samples, high sensitivity, and good stability of DMIP sensor made it a promising method for sensing of AFP and CEA in serum samples.

Highly sensitive electrochemical determination of the SARS-COV-2 antigen based on a gold/graphene imprinted poly-arginine sensor

The global COVID-19 pandemic starting at 2020 induced by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 virus (SARS-CoV-2) has revealed a very pressing need for rapid, affordable and effective diagnosis for epidemic management and control. Although several commercialized analytical methods (e.g., reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay) have been developed for detecting SARS-CoV-2, they are expensive and time-consuming. Most recently, low-cost molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP)-based sensors have received attention. In this study, by introducing gold/graphene (Au/Gr) nanohybrids to modify a screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) and using arginine as the functional monomer, a simple and highly sensitive MIP sensor was proposed to detect SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein (ncovNP). By optimizing various influencing factors, the proposed MIP sensor shows wide linear range and low detection limit for ncovNP owing to excellent electrical property and large surface of Au/Gr and specific recognition ability of MIP, revealing important potential application for the effective early diagnosis of COVID-19.

Emerging Electrochemical Sensors for Real-Time Detection of Tetracyclines in Milk

Antimicrobial drug residues in food are strictly controlled and monitored by national laws in most territories. Tetracyclines are a major broad-spectrum antibiotic class, active against a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and they are the leading choice for the treatment of many conditions in veterinary medicine in recent years. In dairy farms, milk from cows being treated with antibiotic drugs, such as tetracyclines, is considered unfit for human consumption. Contamination of the farm bulk tank with milk containing these residues presents a threat to confidence of supply and results in financial losses to farmers and dairy. Real-time monitoring of milk production for antimicrobial residues could reduce this risk and help to minimise the release of residues into the environment where they can cause reservoirs of antimicrobial resistance. In this article, we review the existing literature for the detection of tetracyclines in cow's milk. Firstly, the complex nature of the milk matrix is described, and the test strategies in commercial use are outlined. Following this, emerging biosensors in the low-cost biosensors field are contrasted against each other, focusing upon electrochemical biosensors. Existing commercial tests that identify antimicrobial residues within milk are largely limited to beta-lactam detection, or non-specific detection of microbial inhibition, with tests specific to tetracycline residues less prevalent. Herein, we review a number of emerging electrochemical biosensor detection strategies for tetracyclines, which have the potential to close this gap and address the industry challenges associated with existing tests.

Immobilization of Molecularly Imprinted Polymer Nanoparticles onto Surfaces Using Different Strategies: Evaluating the Influence of the Functionalized Interface on the Performance of a Thermal Assay for the Detection of the Cardiac Biomarker Troponin I

We demonstrate that a novel functionalized interface, where molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticles (nanoMIPs) are attached to screen-printed graphite electrodes (SPEs), can be utilized for the thermal detection of the cardiac biomarker troponin I (cTnI). The ultrasensitive detection of the unique protein cTnI can be utilized for the early diagnosis of myocardial infraction (i.e., heart attacks), resulting in considerably lower patient mortality and morbidity. Our developed platform presents an innovative route to develop accurate, low-cost, and disposable sensors for the diagnosis of cardiovascular diseases, specifically myocardial infraction. A reproducible and advantageous solid-phase approach was utilized to synthesize high-affinity nanoMIPs (average size = 71 nm) for cTnI, which served as synthetic receptors in a thermal sensing platform. To assess the performance and commercial potential of the sensor platform, various approaches were used to immobilize nanoMIPs onto thermocouples or SPEs: dip coating, drop casting, and a covalent approach relying on electrografting with an organic coupling reaction. Characterization of the nanoMIP-functionalized surfaces was performed with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. Measurements from an in-house designed thermal setup revealed that covalent functionalization of nanoMIPs onto SPEs led to the most reproducible sensing capabilities. The proof of application was provided by measuring buffered solutions spiked with cTnI, which demonstrated that through monitoring changes in heat transfer at the solid-liquid interface, we can measure concentrations as low as 10 pg L^-1, resulting in the most sensitive test of this type. Furthermore, preliminary data are presented for a prototype platform, which can detect cTnI with shorter measurement times and smaller sample volumes. The excellent sensor performance, versatility of the nanoMIPs, and reproducible and low-cost nature of the SPEs demonstrate that this sensor platform technology has a clear commercial route with high potential to contribute to sustainable healthcare.

Novel SeS2-loaded Co MOF with Au@PANI comprised electroanalytical molecularly imprinted polymer-based disposable sensor for patulin mycotoxin

An SeS₂-loaded Co MOF and Au@PANI nanocomposite comprising the base matrix of the electrode was developed with electropolymerized molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) consisting of p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) and patulin (PT) to detect PT molecules based on the PT imprinted cavities. SeS₂@Co MOF and Au@PANI were synthesized using hydrothermal synthesis and interfacial polymerization strategies, respectively. A suitable functional monomer to fabricate the MIP platform was selected using the density functional theory (DFT/M06-2X method). Higher electrochemical active surface area (0.985 cm² which is 6.99 times higher than the bare SPE) and a lower charge transfer resistance (R_ct = 27.8 Ω) at the MIP/Au@PANI/SeS₂@Co MOF electrode was achieved based on the higher number of adsorptive sites and enhanced conductivity (electron transfer rate constant (k_s = 3.24 × 10^-3 s^-1) of the sensing platform. The fabricated MIP sensor performance was studied in 10 mM PBS (pH = 6.4), where an improved detection limit (0.66 pM) for PT and a broad logarithmic linear dynamic range (0.001-100 nM) were both observed. The sensor possessed higher selectivity (Imprinting factor = 15.4 for PT), excellent reusability (%RSD of 10 cycles = 2.49%), high storage stability (6.7% lost after 35 days), and robust reproducibility (%RSD = 3.22%) The as-prepared MIP-based PT sensor was applied to detect PT in a real-time apple juice sample (10% diluted with PBS) with a recovery % ranging from 94.5 to 106.4%. The proposed sensor possesses great advantages in terms of cost-effectiveness, providing a simple detection strategy for long-term storage stability, and reversible cycle measurements.

A Molecularly Imprinted Sol-Gel Electrochemical Sensor for Naloxone Determination

A molecularly imprinted sol-gel is reported for selective and sensitive electrochemical determination of the drug naloxone (NLX). The sensor was developed by combining molecular imprinting and sol-gel techniques and electrochemically grafting the sol solution onto a functionalized multiwall carbon nanotube modified indium-tin oxide (ITO) electrode. The sol-gel layer was obtained from acid catalyzed hydrolysis and condensation of a solution composed of triethoxyphenylsilane (TEPS) and tetraethoxysilane (TES). The fabrication, structure and properties of the sensing material were characterized via scanning electron microscopy, spectroscopy and electrochemical techniques. Parameters affecting the sensor's performance were evaluated and optimized. A sensor fabricated under the optimized conditions responded linearly between 0.0 µM and 12 µM NLX, with a detection limit of 0.02 µM. The sensor also showed good run-to-run repeatability and batch-to-batch performance reproducibility with relative standard deviations (RSD) of 2.5-7.8% (n = 3) and 9.2% (n = 4), respectively. The developed sensor displayed excellent selectivity towards NLX compared to structurally similar compounds (codeine, fentanyl, naltrexone and noroxymorphone), and was successfully used to measure NLX in synthetic urine samples yielding recoveries greater than 88%.

A molecularly imprinted poly 2-aminophenol-gold nanoparticle-reduced graphene oxide composite for electrochemical determination of flutamide in environmental and biological samples

A selective and sensitive electrochemical sensor based on reduced graphene oxide, gold nanoparticles, and molecularly imprinted poly 2-aminophenol was developed for electrochemical determination of flutamide in environmental and biological samples. The composite fabrication was electrochemically carried out and the composite was characterized by Fourier transform infrared, proton and carbon nuclear magnetic resonance, field emission scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry. The spectroscopic results showed that polymerization of molecularly imprinted poly 2-aminophenol took place through a ladder structure system. After optimization of effective parameters on the response of the sensor, the obtained linear range, relative standard deviation (for a concentration of 50 μg L^-1 with five replicates) and limit of quantification for flutamide determination were determined to be 2-375 μg L^-1, 1.54% and 0.8 μg L^-1, respectively. The results showed that the application of poly 2-aminophenol in the structure of the proposed sensor using a molecular imprinting approach made the sensor highly selective toward flutamide, distinguishing it from similar nitro-containing compounds. The prepared sensor was successfully utilized to analyze environmental water and urine samples. The obtained results showed that the proposed method is in agreement with the HPLC method and can be used as a reliable alternative method for the analysis of flutamide.

Electroanalytical profiling of cocaine samples by means of an electropolymerized molecularly imprinted polymer using benzocaine as the template molecule

Cocaine samples were ‘finger-printed’ using e-MIPs, constructed on the surface of portable SPCEs. The SWV data with suitable chemometric analysis provides valuable information about the drugs’ provenience which is crucial to tackle drug traffic.

Synthesizing a surface-imprinted polymer based on the nanoreactor SBA-15 for optimizing the adsorption of salicylic acid from aqueous solution by response surface methodology

The molecularly imprinted polymer prepared on the nanoreactor SBA-15 displayed excellent ordered mesoporous structure and superior adsorption property for salicylic acid.

Bio- and Biomimetic Receptors for Electrochemical Sensing of Heavy Metal Ions

Heavy metals ions (HMI), if not properly handled, used and disposed, are a hazard for the ecosystem and pose serious risks for human health. They are counted among the most common environmental pollutants, mainly originating from anthropogenic sources, such as agricultural, industrial and/or domestic effluents, atmospheric emissions, etc. To face this issue, it is necessary not only to determine the origin, distribution and the concentration of HMI but also to rapidly (possibly in real-time) monitor their concentration levels in situ. Therefore, portable, low-cost and high performing analytical tools are urgently needed. Even though in the last decades many analytical tools and methodologies have been designed to this aim, there are still several open challenges. Compared with the traditional analytical techniques, such as atomic absorption/emission spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and/or high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrochemical or UV-VIS detectors, bio- and biomimetic electrochemical sensors provide high sensitivity, selectivity and rapid responses within portable and user-friendly devices. In this review, the advances in HMI sensing in the last five years (2016-2020) are addressed. Key examples of bio and biomimetic electrochemical, impedimetric and electrochemiluminescence-based sensors for Hg2+, Cu2+, Pb2+, Cd2+, Cr6+, Zn2+ and Tl+ are described and discussed.

Point-of-Care Diagnostics: Molecularly Imprinted Polymers and Nanomaterials for Enhanced Biosensor Selectivity and Transduction

Significant healthcare disparities resulting from personal wealth, circumstances of birth, education level, and more are internationally prevalent. As such, advances in biomedical science overwhelmingly benefit a minority of the global population. Point-of-Care Testing (POCT) can contribute to societal equilibrium by making medical diagnostics affordable, convenient, and fast. Unfortunately, conventional POCT appears stagnant in terms of achieving significant advances. This is attributed to the high cost and instability associated with conventional biorecognition: primarily antibodies, but nucleic acids, cells, enzymes, and aptamers have also been used. Instead, state-of-the-art biosensor researchers are increasingly leveraging molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) for their high selectivity, excellent stability, and amenability to a variety of physical and chemical manipulations. Besides the elimination of conventional bioreceptors, the incorporation of nanomaterials has further improved the sensitivity of biosensors. Herein, modern nanobiosensors employing MIPs for selectivity and nanomaterials for improved transduction are systematically reviewed. First, a brief synopsis of fabrication and wide-spread challenges with selectivity demonstration are presented. Afterward, the discussion turns to an analysis of relevant case studies published in the last five years. The analysis is given through two lenses: MIP-based biosensors employing specific nanomaterials and those adopting particular transduction strategies. Finally, conclusions are presented along with a look to the future through recommendations for advancing the field. It is hoped that this work will accelerate successful efforts in the field, orient new researchers, and contribute to equitable health care for all.

Molecularly imprinted polymer-based electrochemical sensors for environmental analysis

The ever-increasing presence of contaminants in environmental waters is an alarming issue, not only because of their harmful effects in the environment but also because of their risk to human health. Pharmaceuticals and pesticides, among other compounds of daily use, such as personal care products or plasticisers, are being released into water bodies. This release mainly occurs through wastewater since the treatments applied in many wastewater treatment plants are not able to completely remove these substances. Therefore, the analysis of these contaminants is essential but this is difficult due to the great variety of contaminating substances. Facing this analytical challenge, electrochemical sensing based on molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) has become an interesting field for environmental monitoring. Benefiting from their superior chemical and physical stability, low-cost production, high selectivity and rapid response, MIPs combined with miniaturized electrochemical transducers offer the possibility to detect target analytes in-situ. In most reports, the construction of these sensors include nanomaterials to improve their analytical characteristics, especially their sensitivity. Moreover, these sensors have been successfully applied in real water samples without the need of laborious pre-treatment steps. This review provides a general overview of electrochemical MIP-based sensors that have been reported for the detection of pharmaceuticals, pesticides, heavy metals and other contaminants in water samples in the past decade. Special attention is given to the construction of the sensors, including different functional monomers, sensing platforms and materials employed to achieve the best sensitivity. Additionally, several parameters, such as the limit of detection, the linear concentration range and the type of water samples that were analysed are compiled.

A Molecularly Imprinted Fluorescence Sensor Based on the ZnO Quantum Dot Core-Shell Structure for High Selectivity and Photolysis Function of Methylene Blue

ZnO quantum dots and CuFe2O4 nanoparticles were synthesized by chemical precipitation. The ZCF composite was created by the solvothermal method. A new molecularly imprinted fluorescence sensor (ZCF@MB-MIP) with unique optical properties and specific MB recognition was successfully generated. ZCF@MB-MIPs were characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction and were applied for the selective detection of methylene blue (MB). The optimal working time of ZCF@MB-MIPs was 15 min, and the optimal working concentration was 37 mg·L-1. The fluorescence intensity was linearly quenched within the 0-100 μmol·L-1 MB range, and the detection limit was 1.27 μmol·L-1. The imprinting factor of the sensor (IF, K MB-MIPs/N-MIPs) was 5.30. At the same time, a real-time monitoring system was established for the photodegradation process of MB, which had the effect of reflecting the degradation degree of MB at any given time. Hence, ZCF@MB-MIPs are a promising candidate for use in MB monitoring, and they also provides a new strategy for constructing a multifunctional fluorescence sensor with a high selectivity and photolysis function.

Polymers and Plastics Modified Electrodes for Biosensors: A Review

Polymer materials offer several advantages as supports of biosensing platforms in terms of flexibility, weight, conformability, portability, cost, disposability and scope for integration. The present study reviews the field of electrochemical biosensors fabricated on modified plastics and polymers, focusing the attention, in the first part, on modified conducting polymers to improve sensitivity, selectivity, biocompatibility and mechanical properties, whereas the second part is dedicated to modified "environmentally friendly" polymers to improve the electrical properties. These ecofriendly polymers are divided into three main classes: bioplastics made from natural sources, biodegradable plastics made from traditional petrochemicals and eco/recycled plastics, which are made from recycled plastic materials rather than from raw petrochemicals. Finally, flexible and wearable lab-on-a-chip (LOC) biosensing devices, based on plastic supports, are also discussed. This review is timely due to the significant advances achieved over the last few years in the area of electrochemical biosensors based on modified polymers and aims to direct the readers to emerging trends in this field.

Facet-energy inspired metal oxide extended hexapods decorated with graphene quantum dots: sensitive detection of bisphenol A in live cells

The development of crystal-facet metal oxide heterostructures has been of great interest owing to their rational design and multifunctional properties at the nanoscale level. Herein, we report a facile solution-based method for the synthesis of single-crystal Cu₂O nanostructures (i.e. Cu₂O-CuO) as a core. Graphene quantum dots (GQDs) with varying concentrations are fabricated on the surface of Cu₂O extended hexapods (EHPs) in ethanol solution at room temperature via self-assembly, where copper acts as a sacrificial model and a stabilizer as well. The Cu₂O crystals displayed a good sensing activity toward BPA oxidation owing to their high energy facets, dangling bonds and great proportion of surface copper atoms. Structural, morphological, chemical and vibrational investigations were performed in detail, presenting high crystallinity of hybrid nanocomposites and Cu₂O-CuO heterojunction positions along with the growth of GQDs on the core of Cu₂O-CuO crystals. The electrochemical sensing performance of the as-fabricated Cu₂O-CuO@GQD EHPs was monitored for the determination of bisphenol A (BPA) as an early diagnostic marker and environmental contaminant. The synergistic effects of the boosted surface area, exposed Cu {111} crystallographic planes and mixed copper valences enhance redox reaction kinetics by increasing the electron shuttling rate at the electrode-analyte junction. Benefitting from the improved electrocatalytic activity for BPA oxidation, the electrochemical sensor displayed the lowest limit of detection (≤1 nM), good chemical stability, a broad linear range (2 nM-11 mM), and high sensitivity (636 μA mM^-1 cm^-2). The Cu₂O-CuO@GQD EHP-based sensing platform was used for BPA detection in water and human serum samples. We have also constructed a pioneering electrochemical sensing platform for BPA detection in live cells, which might be used as a marker for early disease diagnosis.

Molecularly Imprinted Nanoparticles Based Sensor for Cocaine Detection

The development of a sensor based on molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticles (nanoMIPs) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) for the detection of trace levels of cocaine is described in this paper. NanoMIPs for cocaine detection, synthesized using a solid phase, were applied as the sensing element. The nanoMIPs were first characterized by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Dynamic Light Scattering and found to be ~148.35 ± 24.69 nm in size, using TEM. The nanoMIPs were then covalently attached to gold screen-printed electrodes and a cocaine direct binding assay was developed and optimized, using EIS as the sensing principle. EIS was recorded at a potential of 0.12 V over the frequency range from 0.1 Hz to 50 kHz, with a modulation voltage of 10 mV. The nanoMIPs sensor was able to detect cocaine in a linear range between 100 pg mL-1 and 50 ng mL-1 (R2 = 0.984; p-value = 0.00001) and with a limit of detection of 0.24 ng mL-1 (0.70 nM). The sensor showed no cross-reactivity toward morphine and a negligible response toward levamisole after optimizing the sensor surface blocking and assay conditions. The developed sensor has the potential to offer a highly sensitive, portable and cost-effective method for cocaine detection.