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Khan MJ, Wibowo A, Karim Z, Posoknistakul P, Matsagar BM, Wu KCW, Sakdaronnarong C. Wastewater Treatment Using Membrane Bioreactor Technologies: Removal of Phenolic Contaminants from Oil and Coal Refineries and Pharmaceutical Industries. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:443. [PMID: 38337332 DOI: 10.3390/polym16030443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/28/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Huge amounts of noxious chemicals from coal and petrochemical refineries and pharmaceutical industries are released into water bodies. These chemicals are highly toxic and cause adverse effects on both aquatic and terrestrial life. The removal of hazardous contaminants from industrial effluents is expensive and environmentally driven. The majority of the technologies applied nowadays for the removal of phenols and other contaminants are based on physio-chemical processes such as solvent extraction, chemical precipitation, and adsorption. The removal efficiency of toxic chemicals, especially phenols, is low with these technologies when the concentrations are very low. Furthermore, the major drawbacks of these technologies are the high operation costs and inadequate selectivity. To overcome these limitations, researchers are applying biological and membrane technologies together, which are gaining more attention because of their ease of use, high selectivity, and effectiveness. In the present review, the microbial degradation of phenolics in combination with intensified membrane bioreactors (MBRs) has been discussed. Important factors, including the origin and mode of phenols' biodegradation as well as the characteristics of the membrane bioreactors for the optimal removal of phenolic contaminants from industrial effluents are considered. The modifications of MBRs for the removal of phenols from various wastewater sources have also been addressed in this review article. The economic analysis on the cost and benefits of MBR technology compared with conventional wastewater treatments is discussed extensively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Jahir Khan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, 25/25 Putthamonthon 4 Road, Salaya, Putthamonthon, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Agung Wibowo
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, 25/25 Putthamonthon 4 Road, Salaya, Putthamonthon, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Zoheb Karim
- MoRe Research Örnsköldsvik AB, SE-89122 Örnsköldsvik, Sweden
| | - Pattaraporn Posoknistakul
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, 25/25 Putthamonthon 4 Road, Salaya, Putthamonthon, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Babasaheb M Matsagar
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Kevin C-W Wu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Yuan Ze University, Chung-Li, Taoyuan 32003, Taiwan
| | - Chularat Sakdaronnarong
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, 25/25 Putthamonthon 4 Road, Salaya, Putthamonthon, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
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Igwegbe CA, Obiora-Okafo IA, Iwuozor KO, Ghosh S, Kurniawan SB, Rangabhashiyam S, Kanaoujiya R, Ighalo JO. Treatment technologies for bakers' yeast production wastewater. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:11004-11026. [PMID: 35001268 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-17992-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Researchers in recent years have utilized a broad spectrum of treatment technologies in treating bakers' yeast production wastewater. This paper aims to review the treatment technologies for the wastewater, compare the process technologies, discuss recent innovations, and propose future perspectives in the research area. The review observed that nanofiltration was the most effective membrane process for the treatment of the effluent (at >95% pollutant rejection). Other separation processes like adsorption and distillation had technical challenges of desorption, a poor fit for high pollutant load and cost limitations. Chemical treatment processes have varying levels of success but they are expensive and produce toxic sludge. Sludge production would be a hurdle when product recovery and reuse are targeted. It is difficult to make an outright choice of the best process for treating the effluent because each has its merits and demerits and an appropriate choice can be made when all factors are duly considered. The process intensification of the industrial-scale production of the bakers' yeast process will be a very direct approach, where the process optimisation, zero effluent discharge, and enhanced recovery of value-added product from the waste streams are important approaches that need to be taken into account.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chinenye Adaobi Igwegbe
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, P. M. B, Awka, 5025, Nigeria.
| | | | - Kingsley O Iwuozor
- Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, P. M. B, Awka, 5025, Nigeria
| | - Soumya Ghosh
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, 9300, South Africa
| | - Setyo Budi Kurniawan
- , Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - Selvasembian Rangabhashiyam
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur, India.
| | - Rahul Kanaoujiya
- Department of Chemistry, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, 211002, India
| | - Joshua O Ighalo
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, P. M. B, Awka, 5025, Nigeria.
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin, P. M. B, Ilorin, 1515, Nigeria.
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Volpe M, Wüst D, Merzari F, Lucian M, Andreottola G, Kruse A, Fiori L. One stage olive mill waste streams valorisation via hydrothermal carbonisation. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2018; 80:224-234. [PMID: 30455003 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2018.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Revised: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 09/12/2018] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
An olive waste stream mixture, coming from a three phase-continuous centrifugation olive oil mill industry, with a typical wet basis mass composition of olive pulp 39 wt%, kernels 5 wt% and olive mill waste water 56 wt%, was subjected to hydrothermal carbonisation (HTC) at 180, 220 and 250 °C for a 3-hour residence time in a 2-litre stainless steel electrically heated batch reactor. The raw feedstock and corresponding hydrochars were characterised in terms of proximate and ultimate analyses, higher heating values and energy properties. Results showed an increase in carbonisation of samples with increasing HTC severity and an energy densification ratio up to 142% (at 250 °C). Hydrochar obtained at 250 °C was successfully pelletised using a lab scale pelletiser without binders or expensive drying procedures. Energy characterisation (HHV, TGA), ATR-FTIR analysis, fouling index evaluation and pelletisation results suggested that olive mill waste hydrochars could be used as energy dense and mechanical stable bio-fuels. Characterisation of HTC residues in terms of mineral content via induced coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) as well as Total and Dissolved Organic Carbon enabled to evaluate their potential use as soil improvers. Nutrients and polyphenolic compounds in HTC liquid fractions were evaluated for the estimation of their potential use as liquid fertilisers. Results showed that HTC could represent a viable route for the valorisation of olive mill industry waste streams.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurizio Volpe
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, via Mesiano 77, 38123 Trento, Italy.
| | - Dominik Wüst
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, via Mesiano 77, 38123 Trento, Italy; University of Hohenheim, Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Department of Conversion Technologies and of Biobased Resources, Garbenstrasse 9, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Fabio Merzari
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, via Mesiano 77, 38123 Trento, Italy.
| | - Michela Lucian
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, via Mesiano 77, 38123 Trento, Italy.
| | - Gianni Andreottola
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, via Mesiano 77, 38123 Trento, Italy.
| | - Andrea Kruse
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Department of Conversion Technologies and of Biobased Resources, Garbenstrasse 9, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Luca Fiori
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, via Mesiano 77, 38123 Trento, Italy.
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Del Olmo A, Calzada J, Nuñez M. Benzoic acid and its derivatives as naturally occurring compounds in foods and as additives: Uses, exposure, and controversy. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2018; 57:3084-3103. [PMID: 26587821 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2015.1087964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Benzoic acid is an aromatic carboxylic acid naturally present in plant and animal tissues, which can also be produced by microorganisms. Benzoic acid and a wide range of derivatives and related benzenic compounds, such as salts, alkyl esters, parabens, benzyl alcohol, benzaldehyde, and benzoyl peroxide, are commonly used as antibacterial and antifungal preservatives and as flavoring agents in food, cosmetic, hygiene, and pharmaceutical products. As a result of their widespread occurrence, production, and uses, these compounds are largely distributed in the environment and found in water, soil, and air. Consequently, human exposure to them can be high, common, and lengthy. This review is mainly focused on the presence and use of benzoic acid in foods but it also covers the occurrence, uses, human exposure, metabolism, toxicology, analytical methods for detection, and legal limits for benzoic acid and its derivatives. Their controversial effects and potential public health concerns are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Del Olmo
- a Departamento de Tecnología de Alimentos , INIA , Madrid , Spain
| | - Javier Calzada
- a Departamento de Tecnología de Alimentos , INIA , Madrid , Spain
| | - Manuel Nuñez
- a Departamento de Tecnología de Alimentos , INIA , Madrid , Spain
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Gauri SS, Mandal SM, Dey S, Pati BR. Biotransformation of p-coumaric acid and 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid by Azotobacter sp. strain SSB81. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2012; 126:350-353. [PMID: 23127838 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2012.09.097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2012] [Revised: 09/24/2012] [Accepted: 09/26/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
A comprehensive study was made on biotransformation of p-coumaric acid and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid by an Azotobacter sp. strain SSB81. The strain was able to tolerate a high amount of both the phenolic acids and p-coumaric acid degraded maximum (50%) than 2,4-D (29%) after five days of incubation. The intermediate products during transformation have been identified and quantified using UV-Vis and LC-MS/MS analysis. Para-coumaric acid was degraded via p-hydroxybenzoic acid and protocatechuic acid, a non-oxidative pathway whereas 2,4-D via 4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid, 4-chlorophenol and 4-chlorocatechol, an oxidative pathway. The results suggest that SSB81 developed both the oxidative and non-oxidative pathway to degrade the soil accumulated phenolic acids. Thus, Azotobacter provides an advantage to reduce the toxic level of soil accumulated phenolic acids in addition to increase the soil fertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samiran S Gauri
- Department of Microbiology, Vidyasagar University, Midnapore 721102, India
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Cartwright NJ, Smith AR. Bacterial attack on phenolic ethers: An enzyme system demethylating vanillic acid. Biochem J 2010; 102:826-41. [PMID: 16742500 PMCID: PMC1270334 DOI: 10.1042/bj1020826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
1. A cell-free system from Pseudomonas fluorescens catalysed the oxidative demethylation and subsequent ring-cleavage of vanillate, with uptake of 2.5 moles of oxygen/mole of substrate. 2. Demethylation involved absorption of 0.5 mole of oxygen/mole, and required reduced glutathione (GSH) and nucleotide (probably NADPH) as cofactors, with further possible requirements, the natures of which are discussed. 3. Incomplete evidence suggested that the aromatic ring was opened via protocatechuate and the appropriate oxygenase, with absorption of 1 mole of oxygen/mole of substrate, eventually yielding beta-oxoadipate. 4. The methyl group was removed sequentially as formaldehyde, formate and carbon dioxide, the steps catalysed respectively by formaldehyde dehydrogenase, which required GSH and NAD(+), and formate dehydrogenase. Each enzyme was cytochrome-linked and accounted for absorption of 0.5mole of oxygen/mole of substrate. 5. All enzymes except formate dehydrogenase, which was a cell-wall enzyme, resided in the soluble fraction of the extract. The demethylase could not be resolved because of unknown cofactor requirements.
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Affiliation(s)
- N J Cartwright
- Department of Virology and Bacteriology, University of Birmingham
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Wang P, Qu Y, Zhou J. Biodegradation of mixed phenolic compounds under high salt conditions and salinity fluctuations by Arthrobacter sp. W1. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2009; 159:623-33. [PMID: 19156367 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-008-8494-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2008] [Accepted: 12/15/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
High salt concentration and salinity fluctuations in wastewater challenge the efficiency of microbial strains used for cleanup of pollutants. In this study, it was investigated that the new isolated Arthrobacter sp. W1 degraded mixed phenolic compounds under complex salt conditions. The results showed that Arthrobacter sp. W1 was able to utilize various phenolic compounds as carbon source under high salt conditions. It can degrade phenol and p-cresol mixture at 10% NaCl, although rates of degradation and cell growth were lower compared to 5% NaCl. The presence of trace p-cresol significantly inhibited phenol biodegradation. When salinity fluctuations were between 1% and 10% NaCl, strain W1 was able to degrade substrates and survived. It was also suggested that the presence of salts (i.e., NaCl, KCl, Na(2)SO(4), and K(2)SO(4)) had almost no effects on the microbial growth and biodegradation process. Therefore, Arthrobacter sp. W1 would be a promising candidate for bioremediation of phenolic compounds under complex salt conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Wang
- School of Environmental and Biological Science and Technology, Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
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9
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Optimal microbial adaptation routes for the rapid degradation of high concentration of phenol. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 2008; 32:435-42. [DOI: 10.1007/s00449-008-0263-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2008] [Accepted: 09/11/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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10
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Papazi A, Kotzabasis K. Bioenergetic strategy of microalgae for the biodegradation of phenolic compounds—Exogenously supplied energy and carbon sources adjust the level of biodegradation. J Biotechnol 2007; 129:706-16. [PMID: 17403549 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2007.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2006] [Revised: 02/10/2007] [Accepted: 02/19/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The biodegradation of phenolic compounds by microalgae seems to be not a simple feature of a particular organism, but mostly a bioenergetic process depending on the growth conditions, especially on the exogenously supplied energy (carbon and light) sources. By using chlorophyll fluorescence induction measurements to estimate the molecular structure and function of the photosynthetic apparatus and therefore the tolerance/sensitivity of microalgae incubated with phenols, it can be assumed that, at least in low concentrations, phenol have no toxic effects on the cultures and can be used as alternative carbon source in them. Halophenols (chlorophenols, bromophenols and iodophenols) are quite toxic for the microalgal cultures. In halophenols the first step of the biodegradation is the split of the halogen substituent (dehalogenation). This is strongly determined by the bond dissociation energy of the corresponding substituent and therefore the energetic requirement for the biodegradation of halophenols increases following the sequence: iodophenol<bromophenol<chlorophenol. Additionally, the meta-position of the halogen on the phenol ring needs more energy than the ortho- and the para-one. These are possible explanations of the fact that the biodegradation of halophenols needs additional energy sources that can be exogenously supplied as organic carbon (glucose) or inorganic carbon (CO(2)).
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Affiliation(s)
- Aikaterini Papazi
- Department of Biology, University of Crete, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
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Treccani V, Galli E, Catelani D, Sorlini C. Induction of 1,2- and 2,3-diphenol oxygenases in Pseudomonas desmolyticum. J Basic Microbiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/jobm.19680080108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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12
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Spiegel HE, Christian RP. A Semi-Automated Colorimetric Method for the Analysis of Dihydroxyphenylacetic Acid (DOPAC) in Urine of Parkinsonian Patients Receiving L-Dopa. ANAL LETT 2006. [DOI: 10.1080/00032717308058165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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van der Linden AC, Thijsse GJ. The mechanisms of microbial oxidations of petroleum hydrocarbons. ADVANCES IN ENZYMOLOGY AND RELATED AREAS OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2006; 27:469-546. [PMID: 4883740 DOI: 10.1002/9780470122723.ch10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Ribbons DW, Evans WC. Oxidative metabolism of phthalic acid by soil pseudomonads. Biochem J 2006; 76:310-8. [PMID: 16748829 PMCID: PMC1204710 DOI: 10.1042/bj0760310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D W Ribbons
- Department of Agricultural Chemistry, School of Agriculture, University College of North Wales, Bangor
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Smith JN, Williams RT. Studies in detoxication. 31. The isolation of m- and p-cyanophenols as metabolites of cyanobenzene (benzonitrile) and the problem of the orientation of hydroxyl groups formed in vivo. Biochem J 2006; 46:243-8. [PMID: 16748668 PMCID: PMC1275119 DOI: 10.1042/bj0460243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J N Smith
- Department of Biochemistry, St Mary's Hospital Medical School, London, W. 2
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Westmacott D, Wright SJL. Studies on the breakdown ofp-chlorophenyl methylcarbamate. II. In cultures of a soilArthrobactersp. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/ps.2780060108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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CLARK FM, FINA LR. The anaerobic decomposition of benzoic acid during methane fermentation. Arch Biochem Biophys 2004; 36:26-32. [PMID: 14934247 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(52)90374-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Analysis of microbial adaptation at enzyme level for enhancing biodegradation rate of BTX. KOREAN J CHEM ENG 2002. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02706967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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FERNLEY HN, EVANS WC. Oxidative metabolism of polycyclic hydrocarbons by soil Pseudomonads. Nature 2000; 182:373-5. [PMID: 13577843 DOI: 10.1038/182373a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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FINA LR, FISKIN AM. The anaerobic decomposition of benzoic acid during methane fermentation. II. Fate of carbons one and seven. Arch Biochem Biophys 1998; 91:163-5. [PMID: 13699513 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(60)90483-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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DAGLEY S, EVANS WC, RIBBONS DW. New pathways in the oxidative metabolism of aromatic compounds by microorganisms. Nature 1998; 188:560-6. [PMID: 13719300 DOI: 10.1038/188560a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 203] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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RIBBONS DW, EVANS WC. Oxidative metabolism of protocatechuic acid by certain soil pseudomonads: a new ring-fission mechanism. Biochem J 1998; 83:482-92. [PMID: 14491821 PMCID: PMC1243584 DOI: 10.1042/bj0830482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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PITTARD AJ, GIBSON F, DOY CH. A possible relationship between the formation of o-dihydric phenols and tryptophan biosynthesis by Aerobacter aerogens. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998; 57:290-8. [PMID: 14486988 DOI: 10.1016/0006-3002(62)91122-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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OOYAMA J, FOSTER JW. BACTERIAL OXIDATION OF CYCLOPARAFFINIC HYDROCARBONS. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 1996; 31:45-65. [PMID: 14293403 DOI: 10.1007/bf02045875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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EVANS WC, FERNLEY HN, GRIFFITHS E. OXIDATIVE METABOLISM OF PHENANTHRENE AND ANTHRACENE BY SOIL PSEUDOMONADS. THE RING-FISSION MECHANISM. Biochem J 1996; 95:819-31. [PMID: 14342521 PMCID: PMC1206812 DOI: 10.1042/bj0950819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
1. Phenanthrene is oxidatively metabolized by soil pseudomonads through trans-3,4-dihydro-3,4-dihydroxyphenanthrene to 3,4-dihydroxyphenanthrene, which then undergoes cleavage. 2. Some properties of the ring-fission product, cis-4-(1-hydroxynaphth-2-yl)-2-oxobut-3-enoic acid, are described. The Fe(2+)-dependent oxygenase therefore disrupts the bond between C-4 and the angular C of the phenanthrene nucleus. 3. An enzyme of the aldolase type converts the fission product into 1-hydroxy-2-naphthaldehyde (2-formyl-1-hydroxynaphthalene). An NAD-specific dehydrogenase is also present in the cell-free extract, which oxidizes the aldehyde to 1-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid. This is then oxidatively decarboxylated to 1,2-dihydroxynaphthalene, thus allowing continuation of metabolism via the naphthalene pathway. 4. Anthracene is similarly metabolized, through 1,2-dihydro-1,2-dihydroxyanthracene to 1,2-dihydroxyanthracene, in which ring-fission occurs to give cis-4-(2-hydroxynaphth-3-yl)-2-oxobut-3-enoic acid. The position of cleavage is again at the bond between the angular C and C-1 of the anthracene nucleus. 5. Enzymes that convert the fission product through 2-hydroxy-3-naphthaldehyde into 2-hydroxy-3-naphthoic acid were demonstrated. The further metabolism of this acid is discussed. 6. The Fe(2+)-dependent oxygenase responsible for cleavage of all the o-dihydroxyphenol derivatives appears to be catechol 2,3-oxygenase, and is a constitutive enzyme in the Pseudomonas strains used.
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Abstract
A strain of Pseudomanas isolated from soil with cinnamic acid as a sole carbon source was found to be simultaneously adapted to the utilization of cinnamic acid and phenylpropionic acid. During growth on either of these compounds, o-hydroxyphenylpropionic acid and 2,3-dihydroxyphenylpropionic acid were produced in the culture medium. The organism, when grown on either cinnamic acid or phenylpropionic acid, was adapted to the utilization of m-hydroxyphenylpropionic acid and 2,3-dihydroxyphenylpropionic acid, but not to the utilization of o-hydroxyphenylpropionic acid. According to the principle of sequential induction introduced by Stanier, the initial steps in the metabolism of cinnamic acid appear to involve the intermediates phenylpropionic acid, m-hydroxyphenylpropionic acid, and 2,3-dihydroxyphenylpropionic acid.
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Abstract
Seventy-one strains of Citrobacter were screened for iron scavenging mechanisms by biologic and chemical assays. Essentially all citrobacteria (70/71) were found to elaborate enterobactin-like siderophores by both biologic and chemical assays, however only c. koseri (C. diversus) was found to produce aerobactin. The concentration of ethylenediamine di(o-hydroxyphenylacetic acid) (EDDA) required to inhibit the growth of individual Citrobacter strains by depleting free iron ranged from 250 micrograms/ml to 100 micrograms/ml. Iron utilization studies of selected citrobacter isolates indicated that hemin and hematin could reverse the effects of iron limitation on growth under iron-stressed conditions (1000 micrograms/ml of EDDA). Two C. koseri strains grown under iron-restricted conditions showed similar changes in their whole cell protein profiles including induction of high molecular mass proteins (72-83 kDa) which may play a role in iron acquisition under iron-stressed conditions. The collective results support an additional virulence-associated mechanism for C. koseri strains which may help explain the greater pathogenic potential this group has for causing serious extraintestinal disease in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Khashe
- Division of Communicable Disease Control, California Department of Health Services, Berkeley 94704-1011, USA
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VIPULANANDAN C, KRISHNAN S. Leachability and Biodegradation of High Concentrations of Phenol and o-Chlorophenol. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1993. [DOI: 10.1089/hwm.1993.10.27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Zywno SR, Arceneaux JE, Altwegg M, Byers BR. Siderophore production and DNA hybridization groups of Aeromonas spp. J Clin Microbiol 1992; 30:619-22. [PMID: 1532398 PMCID: PMC265121 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.30.3.619-622.1992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
A correlation between the genospecies (DNA-DNA hybridization group) and the type of siderophore produced by 118 isolates of the genus Aeromonas was established. Organisms in hybridization groups 1 through 5 (including 5A, 5B, and 5AB) and group 12 predominantly produced the siderophore amonabactin, while an enterobactinlike siderophore was prevalent in groups 8/10 and 9. The siderophore produced by strains in group 6 may be an as-yet-unidentified nonphenolate, nonhydroxamate compound, and group 7 isolates synthesized no siderophores. Determination of the indigeneous siderophore (or the absence of one) produced by an isolate of the genus Aeromonas may assist in identification of the organism's genetic species and may suggest the presence of certain virulence properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- S R Zywno
- Biological Hazards Branch, Food and Drug Administration, Dauphin Island, Alabama 36528
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Barghouthi S, Payne SM, Arceneaux JE, Byers BR. Cloning, mutagenesis, and nucleotide sequence of a siderophore biosynthetic gene (amoA) from Aeromonas hydrophila. J Bacteriol 1991; 173:5121-8. [PMID: 1830579 PMCID: PMC208203 DOI: 10.1128/jb.173.16.5121-5128.1991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Many isolates of the Aeromonas species produce amonabactin, a phenolate siderophore containing 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid (2,3-DHB). An amonabactin biosynthetic gene (amoA) was identified (in a Sau3A1 gene library of Aeromonas hydrophila 495A2 chromosomal DNA) by its complementation of the requirement of Escherichia coli SAB11 for exogenous 2,3-DHB to support siderophore (enterobactin) synthesis. The gene amoA was subcloned as a SalI-HindIII 3.4-kb DNA fragment into pSUP202, and the complete nucleotide sequence of amoA was determined. A putative iron-regulatory sequence resembling the Fur repressor protein-binding site overlapped a possible promoter region. A translational reading frame, beginning with valine and encoding 396 amino acids, was open for 1,188 bp. The C-terminal portion of the deduced amino acid sequence showed 58% identity and 79% similarity with the E. coli EntC protein (isochorismate synthetase), the first enzyme in the E. coli 2,3-DHB biosynthetic pathway, suggesting that amoA probably encodes a step in 2,3-DHB biosynthesis and is the A. hydrophila equivalent of the E. coli entC gene. An isogenic amonabactin-negative mutant, A. hydrophila SB22, was isolated after marker exchange mutagenesis with Tn5-inactivated amoA (amoA::Tn5). The mutant excreted neither 2,3-DHB nor amonabactin, was more sensitive than the wild-type to growth inhibition by iron restriction, and used amonabactin to overcome iron starvation.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Barghouthi
- Department of Microbiology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson 39216
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Ewers J, Rubio MA, Knackmuss HJ, Freier-Schröder D. Bacterial Metabolism of 2,6-Xylenol. Appl Environ Microbiol 1989; 55:2904-8. [PMID: 16348052 PMCID: PMC203189 DOI: 10.1128/aem.55.11.2904-2908.1989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Strain DM1, a
Mycobacterium
sp. that utilizes 2,6-xylenol, 2,3,6-trimethylphenol, and
o
-cresol as sources of carbon and energy, was isolated. Intact cells of
Mycobacterium
strain DM1 grown with 2,6-xylenol cooxidized 2,4,6-trimethylphenol to 2,4,6-trimethylresorcinol. 4-Chloro-3,5-dimethylphenol prevents 2,6-xylenol from being totally degraded; it was quantitatively converted to 2,6-dimethylhydroquinone by resting cells. 2,6-Dimethylhydroquinone, citraconate, and an unidentified metabolite were detected as products of 2,6-xylenol oxidation in cells that were partially inactivated by EDTA. Under oxygen limitation, 2,6-dimethylhy-droquinone, citraconate, and an unidentified metabolite were released during 2,6-xylenol turnover by resting cells. Cell extracts of 2,6-xylenol-grown cells contained a 2,6-dimethylhydroquinone-converting enzyme. When supplemented with NADH, cell extracts catalyzed the reduction of 2,6-dimethyl-3-hydroxyquinone to 2,6-dimethyl-3-hydroxyhydroquinone. Since a citraconase was also demonstrated in cell extracts, a new metabolic pathway with 2,6-dimethyl-3-hydroxyhydroquinone as the ring fission substrate is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Ewers
- Fraunhofer-Institut für Grenzflächen- und Bioverfahrenstechnik, D-7000 Stuttgart 80, Technische Universität Hamburg-Harburg, D-2100 Hamburg 90, and Universität Stuttgart, D-7000 Stuttgart 1, Federal Republic of Germany
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Barghouthi S, Young R, Olson MO, Arceneaux JE, Clem LW, Byers BR. Amonabactin, a novel tryptophan- or phenylalanine-containing phenolate siderophore in Aeromonas hydrophila. J Bacteriol 1989; 171:1811-6. [PMID: 2522922 PMCID: PMC209826 DOI: 10.1128/jb.171.4.1811-1816.1989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Aeromonas hydrophila 495A2 excreted two forms of amonabactin, a new phenolate siderophore composed of 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid, lysine, glycine, and either tryptophan (amonabactin T) or phenylalanine (amonabactin P). Supplementing cultures with L-tryptophan (0.3 mM) caused exclusive synthesis of amonabactin T, whereas supplements of L-phenylalanine (0.3 to 30 mM) gave predominant production of amonabactin P. The two forms of amonabactin were separately purified by a combination of production and polyamide column chromatographic methods. Both forms were biologically active, stimulating growth in iron-deficient medium of an amonabactin-negative mutant. Of 43 additional siderophore-producing isolates of the Aeromonas species that were tested, 76% (19 of 25) of the A. hydrophila isolates were amonabactin positive, whereas only 19% (3 of 16) of the A. sobria isolates and all (3 of 3) of the A. caviae isolates produced amonabactin, suggesting a predominant synthesis of amonabactin in certain Aeromonas species.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Barghouthi
- Department of Microbiology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson 39216-4505
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Abstract
Isolates able to grow on 3- or 4-hydroxybiphenyl (HB) as the sole carbon source were obtained by enrichment culture. The 3-HB degrader Pseudomonas sp. strain FH12 used an NADPH-dependent monooxygenase restricted to 3- and 3,3'-HBs to introduce an ortho-hydroxyl. The 4-HB degrader Pseudomonas sp. strain FH23 used either a mono- or dioxygenase to generate a 2,3-diphenolic substitution pattern which allowed meta-fission of the aromatic ring. By using 3-chlorocatechol to inhibit catechol dioxygenase activity, it was found that 2- and 3-HBs were converted by FH23 to 2,3-HB, whereas biphenyl and 4-HB were attacked by dioxygenation. 4-HB was metabolized to 2,3,4'-trihydroxybiphenyl. Neither organism attacked chlorinated HBs. The degradation of 3- and 4-HBs by these strains is therefore analogous to the metabolism of biphenyl, 2-HB, and naphthalene in the requirement for 2,3-catechol formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- F K Higson
- Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside 92521
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Smith MR, Ratledge C. Catabolism of biphenyl by Pseudomonas sp. NCIB 10643 and Nocardia sp. NCIB 10503. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 1989. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00296630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Barghouthi S, Young R, Arceneaux JE, Byers BR. Physiological control of amonabactin biosynthesis in Aeromonas hydrophila. BIOLOGY OF METALS 1989; 2:155-60. [PMID: 2535179 DOI: 10.1007/bf01142554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Amonabactin is a siderophore from Aeromonas hydrophila which is produced in two biologically active forms composed of the phenolate 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid (DHB), lysine, glycine, and either trytophan (amonabactin T) or phenylalanine (amonabactin P). Amonabactin biosynthetic mutants (generated by chemical mutagenesis) that either produced no amonabactin or overproduced the siderophore were isolated and identified on chrome azurol S siderophore detection agar. Amonabactin-negative mutants were of two categories. One type produced no phenolates and used exogenous DHB to synthesize amonabactin (both forms) while the other type excreted DHB but not amonabactin. This suggests an amonabactin biosynthetic pathway composed of two segments, one producing DHB and the other assembling amonabactin from DHB and the amino acids. Overproduction mutants used amonabactin poorly or not at all, indicating that they contained lesions in amonabactin utilization. Adding the analog D-tryptophan to wild-type A. hydrophila cultures reduced synthesis of both amonabactin T and amonabactin P and lengthened the lag phase in iron restricted medium. The tryptophan and phenylalanine forms of amonabactin may be synthesized by a single assembly pathway that contains a novel enzyme (sensitive to D-tryptophan) which inserts either tryptophan or phenylalanine into amonabactin.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Barghouthi
- Department of Microbiology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson 39216-4505
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Kukor JJ, Olsen RH, Ballou DP. Cloning and expression of the catA and catBC gene clusters from Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO. J Bacteriol 1988; 170:4458-65. [PMID: 3139626 PMCID: PMC211477 DOI: 10.1128/jb.170.10.4458-4465.1988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
A 9.9-kilobase (kb) BamHI restriction endonuclease fragment encoding the catA and catBC gene clusters was selected from a gene bank of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1c chromosome. The catA, catB, and catC genes encode enzymes that catalyze consecutive reactions in the catechol branch of the beta-ketoadipate pathway: catA, catechol-1,2-dioxygenase (EC 1.13.11.1); catB, muconate lactonizing enzyme (EC 5.5.1.1); and catC, muconolactone isomerase (EC 5.3.3.4). A recombinant plasmid, pRO1783, which contains the 9.9-kb BamHI restriction fragment complemented P. aeruginosa mutants with lesions in the catA, catB, or catC gene; however, this fragment of chromosomal DNA did not contain any other catabolic genes which had been placed near the catA or catBC cluster based on cotransducibility of the loci. Restriction mapping, deletion subcloning, and complementation analysis showed that the order of the genes on the cloned chromosomal DNA fragment is catA, catB, catC. The catBC genes are tightly linked and are transcribed from a single promoter that is on the 5' side of the catB gene. The catA gene is approximately 3 kb from the catBC genes. The cloned P. aeruginosa catA, catB, and catC genes were expressed at basal levels in blocked mutants of Pseudomonas putida and did not exhibit an inducible response. These observations suggest positive regulation of the P. aeruginosa catA and catBC cluster, the absence of a positive regulatory element from pRO1783, and the inability of the P. putida regulatory gene product to induce expression of the P. aeruginosa catA, catB, and catC genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Kukor
- Department of Microbiology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor 48109
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Nozawa T, Maruyama Y. Denitrification by a soil bacterium with phthalate and other aromatic compounds as substrates. J Bacteriol 1988; 170:2501-5. [PMID: 3372476 PMCID: PMC211162 DOI: 10.1128/jb.170.6.2501-2505.1988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
A soil bacterium, Pseudomonas sp. strain P136, was isolated by selective enrichment for anaerobic utilization of o-phthalate through nitrate respiration. o-Phthalate, m-phthalate, p-phthalate, benzoate, cyclohex-1-ene-carboxylate, and cyclohex-3-ene-carboxylate were utilized by this strain under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. m-Hydroxybenzoate and p-hydroxybenzoate were utilized only under anaerobic conditions. Protocatechuate and catechol were neither utilized nor detected as metabolic intermediates during the metabolism of these aromatic compounds under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Cells grown anaerobically on one of these aromatic compounds also utilized all other aromatic compounds as substrates for denitrification without a lag period. On the other hand, cells grown on succinate utilized aromatic compounds after a lag period. Anaerobic growth on these substrates was dependent on the presence of nitrate and accompanied by the production of molecular nitrogen. The reduction of nitrite to nitrous oxide and the reduction of nitrous oxide to molecular nitrogen were also supported by anaerobic utilization of these aromatic compounds in this strain. Aerobically grown cells showed a lag period in denitrification with all substrates tested. Cells grown anaerobically on aromatic compounds also consumed oxygen. No lag period was observed for oxygen consumption during the transition period from anaerobic to aerobic conditions. Cells grown aerobically on one of these aromatic compounds were also adapted to utilize other aromatic compounds as substrates for respiration. However, cells grown on succinate showed a lag period during respiration with aromatic compounds. Some other characteristic properties on metabolism and regulation of this strain are also discussed for their physiological aspects.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Nozawa
- Department of Agricultural Chemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tokyo, Japan
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Kujawa M, Macholz R, Schulze J, Schnaak W. [Significance of gastrointestinal microflora for the metabolism of foreign compounds]. DIE NAHRUNG 1987; 31:619-24. [PMID: 2443851 DOI: 10.1002/food.19870310581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Microbiological biotransformation as a part of metabolism of foreign compounds in general, has great toxicological consequences. An overview on the most important types of reactions is given. In detail, comparative investigations of the metabolism of gamma-HCH, azobenzene and progoitrin in germfree and conventionalized rats are described and results from the literature are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kujawa
- Zentralinstitut für Ernährung in Potsdam-Rehbrücke, Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR
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Evans SL, Arceneaux JE, Byers BR, Martin ME, Aranha H. Ferrous iron transport in Streptococcus mutans. J Bacteriol 1986; 168:1096-9. [PMID: 2946662 PMCID: PMC213607 DOI: 10.1128/jb.168.3.1096-1099.1986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Radioiron uptake from 59FeCl3 by Streptococcus mutans OMZ176 was increased by anaerobiosis, sodium ascorbate, and phenazine methosulfate (PMS), although there was a 10-min lag before PMS stimulation was evident. The reductant ascorbate may have provided ferrous iron. The PMS was reduced by the cells, and the reduced PMS then may have generated ferrous iron for transport; reduced PMS also may have depleted dissolved oxygen. We conclude that S. mutans transports only ferrous iron, utilizing reductants furnished by glucose metabolism to reduce iron prior to its uptake.
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Abstract
During growth of Micrococcus sp. strain 12B with dimethylphthalate, 4-carboxy-2-hydroxymuconate lactone (CHML, X) and 3,4-dihydroxyphthalate-2-methyl ester (XI) were isolated from culture filtrates. CHML is the lactone of intermediate 4-carboxy-2-hydroxymuconate (IX). Accumulation of XI which is not a substrate for 3,4-dihydroxyphthalate-2-decarboxylase in strain 12B afforded an easy access to the preparation of 3,4-dihydroxyphthalate.
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48
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Eaton RW, Ribbons DW. The transformation of phthalaldehydate by phthalate-grown Micrococcus strain 12B. Arch Biochem Biophys 1982; 216:289-95. [PMID: 7103509 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(82)90213-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Chatterjee DK, Kellogg ST, Hamada S, Chakrabarty AM. Plasmid specifying total degradation of 3-chlorobenzoate by a modified ortho pathway. J Bacteriol 1981; 146:639-46. [PMID: 7217013 PMCID: PMC217007 DOI: 10.1128/jb.146.2.639-646.1981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
A plasmid, termed pAC25, specifying biodegradation of 3-chlorobenzoate in a strain of Pseudomonas putida has been characterized. During growth of the plasmid-harboring cells with 3-chlorobenzoate, there was an accumulation of 3-chlorocatechol and beta-chloromuconic acid as intermediates and release of more than 80% of the chlorine in the form of inorganic chloride. The plasmid had a mean molecular mass of 68 x 10(6) daltons and was transmissible to a number of Pseudomonas species such as P. aeruginosa, P. putida strain PpG1, and P. putida strain PRS1. Transfer of pAC25 to various catechol-negative mutants of P. putida strain PRS1 showed that the chromosomally coded pyrocatechase was not complemented by the plasmid-specified pyrocatechase, which appeared to be specific for the chlorinated catechols. In contrast to benzoate, which was metabolized by the ortho pathway through beta-ketoadipate as an intermediate, the plasmid specified ortho cleavage of the chlorocatechols through maleylacetate as an intermediate.
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