Novel derivatives of eugenol as potent anti-inflammatory agents via PPARγ agonism: rational design, synthesis, analysis, PPARγ protein binding assay and computational studies

Computational Approaches for PPARγ Inhibitor Development: Recent Advances and Perspectives

The development of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) inhibitors has attracted significant interest for treating metabolic disorders, cancer, and inflammatory diseases. This review highlights the crucial role of computational modelling in advancing PPARγ inhibitor development, emphasizing how these techniques streamline the identification, optimization, and evaluation of new drug candidates. Key methods include molecular docking, QSAR, and molecular dynamics simulations, which enhance the efficiency and accuracy of inhibitor design. Computational modelling has deepened our understanding of PPARγ binding mechanisms and conformational dynamics, allowing researchers to predict and optimize ligand-receptor complex stability. Despite these advancements, challenges remain, such as improving predictions of pharmacokinetic properties (ADME) to evaluate drug-like qualities. In conclusion, computational modelling has significantly enhanced PPARγ inhibitor discovery and development, offering new opportunities to address complex diseases. Continued refinement of these models, combined with experimental validation and emerging technologies, is crucial for overcoming current limitations and achieving successful clinical outcomes.

Discovery of a new eugenol-benznidazole hybrid active against different evolutive stages of Trypanosoma cruzi

Chagas disease (CD) is a life-threatening illness caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi and there are only two drugs currently available for pharmacotherapy of this neglected infection (benznidazole and nifurtimox). Their limited efficacy in chronic phase of the disease, problems of toxicity and the growing resistance by the protozoan are directly associated to high rates of drug discontinuation by the patients. In the context of the search for new trypanocidal drug candidates, our group has been working with the chemical manipulation of eugenol to obtain new agents active against T. cruzi and promising results have been achieved. In this work we designed molecular hybrids between eugenol and benznidazole (BZN) by performing a bioisosteric replacement between the nitroimidazole ring of BZN by the eugenol or analogues nucleus in nitrated or non-nitrated forms. The obtained compounds were initially evaluated against epimastigote stages of T. cruzi for selecting the most active ones. Three hybrids (8, 10 and 15) showed activity against this evolutive stage and the most promising was eugenol nitro derivative 8 (IC50: 24.7 µM) that showed a similar potential than BZN (IC50: 29.9 µM). Compounds 8, 10 and 15 were then evaluated against infective trypomastigote and intracellular amastigote forms of T. cruzi and the cytotoxicity of them was investigated against healthy Vero and H9c2 cells. The nitro derivative 8 was once again the most promising compound against trypomastigote (IC50: 1.8 µM) and amastigote (IC50: 1.6 µM) forms, with selectivity indices greater than 63 considering both health cells evaluated. This compound was more active than BZN, that showed IC50 values of 6.1 µM (trypomastigotes) and 3.1 µM (amastigotes) and showed the most significant effect in reducing the infection rate and accumulation of parasites in infected cells. Calculated logP values suggest that the higher lipophilicity of derivative 8 (clogP: 3.25) in relation to BZN (clogP: 0.77) may be correlated to a greater ability of this eugenol derivative to cross the membranes of infected cells. Finally, to try understand the possible mode of action for compound 8, we have evaluated three important targets of the parasite (T. cruzi nitroreductase type I - TcNRT, trypanothione reductase - TR and mitochondrial membrane depolarization), but none of these metabolic pathways seem to be related to the mechanism of action of this compound. All in vitro assays employed the T. cruzi Y strain which exhibits partial resistance to benznidazole and these results indicate compound 8 as a new promising hit for the development of drug candidates to treat CD.

Eugenol's electrochemical behavior, complexation interaction with copper chloride, antioxidant activity, and potential drug molecular docking application for Covid-19

Electrochemical studies were conducted to analyze the behavior of eugenol, CuCl2, and their complex using cyclic voltammetry. The oxidation mechanisms of eugenol and the redox behavior of copper ions were elucidated, showing differences in reversibility and charge transfer coefficients. Various kinetic and solvation parameters were determined. The redox behavior of CuCl2 was found to be more reversible compared to the copper-eugenol complex. The copper-eugenol complex exhibited enhanced antioxidant activity compared to eugenol and standard ascorbic acid. The eugenol was oxidized to form eugenol quinone methide through two postulated irreversible mechanisms. Molecular docking studies suggested higher potential bioactivity of the copper-eugenol complex towards the target protein of COVID-19 than the eugenol ligand.

From clove oil to bioactive agents: synthetic routes, antimicrobial and antiparasitic activities of eugenol derivatives

Eugenol, a natural compound found in essential oils such as clove oil, has been extensively studied for its diverse biological activities including the therapeutic potential against microbial and parasitic infections. This review provides an overview of the synthetic strategies (shown in Supplementary Material) employed to develop bioactive derivatives and analogues derived from eugenol and related compounds (e.g., dihydroeugenol and isoeugenol), focusing on biological activity of more than 100 bioactive eugenol derivatives against bacterial, fungal, viral and protozoal pathogens. Through a comprehensive survey of literature, this paper shows the impact of structural modifications of these phenylpropanoids on antimicrobial and antiparasitic activity. Key findings highlight promising candidates for further development in antimicrobial drug discovery, suggesting directions for future research in the pursuit of effective therapeutic agents.

Novel PPAR-γ agonists as potential neuroprotective agents against Alzheimer's disease: rational design, synthesis, in silico evaluation, PPAR-γ binding assay and transactivation and expression studies

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurological disorder. It is caused by accumulation of amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques and tau tangles, which gradually leads to cognitive decline and memory loss. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ), a nuclear receptor, plays a significant role in regulating genes responsible for metabolism and inflammation. Studies have shown that PPAR-γ activation has neuroprotective effects, can potentially reduce inflammation and oxidative stress, and stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis. Current study presents the design, synthesis and in vitro evaluation of PPAR-γ agonists for AD that are tailored to optimize binding with the PPAR-γ receptor. The compounds 4a, 4h and 4j exhibited notable binding affinities towards PPAR-γ LBD, with IC50 values of 8.607, 9.242, and 5.974 μM, respectively, in TR-FRET binding assay. These compounds were cell proliferative and non-cytotoxic in a neuroblastoma cell line (SH-SY5Y). They also demonstrated dose-dependent PPAR-γ activation in transactivation assay. Their neuroprotective effect was studied based on their anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant potential by reducing the levels of proinflammatory markers (TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β) and ROS in Aβ-induced SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells using a flow cytometry method. The synthesized compounds also showed interactions in molecular docking study with the PPAR-γ receptor and demonstrated good stability in MD simulation. Our results highlight that through activation of PPAR-γ, the compounds 4a, 4h and 4j offer neuroprotective effects by reducing neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, and hence, they may be considered lead molecules for treating AD.

Molecular Insights on Coffee Components as Chemical Antioxidants

Coffee is not only a delicious beverage but also an important dietary source of natural antioxidants. We live in a world where it is impossible to avoid pollution, stress, food additives, radiation, and other sources of oxidants that eventually lead to severe health disorders. Fortunately, there are chemicals in our diet that counteract the hazards posed by the reactive species that trigger oxidative stress. They are usually referred to as antioxidants; some of them can be versatile compounds that exert such a role in many ways. This review summarizes, from a chemical point of view, the antioxidant effects of relevant molecules found in coffee. Their mechanisms of action, trends in activity, and the influence of media and pH in aqueous solutions, are analyzed. Structure-activity relationships are discussed, and the protective roles of these compounds are examined. A particular section is devoted to derivatives of some coffee components, and another one to their bioactivity. The data used in the analysis come from theoretical and computational protocols, which have been proven to be very useful in this context. Hopefully, the information provided here will pro-mote further investigations into the amazing chemistry contained in our morning coffee cup.   Resumen. El café no solo es una bebida deliciosa, sino también una importante fuente dietética de antioxidantes naturales. Vivimos en un mundo donde es imposible evitar la contaminación, el estrés, los aditivos alimentarios, la radiación y otras fuentes de oxidantes que eventualmente conducen a trastornos de salud graves. Afortunadamente, existen sustancias químicas en nuestra dieta que contrarrestan los peligros planteados por las especies reactivas que desencadenan el estrés oxidativo. Por lo general, se les denomina antioxidantes; algunos de ellos pueden ser compuestos versátiles que ejercen dicho papel de muchas maneras. Este artículo de revisión resume, desde un punto de vista químico, los efectos antioxidantes de moléculas relevantes encontradas en el café. Se analizan sus mecanismos de acción, tendencias en la actividad y la influencia del medio y el pH en soluciones acuosas. Se discuten las relaciones estructura-actividad, y se examinan los roles protectores de estos compuestos. Se dedica una sección particular a los derivados de algunos componentes del café, y otra a su bioactividad. Los datos utilizados en el análisis provienen de protocolos teóricos y computacionales, que han demostrado ser muy útiles en este contexto. Se espera que la información proporcionada aquí promueva investigaciones futuras sobre la química contenida en nuestra taza de café matutina.

Possible Combinatorial Utilization of Phytochemicals and Extracellular Vesicles for Wound Healing and Regeneration

Organ and tissue damage can result from injury and disease. How to facilitate regeneration from damage has been a topic for centuries, and still, we are trying to find agents to use for treatments. Two groups of biological substances are known to facilitate wound healing. Phytochemicals with bioactive properties form one group. Many phytochemicals have anti-inflammatory effects and enhance wound healing. Recent studies have described their effects at the gene and protein expression levels, highlighting the receptors and signaling pathways involved. The extremely large number of phytochemicals and the multiple types of receptors they activate suggest a broad range of applicability for their clinical use. The hydrophobic nature of many phytochemicals and the difficulty with chemical stabilization have been a problem. Recent developments in biotechnology and nanotechnology methods are enabling researchers to overcome these problems. The other group of biological substances is extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are now known to have important biological functions, including the improvement of wound healing. The proteins and nanoparticles contained in mammalian EVs as well as the specificity of the targets of microRNAs included in the EVs are becoming clear. Plant-derived EVs have been found to contain phytochemicals. The overlap in the wound-healing capabilities of both phytochemicals and EVs and the differences in their nature suggest the possibility of a combinatorial use of the two groups, which may enhance their effects.

Novel dihydropyrimidines as promising EGFR & HER2 inhibitors: Insights from experimental and computational studies

Dihydropyrimidines are widely recognized for their diverse biological properties and are often synthesized by the Biginelli reactions. In this backdrop, a novel series of Biginelli dihydropyrimidines were designed, synthesized, purified, and analyzed by FT-IR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and mass spectrometry. Anticancer activity against MCF-7 breast cancer cells was evaluated as part of their cytotoxicity in comparison with the normal Vero cells. The cytotoxicity of dihydropyrimidines ranges from moderate to significant. Among the 38 dihydropyrimidines screened, compounds 16, 21, and 39 exhibited significant cytotoxicity. These 3 compounds were subjected to flow cytometry studies and EGFRwt Kinase inhibition assay using lapatinib as a standard. The study included evaluation for the inhibition of EGFR and HER2 expression at five different concentrations. At a concentration of 1000 nM compound 21 showed 98.51 % and 96.79 % inhibition of EGFR and HER2 expression. Moreover, compounds 16, 21 and 39 significantly inhibited EGFRwt activity with IC50 = 69.83, 37.21 and 76.79 nM, respectively. In addition, 3D-QSAR experiments were conducted to elucidate Structure activity relationships in a 3D grid space by comparing the experimental and predicted cytotoxic activities. Molecular docking studies were performed to validate the results by in silico method. All together, we developed a new series of Biginelli dihydropyrimidines as dual EGFR/HER2 inhibitors.

Spicing Up Meat Preservation: Cinnamomum zeylanicum Essential Oil in Meat-Based Functional Foods-A Five-Year Review

Today, in the modern consumer era, we are facing a significant change in terms of preferences and behaviour. This tendency is not only a basic desire, but rather a significant social and cultural movement that exerts a tremendous influence on the food industry and correlated sectors. In this direction, food authorities and experts have thoroughly evaluated the practicality of employing natural preservation methods to enhance the quality and safety of foodstuffs, while preserving their nutritional and sensory attributes. Given this context, the development of meat products enhanced with Cinnamomum zeylanicum essential oil (CZEO) poses promising avenues, such as extended shelf-life due to its antimicrobial, antifungal, and antioxidant properties. CZEO also has many health benefits, rendering it as a promising ingredient in functional meat product formulations. Conversely, challenges such as higher associated costs, sensory interactions, and variability arise. Hence, the aim of this review is to offer a novel critical perspective on CZEO's potential application as a functional ingredient in meat products formulations and to address the inherent associated challenges, based on the last five years of scholarly publications.

Eugenol Possesses Colitis Protective Effects: Impacts on the TLR4/MyD88/NF-[Formula: see text]B Pathway, Intestinal Epithelial Barrier, and Macrophage Polarization

Eugenol (EU) has been shown to ameliorate experimental colitis due to its anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory bioactivities. In this study, DSS-induced acute colitis was established and applied to clarify the regulation efficacy of EU on intestinal barrier impairment and macrophage polarization imbalance along with the inflammatory response. Besides, the adjusting effect of EU on macrophages was further investigated in vitro. The results confirmed that EU intervention alleviated DSS-induced colitis through methods such as restraining weight loss and colonic shortening and decreasing DAI scores. Microscopic observation manifested that EU maintained the intestinal barrier integrity in line with the mucus barrier and tight junction protection. Furthermore, EU intervention significantly suppressed the activation of TLR4/MyD88/NF-[Formula: see text]B signaling pathways and pro-inflammatory cytokines gene expressions, while enhancing the expressions of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Simultaneously, WB and FCM analyses of the CD86 and CD206 showed that EU could regulate the DSS-induced macrophage polarization imbalance. Overall, our data further elucidated the mechanism of EU's defensive effect on experimental colitis, which is relevant to the protective efficacy of intestinal barriers, inhibition of oxidative stress and excessive inflammatory response, and reprogramming of macrophage polarization. Hence, this study may facilitate a better understanding of the protective action of the EU against UC.

Synthesis, anti-amoebic activity and molecular docking simulation of eugenol derivatives against Acanthamoeba sp

Amoebae of the genus Acanthamoeba can cause diseases such as amoebic keratitis and granulomatous amoebic encephalitis. Until now, treatment options for these diseases have not been fully effective and have several drawbacks. Therefore, research into new drugs is needed for more effective treatment of Acanthamoeba infections. Eugenol, a phenolic aromatic compound mainly derived from cloves, has a variety of pharmaceutical properties. In this study, nine eugenol derivatives (K1-K9), consisting of five new and four known compounds, were synthesized and screened for their antiamoebic properties against Acanthamoeba sp. The structure of these compounds was characterized spectroscopically by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis), 1H and 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and mass spectrometer (MS). The derived molecules were screened for antiamoebic activity by determining IC50 values based on 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and observation of amoeba morphological changes by light and fluorescence microscopy. Most of the tested compounds possessed strong to moderate cytotoxic effects against trophozoite cells with IC50 values ranging from 0.61 to 24.83 μg/mL. Observation of amoebae morphology by light microscopy showed that the compounds caused the transformed cells to be roundish and reduced in size. Furthermore, fluorescence microscopy observation using acridine orange (AO) and propidium iodide (PI) (AO/PI) staining showed that the cells have damaged membranes by displaying a green cytoplasm with orange-stained lysosomes. Acidification of the lysosomal structure indicated disruption of the internal structure of Acanthamoeba cells when treated with eugenol derivatives. The observed biological results were also confirmed by interaction simulations based on molecular docking between eugenol derivatives and Acanthamoeba profilin. These interactions could affect the actin-binding ability of the protein, disrupting the shape and mobility of Acanthamoeba. The overall results of this study demonstrate that eugenol derivatives can be considered as potential drugs against infections caused by Acanthamoeba.

Novel Derivatives of Eugenol as a New Class of PPARγ Agonists in Treating Inflammation: Design, Synthesis, SAR Analysis and In Vitro Anti-Inflammatory Activity

The main objective of this research was to develop novel compounds from readily accessed natural products especially eugenol with potential biological activity. Eugenol, the principal chemical constituent of clove (Eugenia caryophyllata) from the family Myrtaceae is renowned for its pharmacological properties, which include analgesic, antidiabetic, antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory effects. According to reports, PPARγ regulates inflammatory reactions. The synthesized compounds were structurally analyzed using FT-IR, ¹HNMR, ¹³CNMR, and mass spectroscopy techniques. Molecular docking was performed to analyze binding free energy and important amino acids involved in the interaction between synthesized derivatives and the target protein. The development of the structure-activity relationship is based on computational studies. Additionally, the stability of the best-docked protein-ligand complexes was assessed using molecular dynamic modeling. The in-vitro PPARγ competitive binding Lanthascreen TR-FRET assay was used to confirm the affinity of compounds to the target protein. All the synthesized derivatives were evaluated for an in vitro anti-inflammatory activity using an albumin denaturation assay and HRBC membrane stabilization at varying concentrations from 6.25 to 400 µM. In this background, with the aid of computational research, we were able to design six novel derivatives of eugenol synthesized, analyzed, and utilized TR-FRET competitive binding assay to screen them for their ability to bind PPARγ. Anti-inflammatory activity evaluation through in vitro albumin denaturation and HRBC method revealed that 1f exhibits maximum inhibition of heat-induced albumin denaturation at 50% and 85% protection against HRBC lysis at 200 and 400 µM, respectively. Overall, we found novel derivatives of eugenol that could potentially reduce inflammation by PPARγ agonism.

An Update on the Therapeutic Anticancer Potential of Ocimum sanctum L.: "Elixir of Life"

In most cases, cancer develops due to abnormal cell growth and subsequent tumour formation. Due to significant constraints with current treatments, natural compounds are being explored as potential alternatives. There are now around 30 natural compounds under clinical trials for the treatment of cancer. Tulsi, or Holy Basil, of the genus Ocimum, is one of the most widely available and cost-effective medicinal plants. In India, the tulsi plant has deep religious and medicinal significance. Tulsi essential oil contains a valuable source of bioactive compounds, such as camphor, eucalyptol, eugenol, alpha-bisabolene, beta-bisabolene, and beta-caryophyllene. These compounds are proposed to be responsible for the antimicrobial properties of the leaf extracts. The anticancer effects of tulsi (Ocimum sanctum L.) have earned it the title of "queen of herbs" and "Elixir of Life" in Ayurvedic treatment. Tulsi leaves, which have high concentrations of eugenol, have been shown to have anticancer properties. In a various cancers, eugenol exerts its antitumour effects through a number of different mechanisms. In light of this, the current review focuses on the anticancer benefits of tulsi and its primary phytoconstituent, eugenol, as apotential therapeutic agent against a wide range of cancer types. In recent years, tulsi has gained popularity due to its anticancer properties. In ongoing clinical trials, a number of tulsi plant compounds are being evaluated for their potential anticancer effects. This article discusses anticancer, chemopreventive, and antioxidant effects of tulsi.

MAPLE Processed Nanostructures for Antimicrobial Coatings

Despite their great benefits for debilitated patients, indwelling devices are prone to become easily colonized by resident and opportunistic microorganisms, which have the ability to attach to their surfaces and form highly specialized communities called biofilms. These are extremely resistant to host defense mechanisms and antibiotics, leading to treatment failure and device replacement, but also to life-threatening complications. In this study, we aimed to optimize a silica (SiO₂)-coated magnetite (Fe₃O₄)-based nanosystem containing the natural antimicrobial agent, eugenol (E), suitable for MAPLE (matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation) deposition as a bioactive coating for biomedical applications. X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy investigations were employed to characterize the obtained nanosystems. The in vitro tests evidenced the superior biocompatibility of such nanostructured coatings, as revealed by their non-cytotoxic activity and ability to promote cellular proliferation and sustain normal cellular development of dermal fibroblasts. Moreover, the obtained nanocoatings did not induce proinflammatory events in human blood samples. Our studies demonstrated that Fe₃O₄ NPs can improve the antimicrobial activity of E, while the use of a SiO₂ matrix may increase its efficiency over prolonged periods of time. The Fe₃O₄@SiO₂ nanosystems showed excellent biocompatibility, sustaining human dermal fibroblasts' viability, proliferation, and typical architecture. More, the novel coatings lack proinflammatory potential as revealed by the absence of proinflammatory cytokine expression in response to human blood sample interactions.