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Ferreira AZL, de Araújo CN, Cardoso ICC, de Souza Mangabeira KS, Rocha AP, Charneau S, Santana JM, Motta FN, Bastos IMD. Metacyclogenesis as the Starting Point of Chagas Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 25:117. [PMID: 38203289 PMCID: PMC10778605 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25010117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease is a neglected infectious disease caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, primarily transmitted by triatomine vectors, and it threatens approximately seventy-five million people worldwide. This parasite undergoes a complex life cycle, transitioning between hosts and shifting from extracellular to intracellular stages. To ensure its survival in these diverse environments, T. cruzi undergoes extreme morphological and molecular changes. The metacyclic trypomastigote (MT) form, which arises from the metacyclogenesis (MTG) process in the triatomine hindgut, serves as a crucial link between the insect and human hosts and can be considered the starting point of Chagas disease. This review provides an overview of the current knowledge regarding the parasite's life cycle, molecular pathways, and mechanisms involved in metabolic and morphological adaptations during MTG, enabling the MT to evade the immune system and successfully infect human cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carla Nunes de Araújo
- Pathogen-Host Interface Laboratory, Department of Cell Biology, University of Brasilia, Brasilia 70910-900, Brazil
- Faculty of Ceilândia, University of Brasilia, Brasilia 70910-900, Brazil
| | - Isabela Cunha Costa Cardoso
- Pathogen-Host Interface Laboratory, Department of Cell Biology, University of Brasilia, Brasilia 70910-900, Brazil
| | | | - Amanda Pereira Rocha
- Pathogen-Host Interface Laboratory, Department of Cell Biology, University of Brasilia, Brasilia 70910-900, Brazil
| | - Sébastien Charneau
- Laboratory of Protein Chemistry and Biochemistry, Department of Cell Biology, University of Brasilia, Brasilia 70910-900, Brazil
| | - Jaime Martins Santana
- Pathogen-Host Interface Laboratory, Department of Cell Biology, University of Brasilia, Brasilia 70910-900, Brazil
| | - Flávia Nader Motta
- Pathogen-Host Interface Laboratory, Department of Cell Biology, University of Brasilia, Brasilia 70910-900, Brazil
- Faculty of Ceilândia, University of Brasilia, Brasilia 70910-900, Brazil
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Rangel-Ramírez VV, González-Sánchez HM, Lucio-García C. Exosomes: from biology to immunotherapy in infectious diseases. Infect Dis (Lond) 2023; 55:79-107. [PMID: 36562253 DOI: 10.1080/23744235.2022.2149852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are extracellular vesicles derived from the endosomal compartment, which are released by all kinds of eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. These vesicles contain a variety of biomolecules that differ both in quantity and type depending on the origin and cellular state. Exosomes are internalized by recipient cells, delivering their content and thus contributing to cell-cell communication in health and disease. During infections exosomes may exert a dual role, on one hand, they can transmit pathogen-related molecules mediating further infection and damage, and on the other hand, they can protect the host by activating the immune response and reducing pathogen spread. Selective packaging of pathogenic components may mediate these effects. Recently, quantitative analysis of samples by omics technologies has allowed a deep characterization of the proteins, lipids, RNA, and metabolite cargoes of exosomes. Knowledge about the content of these vesicles may facilitate their therapeutic application. Furthermore, as exosomes have been detected in almost all biological fluids, pathogenic or host-derived components can be identified in liquid biopsies, making them suitable for diagnosis and prognosis. This review attempts to organize the recent findings on exosome composition and function during viral, bacterial, fungal, and protozoan infections, and their contribution to host defense or to pathogen spread. Moreover, we summarize the current perspectives and future directions regarding the potential application of exosomes for prophylactic and therapeutic purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - César Lucio-García
- Centro de Investigación sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Cuernavaca, México
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Onofre TS, Loch L, Ferreira Rodrigues JP, Macedo S, Yoshida N. Gp35/50 mucin molecules of Trypanosoma cruzi metacyclic forms that mediate host cell invasion interact with annexin A2. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010788. [PMID: 36190932 PMCID: PMC9529151 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Host cell invasion is a critical step for infection by Trypanosoma cruzi, the agent of Chagas disease. In natural infection, T. cruzi metacyclic trypomastigote (MT) forms establish the first interaction with host cells. The gp35/50 mucin molecules expressed in MT have been implicated in cell invasion process, but the mechanisms involved are not well understood. We performed a series of experiments to elucidate the mode of gp35/50-mediated MT internalization. Comparing two parasite strains from genetically divergent groups, G strain (TcI) and CL strain (TcVI), expressing variant forms of mucins, we demonstrated that G strain mucins participate in MT invasion. Only G strain-derived mucins bound to HeLa cells in a receptor-dependent manner and significantly inhibited G strain MT invasion. CL strain MT internalization was not affected by mucins from either strain. HeLa cell invasion by G strain MT was associated with actin recruitment and did not rely on lysosome mobilization. To examine the involvement of annexin A2, which plays a role in actin dynamic, annexin A2-depleted HeLa cells were generated. Annexin A2-deficient cell lines were significantly more resistant than wild type controls to G strain MT invasion. In a co-immunoprecipitation assay, to check whether annexin A2 might be the receptor for mucins, protein A/G magnetic beads crosslinked with monoclonal antibody to G strain mucins were incubated with detergent extracts of MT and HeLa cells. Binding of gp35/50 mucins to annexin A2 was detected. Both G strain MT and purified mucins induced focal adhesion kinase activation in HeLa cells. By confocal immunofluorescence microscopy, colocalization of invading G strain MT with clathrin was visualized. Inhibition of clathrin-coated vesicle formation reduced parasite internalization. Taken together, our data indicate that gp35/50-mediated MT invasion is accomplished through interaction with host cell annexin A2 and clathrin-dependent endocytosis. Host cell invasion by Trypanosoma cruzi, the agent of Chagas disease, is critical for the establishment of infection. Metacyclic trypomastigote (MT) forms are responsible for the initial T. cruzi-host cell interaction. Mucin molecules expressed on MT surface have been implicated in target cell invasion process, but the underlying mechanism are not fully understood. In this study, we aimed at elucidating the mode of mucin-mediated MT internalization. We found that requirement of mucins for MT invasion is T. cruzi strain-dependent. Experiments with G strain MTs, which rely on mucins and on target cell actin for internalization, revealed that mucin molecules bind to annexin A2, a protein that plays a role in actin dynamic. Annexin A2-deficient cell lines were generated and found to be significantly more resistant than wild type controls to MT invasion. Both MT and purified mucins induced focal adhesion kinase activation in host cells. By confocal immunofluorescence microscopy, invading MT was found to colocalize with clathrin, a protein that plays a role in endocytosis. Inhibition of clathrin-coated vesicle formation reduced parasite internalization. From these data we infer that mucin-mediated MT invasion is accomplished through interaction with host cell annexin A2 and clathrin-dependent endocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thiago Souza Onofre
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Loch
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - João Paulo Ferreira Rodrigues
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Silene Macedo
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Nobuko Yoshida
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil,* E-mail:
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Rodríguez-Durán J, Gallardo JP, Alba Soto CD, Gómez KA, Potenza M. The Kinetoplastid-Specific Protein TcCAL1 Plays Different Roles During In Vitro Differentiation and Host-Cell Invasion in Trypanosoma cruzi. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:901880. [PMID: 35846750 PMCID: PMC9280158 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.901880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In the pathogen Typanosoma cruzi, the calcium ion (Ca2+) regulates key processes for parasite survival. However, the mechanisms decoding Ca2+ signals are not fully identified or understood. Here, we investigate the role of a hypothetical Ca2+-binding protein named TcCAL1 in the in vitro life cycle of T. cruzi. Results showed that the overexpression of TcCAL1 fused to a 6X histidine tag (TcCAL1-6xHis) impaired the differentiation of epimastigotes into metacyclic trypomastigotes, significantly decreasing metacyclogenesis rates. When the virulence of transgenic metacyclic trypomastigotes was explored in mammalian cell invasion assays, we found that the percentage of infection was significantly higher in Vero cells incubated with TcCAL1-6xHis-overexpressing parasites than in controls, as well as the number of intracellular amastigotes. Additionally, the percentage of Vero cells with adhered metacyclic trypomastigotes significantly increased in samples incubated with TcCAL1-6xHis-overexpressing parasites compared with controls. In contrast, the differentiation rates from metacyclic trypomastigotes to axenic amastigotes or the epimastigote proliferation in the exponential phase of growth have not been affected by TcCAL1-6xHis overexpression. Based on our findings, we speculate that TcCAL1 exerts its function by sequestering intracellular Ca2+ by its EF-hand motifs (impairing metacyclogenesis) and/or due to an unknown activity which could be amplified by the ion binding (promoting cell invasion). This work underpins the importance of studying the kinetoplastid-specific proteins with unknown functions in pathogen parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Rodríguez-Durán
- Laboratorio de Biología e Inmunología de las Infecciones por Tripanosomátidos, Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería Genética y Biología Molecular “Dr. Héctor Torres”—CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Juan Pablo Gallardo
- Laboratorio de Biología e Inmunología de las Infecciones por Tripanosomátidos, Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería Genética y Biología Molecular “Dr. Héctor Torres”—CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Catalina Dirney Alba Soto
- Instituto de Microbiología y Parasitología Médica, Departamento de Microbiología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Karina Andrea Gómez
- Laboratorio de Biología e Inmunología de las Infecciones por Tripanosomátidos, Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería Genética y Biología Molecular “Dr. Héctor Torres”—CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mariana Potenza
- Laboratorio de Biología e Inmunología de las Infecciones por Tripanosomátidos, Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería Genética y Biología Molecular “Dr. Héctor Torres”—CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- *Correspondence: Mariana Potenza, ;
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Cortez DR, Lima FM, Reis-Cunha JL, Bartholomeu DC, Villacis RAR, Rogatto SR, Costa-Martins AG, Marchiano FS, do Carmo RA, da Silveira JF, Marini MM. Trypanosoma cruzi Genomic Variability: Array Comparative Genomic Hybridization Analysis of Clone and Parental Strain. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:760830. [PMID: 35402315 PMCID: PMC8992781 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.760830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease, exhibits extensive inter- and intrastrain genetic diversity. As we have previously described, there are some genetic differences between the parental G strain and its clone D11, which was isolated by the limiting dilution method and infection of cultured mammalian cells. Electrophoretic karyotyping and Southern blot hybridization of chromosomal bands with specific markers revealed chromosome length polymorphisms of small size with additional chromosomal bands in clone D11 and the maintenance of large syntenic groups. Both G strain and clone D11 belong to the T. cruzi lineage TcI. Here, we designed intraspecific array-based comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH) to identify chromosomal regions harboring copy-number variations between clone D11 and the G strain. DNA losses were more extensive than DNA gains in clone D11. Most alterations were flanked by repeated sequences from multigene families that could be involved in the duplication and deletion events. Several rearrangements were detected by chromoblot hybridization and confirmed by aCGH. We have integrated the information of genomic sequence data obtained by aCGH to the electrophoretic karyotype, allowing the reconstruction of possible recombination events that could have generated the karyotype of clone D11. These rearrangements may be explained by unequal crossing over between sister or homologous chromatids mediated by flanking repeated sequences and unequal homologous recombination via break-induced replication. The genomic changes detected by aCGH suggest the presence of a dynamic genome that responds to environmental stress by varying the number of gene copies and generating segmental aneuploidy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle Rodrigues Cortez
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Fabio Mitsuo Lima
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Centro Universitário São Camilo, Biomedicina, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - João Luís Reis-Cunha
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | | | | | - Silvia Regina Rogatto
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Institute of Regional Health Research, University of Southern Denmark, Vejle, Denmark
| | - André Guilherme Costa-Martins
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Sycko Marchiano
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rafaela Andrade do Carmo
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jose Franco da Silveira
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Marjorie Mendes Marini, ; Jose Franco da Silveira,
| | - Marjorie Mendes Marini
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Centro Universitário São Camilo, Biomedicina, São Paulo, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Marjorie Mendes Marini, ; Jose Franco da Silveira,
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Borges AR, Link F, Engstler M, Jones NG. The Glycosylphosphatidylinositol Anchor: A Linchpin for Cell Surface Versatility of Trypanosomatids. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:720536. [PMID: 34790656 PMCID: PMC8591177 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.720536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) to anchor proteins to the cell surface is widespread among eukaryotes. The GPI-anchor is covalently attached to the C-terminus of a protein and mediates the protein’s attachment to the outer leaflet of the lipid bilayer. GPI-anchored proteins have a wide range of functions, including acting as receptors, transporters, and adhesion molecules. In unicellular eukaryotic parasites, abundantly expressed GPI-anchored proteins are major virulence factors, which support infection and survival within distinct host environments. While, for example, the variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) is the major component of the cell surface of the bloodstream form of African trypanosomes, procyclin is the most abundant protein of the procyclic form which is found in the invertebrate host, the tsetse fly vector. Trypanosoma cruzi, on the other hand, expresses a variety of GPI-anchored molecules on their cell surface, such as mucins, that interact with their hosts. The latter is also true for Leishmania, which use GPI anchors to display, amongst others, lipophosphoglycans on their surface. Clearly, GPI-anchoring is a common feature in trypanosomatids and the fact that it has been maintained throughout eukaryote evolution indicates its adaptive value. Here, we explore and discuss GPI anchors as universal evolutionary building blocks that support the great variety of surface molecules of trypanosomatids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa R Borges
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Fabian Link
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Markus Engstler
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Nicola G Jones
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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Characterisation of Macrophage Polarisation in Mice Infected with Ninoa Strain of Trypanosoma cruzi. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10111444. [PMID: 34832600 PMCID: PMC8622189 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10111444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 10/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages (MΦ) play a key role in the development of the protective immune response against Trypanosoma cruzi infection. To determine the role of MΦ subtypes M1 and M2 in the development of immunity against the Mexican strain of T. cruzi (Ninoa strain), we have analysed in a time course the infection and characterised the M1 and M2 subtypes in two mouse models, BALB/c and C57BL/6. After infection, BALB/c mice developed an increased blood parasite load and the parasites were cleared from the blood one week later than in C57BL/6 mice. However, similar cellular infiltrate and cardiac alterations were observed between BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice. At 36 days, the T. cruzi infection differentially modulated the expression of immune cells, and both the BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice significantly reduced TCD4+ cells. However, BALB/c mice produced significantly more TCD8+ than C57BL/6 mice in the spleen and lymph nodes. Furthermore, BALB/c mice produce significantly more MΦ in the spleen, while C57BL/6 produce similar levels to uninfected mice. The M1 MΦ ratio increased significantly at 3-5 days post-infection (dpi), but then decreased slightly. On the contrary, the M2 MΦ were low at the beginning of the infection, but the proportion of M1 and M2 MΦ at 36 dpi was similar. Importantly, the MΦ subtypes M2c and M2d significantly increased the induction of tissue repair by the end of the acute phase of the infection. These results indicate that the Ninoa strain has developed strategies to modulate the immune response, with fine differences depending on the genetic background of the host.
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Manchola Varón NC, Dos Santos GRRM, Colli W, Alves MJM. Interaction With the Extracellular Matrix Triggers Calcium Signaling in Trypanosoma cruzi Prior to Cell Invasion. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:731372. [PMID: 34671568 PMCID: PMC8521164 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.731372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease in humans, infects a wide variety of vertebrates. Trypomastigotes, the parasite infective forms, invade mammalian cells by a still poorly understood mechanism. Adhesion of tissue culture- derived trypomastigotes to the extracellular matrix (ECM) prior to cell invasion has been shown to be a relevant part of the process. Changes in phosphorylation, S-nitrosylation, and nitration levels of proteins, in the late phase of the interaction (2 h), leading to the reprogramming of both trypomastigotes metabolism and the DNA binding profile of modified histones, were described by our group. Here, the involvement of calcium signaling at a very early phase of parasite interaction with ECM is described. Increments in the intracellular calcium concentrations during trypomastigotes-ECM interaction depends on the Ca2+ uptake from the extracellular medium, since it is inhibited by EGTA or Nifedipine, an inhibitor of the L-type voltage gated Ca2+ channels and sphingosine-dependent plasma membrane Ca2+ channel, but not by Vanadate, an inhibitor of the plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase. Furthermore, Nifedipine inhibits the invasion of host cells by tissue culture- derived trypomastigotes in a dose-dependent manner, reaching 95% inhibition at 100 µM Nifedipine. These data indicate the importance of both Ca2+ uptake from the medium and parasite-ECM interaction for host-cell invasion. Previous treatment of ECM with protease abolishes the Ca2+ uptake, further reinforcing the possibility that these events may be connected. The mitochondrion plays a relevant role in Ca2+ homeostasis in trypomastigotes during their interaction with ECM, as shown by the increment of the intracellular Ca2+ concentration in the presence of Antimycin A, in contrast to other calcium homeostasis disruptors, such as Cyclopiazonic acid for endoplasmic reticulum and Bafilomycin A for acidocalcisome. Total phosphatase activity in the parasite decreases in the presence of Nifedipine, EGTA, and Okadaic acid, implying a role of calcium in the phosphorylation level of proteins that are interacting with the ECM in tissue culture- derived trypomastigotes. In summary, we describe here the increment of Ca2+ at an early phase of the trypomastigotes interaction with ECM, implicating both nifedipine-sensitive Ca2+ channels in the influx of Ca2+ and the mitochondrion as the relevant organelle in Ca2+ homeostasis. The data unravel a complex sequence of events prior to host cell invasion itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nubia Carolina Manchola Varón
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Parasites, Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Walter Colli
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Parasites, Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria Julia M Alves
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Parasites, Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Zuma AA, Dos Santos Barrias E, de Souza W. Basic Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi. Curr Pharm Des 2021; 27:1671-1732. [PMID: 33272165 DOI: 10.2174/1381612826999201203213527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2020] [Revised: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The present review addresses basic aspects of the biology of the pathogenic protozoa Trypanosoma cruzi and some comparative information of Trypanosoma brucei. Like eukaryotic cells, their cellular organization is similar to that of mammalian hosts. However, these parasites present structural particularities. That is why the following topics are emphasized in this paper: developmental stages of the life cycle in the vertebrate and invertebrate hosts; the cytoskeleton of the protozoa, especially the sub-pellicular microtubules; the flagellum and its attachment to the protozoan body through specialized junctions; the kinetoplast-mitochondrion complex, including its structural organization and DNA replication; glycosome and its role in the metabolism of the cell; acidocalcisome, describing its morphology, biochemistry, and functional role; cytostome and the endocytic pathway; the organization of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex; the nucleus, describing its structural organization during interphase and division; and the process of interaction of the parasite with host cells. The unique characteristics of these structures also make them interesting chemotherapeutic targets. Therefore, further understanding of cell biology aspects contributes to the development of drugs for chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline A Zuma
- Laboratorio de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho - Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Emile Dos Santos Barrias
- Laboratorio de Metrologia Aplicada a Ciencias da Vida, Diretoria de Metrologia Aplicada a Ciencias da Vida - Instituto Nacional de Metrologia, Qualidade e Tecnologia (Inmetro), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Wanderley de Souza
- Laboratorio de Ultraestrutura Celular Hertha Meyer, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho - Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Rodríguez-Bejarano OH, Avendaño C, Patarroyo MA. Mechanisms Associated with Trypanosoma cruzi Host Target Cell Adhesion, Recognition and Internalization. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:534. [PMID: 34207491 PMCID: PMC8227291 DOI: 10.3390/life11060534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease is caused by the kinetoplastid parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, which is mainly transmitted by hematophagous insect bites. The parasite's lifecycle has an obligate intracellular phase (amastigotes), while metacyclic and bloodstream-trypomastigotes are its infective forms. Mammalian host cell recognition of the parasite involves the interaction of numerous parasite and host cell plasma membrane molecules and domains (known as lipid rafts), thereby ensuring internalization by activating endocytosis mechanisms triggered by various signaling cascades in both host cells and the parasite. This increases cytoplasmatic Ca2+ and cAMP levels; cytoskeleton remodeling and endosome and lysosome intracellular system association are triggered, leading to parasitophorous vacuole formation. Its membrane becomes modified by containing the parasite's infectious form within it. Once it has become internalized, the parasite seeks parasitophorous vacuole lysis for continuing its intracellular lifecycle, fragmenting such a vacuole's membrane. This review covers the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in T. cruzi adhesion to, recognition of and internalization in host target cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oscar Hernán Rodríguez-Bejarano
- Health Sciences Faculty, Universidad de Ciencias Aplicadas y Ambientales (U.D.C.A), Calle 222#55-37, Bogotá 111166, Colombia;
| | - Catalina Avendaño
- Animal Science Faculty, Universidad de Ciencias Aplicadas y Ambientales (U.D.C.A), Calle 222#55-37, Bogotá 111166, Colombia;
| | - Manuel Alfonso Patarroyo
- Molecular Biology and Immunology Department, Fundación Instituto de Inmunología de Colombia (FIDIC), Carrera 50#26-20, Bogotá 111321, Colombia
- Health Sciences Division, Main Campus, Universidad Santo Tomás, Carrera 9#51-11, Bogotá 110231, Colombia
- Microbiology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Carrera 45#26-85, Bogotá 111321, Colombia
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11
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Choudhury SD. Nano-Medicines a Hope for Chagas Disease! Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:655435. [PMID: 34141721 PMCID: PMC8204082 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.655435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease, is a vector-mediated tropical disease whose causative agent is a parasitic protozoan named Trypanosoma cruzi. It is a very severe health issue in South America and Mexico infecting millions of people every year. Protozoan T. cruzi gets transmitted to human through Triatominae, a subfamily of the Reduviidae, and do not have any effective treatment or preventative available. The lack of economic gains from this tropical parasitic infection, has always been the reason behind its negligence by researchers and drug manufacturers for many decades. Hence there is an enormous requirement for more efficient and novel strategies to reduce the fatality associated with these diseases. Even, available diagnosis protocols are outdated and inefficient and there is an urgent need for rapid high throughput diagnostics as well as management protocol. The current advancement of nanotechnology in the field of healthcare has generated hope for better management of many tropical diseases including Chagas disease. Nanoparticulate systems for drug delivery like poloxamer coated nanosuspension of benzimidazole have shown promising results in reducing toxicity, elevating efficacy and bioavailability of the active compound against the pathogen, by prolonging release, thereby increasing the therapeutic index. Moreover, nanoparticle-based drug delivery has shown promising results in inducing the host’s immune response against the pathogen with very few side effects. Besides, advances in diagnostic assays, such as nanosensors, aided in the accurate detection of the parasite. In this review, we provide an insight into the life cycle stages of the pathogen in both vertebrate host and the insect vector, along with an overview of the current therapy for Chagas disease and its limitations; nano carrier-based delivery systems for antichagasic agents, we also address the advancement of nano vaccines and nano-diagnostic techniques, for treatment of Chagas disease, majorly focusing on the novel perspectives in combating the disease.
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Lander N, Chiurillo MA, Docampo R. Signaling pathways involved in environmental sensing in Trypanosoma cruzi. Mol Microbiol 2021; 115:819-828. [PMID: 33034088 PMCID: PMC8032824 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is a unicellular parasite and the etiologic agent of Chagas disease. The parasite has a digenetic life cycle alternating between mammalian and insect hosts, where it faces a variety of environmental conditions to which it must adapt in order to survive. The adaptation to these changes is mediated by signaling pathways that coordinate the cellular responses to the new environmental settings. Major environmental changes include temperature, nutrient availability, ionic composition, pH, osmolarity, oxidative stress, contact with host cells and tissues, host immune response, and intracellular life. Some of the signaling pathways and second messengers potentially involved in the response to these changes have been elucidated in recent years and will be the subject of this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noelia Lander
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, and Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Miguel A. Chiurillo
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, and Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Roberto Docampo
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, and Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
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Onofre TS, Rodrigues JPF, Shio MT, Macedo S, Juliano MA, Yoshida N. Interaction of Trypanosoma cruzi Gp82 With Host Cell LAMP2 Induces Protein Kinase C Activation and Promotes Invasion. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:627888. [PMID: 33777840 PMCID: PMC7996063 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.627888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The surface molecule gp82 of metacyclic trypomastigote (MT) forms of Trypanosoma cruzi, the protozoan parasite that causes Chagas disease, mediates the host cell invasion, a process critical for the establishment of infection. Gp82 is known to bind to the target cell in a receptor-dependent manner, triggering Ca2+ signal, actin cytoskeleton rearrangement and lysosome spreading. The host cell receptor for gp82 was recently identified as LAMP2, the major lysosome membrane-associated protein. To further clarify the mechanisms of MT invasion, we aimed in this study at identifying the LAMP2 domain that interacts with gp82 and investigated whether target cell PKC and ERK1/2, previously suggested to be implicated in MT invasion, are activated by gp82. Interaction of MT, or the recombinant gp82 (r-gp82), with human epithelial HeLa cells induced the activation of Ca2+-dependent PKC and ERK1/2. The LAMP2 sequence predicted to bind gp82 was mapped and the synthetic peptide based on that sequence inhibited MT invasion, impaired the binding of r-gp82 to HeLa cells, and blocked the PKC and ERK1/2 activation induced by r-gp82. Treatment of HeLa cells with specific inhibitor of focal adhesion kinase resulted in inhibition of r-gp82-induced PKC and ERK1/2 activation, as well as in alteration of the actin cytoskeleton architecture. PKC activation by r-gp82 was also impaired by treatment of HeLa cells with inhibitor of phospholipase C, which mediates the production of diacylglycerol, which activates PKC, and inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate that releases Ca2+ from intracellular stores. Taken together, our results indicate that recognition of MT gp82 by LAMP2 induces in the host cell the activation of phosholipase C, with generation of products that contribute for PKC activation and the downstream ERK1/2. This chain of events leads to the actin cytoskeleton disruption and lysosome spreading, promoting MT internalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thiago Souza Onofre
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - João Paulo Ferreira Rodrigues
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marina Tiemi Shio
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Silene Macedo
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria Aparecida Juliano
- Departamento de Biofísica, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Nobuko Yoshida
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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14
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Ferri G, Edreira MM. All Roads Lead to Cytosol: Trypanosoma cruzi Multi-Strategic Approach to Invasion. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:634793. [PMID: 33747982 PMCID: PMC7973469 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.634793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
T. cruzi has a complex life cycle involving four developmental stages namely, epimastigotes, metacyclic trypomastigotes, amastigotes and bloodstream trypomastigotes. Although trypomastigotes are the infective forms, extracellular amastigotes have also shown the ability to invade host cells. Both stages can invade a broad spectrum of host tissues, in fact, almost any nucleated cell can be the target of infection. To add complexity, the parasite presents high genetic variability with differential characteristics such as infectivity. In this review, we address the several strategies T. cruzi has developed to subvert the host cell signaling machinery in order to gain access to the host cell cytoplasm. Special attention is made to the numerous parasite/host protein interactions and to the set of signaling cascades activated during the formation of a parasite-containing vesicle, the parasitophorous vacuole, from which the parasite escapes to the cytosol, where differentiation and replication take place.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Ferri
- CONICET-Universidad de Buenos Aires, IQUIBICEN, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Martin M Edreira
- CONICET-Universidad de Buenos Aires, IQUIBICEN, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Laboratorio de Biología Molecular de Trypanosoma, Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
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15
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Añez N, Crisante G. The tissue specific tropism in Trypanosoma cruzi. Is it true? Acta Trop 2021; 213:105736. [PMID: 33159898 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Systematic microscopical observations on tissues from mice, inoculated with different Trypanosoma cruzi isolates, were carried out in order to assess whether the parasite expresses tissue-specific tropism, or if it can invade tissues pervasively within the mammal host. A total of ninety mice were included in the study. Sixty, subcutaneously-inoculated with 15 × 104T. cruzi-blood trypomastigotes were dissected and examined daily for detecting and counting parasites during 12 days of acute infection. Additionally, two long-term experiments using mice inoculated with 5 × 103 metacyclic-forms were performed. A group of 10 mice inoculated intraperitoneally and another group of 20 mice inoculated intradermally. Results demonstrated that T. cruzi does not exhibit a tissue-specific tropism, revealing characteristics of a paninfective species able to invade tissues of ectodermal, mesodermal, and endodermal embryonic origin, irrespective of the parasite's lineage, infective form, route of entry, or size of the inoculum causing the host's infection. Details on T. cruzi-tissue invasion, tissue-parasite load during the course time, and the hypothetical potential pseudocyst/amastigote whole-body burden in the murine model is analyzed. The importance of the findings and its interpretation related to human Chagas disease and the tissue-parasite persistence is also discussed.
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Zarzosa-Moreno D, Avalos-Gómez C, Ramírez-Texcalco LS, Torres-López E, Ramírez-Mondragón R, Hernández-Ramírez JO, Serrano-Luna J, de la Garza M. Lactoferrin and Its Derived Peptides: An Alternative for Combating Virulence Mechanisms Developed by Pathogens. Molecules 2020; 25:E5763. [PMID: 33302377 PMCID: PMC7762604 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25245763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to the emergence of multidrug-resistant pathogens, it is necessary to develop options to fight infections caused by these agents. Lactoferrin (Lf) is a cationic nonheme multifunctional glycoprotein of the innate immune system of mammals that provides numerous benefits. Lf is bacteriostatic and/or bactericidal, can stimulate cell proliferation and differentiation, facilitate iron absorption, improve neural development and cognition, promote bone growth, prevent cancer and exert anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory effects. Lactoferrin is present in colostrum and milk and is also produced by the secondary granules of polymorphonuclear leukocytes, which store this glycoprotein and release it at sites of infection. Lf is also present in many fluids and exocrine secretions, on the surfaces of the digestive, respiratory and reproductive systems that are commonly exposed to pathogens. Apo-Lf (an iron-free molecule) can be microbiostatic due to its ability to capture ferric iron, blocking the availability of host iron to pathogens. However, apo-Lf is mostly microbicidal via its interaction with the microbial surface, causing membrane damage and altering its permeability function. Lf can inhibit viral entry by binding to cell receptors or viral particles. Lf is also able to counter different important mechanisms evolved by microbial pathogens to infect and invade the host, such as adherence, colonization, invasion, production of biofilms and production of virulence factors such as proteases and toxins. Lf can also cause mitochondrial and caspase-dependent regulated cell death and apoptosis-like in pathogenic yeasts. All of these mechanisms are important targets for treatment with Lf. Holo-Lf (the iron-saturated molecule) can contain up to two ferric ions and can also be microbicidal against some pathogens. On the other hand, lactoferricins (Lfcins) are peptides derived from the N-terminus of Lf that are produced by proteolysis with pepsin under acidic conditions, and they cause similar effects on pathogens to those caused by the parental Lf. Synthetic analog peptides comprising the N-terminus Lf region similarly exhibit potent antimicrobial properties. Importantly, there are no reported pathogens that are resistant to Lf and Lfcins; in addition, Lf and Lfcins have shown a synergistic effect with antimicrobial and antiviral drugs. Due to the Lf properties being microbiostatic, microbicidal, anti-inflammatory and an immune modulator, it represents an excellent natural alternative either alone or as adjuvant in the combat to antibiotic multidrug-resistant bacteria and other pathogens. This review aimed to evaluate the data that appeared in the literature about the effects of Lf and its derived peptides on pathogenic bacteria, protozoa, fungi and viruses and how Lf and Lfcins inhibit the mechanisms developed by these pathogens to cause disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Zarzosa-Moreno
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), Zacatenco 07360, CdMx, Mexico; (D.Z.-M.); (C.A.-G.); (J.S.-L.)
| | - Christian Avalos-Gómez
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), Zacatenco 07360, CdMx, Mexico; (D.Z.-M.); (C.A.-G.); (J.S.-L.)
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Coyoacán 04510, CdMx, Mexico
| | - Luisa Sofía Ramírez-Texcalco
- Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitlán, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Cuautitlán Izcalli 54714, Estado de México, Mexico; (L.S.R.-T.); (E.T.-L.); (R.R.-M.); (J.O.H.-R.)
| | - Erick Torres-López
- Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitlán, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Cuautitlán Izcalli 54714, Estado de México, Mexico; (L.S.R.-T.); (E.T.-L.); (R.R.-M.); (J.O.H.-R.)
| | - Ricardo Ramírez-Mondragón
- Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitlán, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Cuautitlán Izcalli 54714, Estado de México, Mexico; (L.S.R.-T.); (E.T.-L.); (R.R.-M.); (J.O.H.-R.)
| | - Juan Omar Hernández-Ramírez
- Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitlán, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Cuautitlán Izcalli 54714, Estado de México, Mexico; (L.S.R.-T.); (E.T.-L.); (R.R.-M.); (J.O.H.-R.)
| | - Jesús Serrano-Luna
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), Zacatenco 07360, CdMx, Mexico; (D.Z.-M.); (C.A.-G.); (J.S.-L.)
| | - Mireya de la Garza
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), Zacatenco 07360, CdMx, Mexico; (D.Z.-M.); (C.A.-G.); (J.S.-L.)
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Velásquez-Ortiz N, Ramírez JD. Understanding the oral transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi as a veterinary and medical foodborne zoonosis. Res Vet Sci 2020; 132:448-461. [PMID: 32781335 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2020.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Chagas disease is a neglected tropical disease transmitted by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi that lately has been highlighted because several outbreaks attributed to oral transmission of the parasite have occurred. These outbreaks are characterized by high mortality rates and massive infections that cannot be related to other types of transmission such as the vectorial route. Oral transmission of Chagas disease has been reported in Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia, Ecuador, Argentina and French Guiana, most of them are massive oral outbreaks caused by the ingestion of beverages and food contaminated with triatomine feces or parasites' reservoirs secretions and considered since 2012 as a foodborne disease. In this review, we present the current status and all available data regarding oral transmission of Chagas disease, highlighting its relevance as a veterinary and medical foodborne zoonosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Velásquez-Ortiz
- Grupo de Investigaciones Microbiológicas-UR (GIMUR), Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Juan David Ramírez
- Grupo de Investigaciones Microbiológicas-UR (GIMUR), Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, Colombia.
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18
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Altamura F, Rajesh R, Catta-Preta CMC, Moretti NS, Cestari I. The current drug discovery landscape for trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis: Challenges and strategies to identify drug targets. Drug Dev Res 2020; 83:225-252. [PMID: 32249457 DOI: 10.1002/ddr.21664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Revised: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Human trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis are vector-borne neglected tropical diseases caused by infection with the protozoan parasites Trypanosoma spp. and Leishmania spp., respectively. Once restricted to endemic areas, these diseases are now distributed worldwide due to human migration, climate change, and anthropogenic disturbance, causing significant health and economic burden globally. The current chemotherapy used to treat these diseases has limited efficacy, and drug resistance is spreading. Hence, new drugs are urgently needed. Phenotypic compound screenings have prevailed as the leading method to discover new drug candidates against these diseases. However, the publication of the complete genome sequences of multiple strains, advances in the application of CRISPR/Cas9 technology, and in vivo bioluminescence-based imaging have set the stage for advancing target-based drug discovery. This review analyses the limitations of the narrow pool of available drugs presently used for treating these diseases. It describes the current drug-based clinical trials highlighting the most promising leads. Furthermore, the review presents a focused discussion on the most important biological and pharmacological challenges that target-based drug discovery programs must overcome to advance drug candidates. Finally, it examines the advantages and limitations of modern research tools designed to identify and validate essential genes as drug targets, including genomic editing applications and in vivo imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Altamura
- Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, Ste Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
| | - Rishi Rajesh
- Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, Ste Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
| | | | - Nilmar S Moretti
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Igor Cestari
- Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, Ste Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
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19
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Horta MF, Andrade LO, Martins-Duarte ÉS, Castro-Gomes T. Cell invasion by intracellular parasites - the many roads to infection. J Cell Sci 2020; 133:133/4/jcs232488. [PMID: 32079731 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.232488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Intracellular parasites from the genera Toxoplasma, Plasmodium, Trypanosoma, Leishmania and from the phylum Microsporidia are, respectively, the causative agents of toxoplasmosis, malaria, Chagas disease, leishmaniasis and microsporidiosis, illnesses that kill millions of people around the globe. Crossing the host cell plasma membrane (PM) is an obstacle these parasites must overcome to establish themselves intracellularly and so cause diseases. The mechanisms of cell invasion are quite diverse and include (1) formation of moving junctions that drive parasites into host cells, as for the protozoans Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium spp., (2) subversion of endocytic pathways used by the host cell to repair PM, as for Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania, (3) induction of phagocytosis as for Leishmania or (4) endocytosis of parasites induced by specialized structures, such as the polar tubes present in microsporidian species. Understanding the early steps of cell entry is essential for the development of vaccines and drugs for the prevention or treatment of these diseases, and thus enormous research efforts have been made to unveil their underlying biological mechanisms. This Review will focus on these mechanisms and the factors involved, with an emphasis on the recent insights into the cell biology of invasion by these pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Fátima Horta
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, CEP 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Luciana Oliveira Andrade
- Departamento de Morfologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, CEP 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Érica Santos Martins-Duarte
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, CEP 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Thiago Castro-Gomes
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, CEP 31270-901, Brazil
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20
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Benaim G, Paniz-Mondolfi AE, Sordillo EM, Martinez-Sotillo N. Disruption of Intracellular Calcium Homeostasis as a Therapeutic Target Against Trypanosoma cruzi. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:46. [PMID: 32133302 PMCID: PMC7040492 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Accepted: 01/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
There is no effective cure for Chagas disease, which is caused by infection with the arthropod-borne parasite, Trypanosoma cruzi. In the search for new drugs to treat Chagas disease, potential therapeutic targets have been identified by exploiting the differences between the mechanisms involved in intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis, both in humans and in trypanosomatids. In the trypanosomatid, intracellular Ca2+ regulation requires the concerted action of three intracellular organelles, the endoplasmic reticulum, the single unique mitochondrion, and the acidocalcisomes. The single unique mitochondrion and the acidocalcisomes also play central roles in parasite bioenergetics. At the parasite plasma membrane, a Ca2+-−ATPase (PMCA) with significant differences from its human counterpart is responsible for Ca2+ extrusion; a distinctive sphingosine-activated Ca2+ channel controls Ca2+ entrance to the parasite interior. Several potential anti-trypansosomatid drugs have been demonstrated to modulate one or more of these mechanisms for Ca2+ regulation. The antiarrhythmic agent amiodarone and its derivatives have been shown to exert trypanocidal effects through the disruption of parasite Ca2+ homeostasis. Similarly, the amiodarone-derivative dronedarone disrupts Ca2+ homeostasis in T. cruzi epimastigotes, collapsing the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), and inducing a large increase in the intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) from this organelle and from the acidocalcisomes in the parasite cytoplasm. The same general mechanism has been demonstrated for SQ109, a new anti-tuberculosis drug with potent trypanocidal effect. Miltefosine similarly induces a large increase in the [Ca2+]i acting on the sphingosine-activated Ca2+ channel, the mitochondrion and acidocalcisomes. These examples, in conjunction with other evidence we review herein, strongly support targeting Ca2+ homeostasis as a strategy against Chagas disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo Benaim
- Instituto de Estudios Avanzados, Caracas, Venezuela.,Facultad de Ciencias, Instituto de Biología Experimental, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Alberto E Paniz-Mondolfi
- Instituto de Estudios Avanzados, Caracas, Venezuela.,Department of Pathology, Molecular, and Cell-Based Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
| | - Emilia Mia Sordillo
- Department of Pathology, Molecular, and Cell-Based Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States.,Institute for Health Sciences, Mount Sinai St. Luke's & Mount Sinai West, New York, NY, United States
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Trypanosoma cruzi Mexican Strains Differentially Modulate Surface Markers and Cytokine Production in Bone Marrow-Derived Dendritic Cells from C57BL/6 and BALB/c Mice. Mediators Inflamm 2019; 2019:7214798. [PMID: 31636507 PMCID: PMC6766131 DOI: 10.1155/2019/7214798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2019] [Revised: 06/08/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are a type of antigen-presenting cells that play an important role in the immune response against Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease. In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that the modulation of these cells by this parasite can directly affect the innate and acquired immune response of the host in order to facilitate its biological cycle and the spreading of the species. Many studies show the mechanisms by which T. cruzi modulates DCs, but the interaction of these cells with the Mexican strains of T. cruzi such as Ninoa and INC5 has not yet been properly investigated. Here, we evaluated whether Ninoa and INC5 strains evaded the immunity of their hosts by modulating the biology and function of murine DCs. The CL-Brener strain was used as the reference strain. Herein, it was demonstrated that Ninoa was more infective toward bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) than INC5 and CL-Brener strains in both BMDCs of BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice. Mexican strains of T. cruzi induced different cytokine patterns. In BMDCs obtained from BALB/c mice, Ninoa strain led to the reduction in IL-6 and increased IL-10 production, while in C57BL/6 mice Ninoa strain considerably increased the productions of TNF-α and IL-10. Also, Ninoa and INC5 differentially modulated BMDC expressions of MHC-II, TLR2, and TLR4 in both BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice compared to Brazilian strain CL-Brener. These results indicate that T. cruzi Mexican strains differentially infect and modulate MHC-II, toll-like receptors, and cytokine production in DCs obtained from C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice, suggesting that these strains have developed particular modulatory strategies to disrupt DCs and, consequently, the host immune responses.
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22
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Andrade LO. Plasma membrane repair involvement in parasitic and other pathogen infections. CURRENT TOPICS IN MEMBRANES 2019; 84:217-238. [PMID: 31610864 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctm.2019.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Intracellular pathogens depend on specific mechanisms to be able to gain entry and survive into their host cells. For this, they subvert pathways involved in physiological cellular processes. Here we are going to focus on how two protozoan parasites, Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania sp, which may cause severe diseases in humans, use plasma membrane repair (PMR) mechanisms to gain entry in host intracellular environment. T. cruzi is the causative agent of Chagas disease, a disease originally endemic of central and South America, but that has become widespread around the globe. T. cruzi is able to invade any nucleated cell, but muscle cells are usually the main targets during chronic disease. During host cell contact, the parasite interacts with proteins at the host cell surface and may cause damage to their membrane, which has been shown to be responsible for inducing intracellular calcium increase and PMR-related events that culminate with parasite internalization. The same was recently observed for Leishmania sp, when infecting nonprofessional phagocytic cells, such as fibroblasts. Other pathogens, such as viruses or bacteria may also use PMR-related events for invasion and vacuole escape/maturation. In some cases, PMR may also be responsible to modulate pathogen intracellular development. These other PMR roles in pathogen infections will also be briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciana O Andrade
- Department of Morphology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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Signal peptide recognition in Trypanosoma cruzi GP82 adhesin relies on its localization at protein N-terminus. Sci Rep 2019; 9:7325. [PMID: 31086219 PMCID: PMC6513831 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-43743-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease, has a dense coat of GPI-anchored virulence factors. T. cruzi GPI-anchored adhesin GP82 is encoded by a repertoire of transcripts containing several in-frame initiation codons located up-stream from that adjacent to the predicted signal peptide (SP). Transfection of T. cruzi epimastigotes with constructs encoding GP82 starting at the SP or from the farthest up-stream methionine confirmed protein expression on the parasite cell surface, comparable to the native GP82. Proteins were fully functional, inducing parasite adhesion to HeLa cells and lysosome mobilization, events required for parasite invasion. Transgenic and native GP82 proteins showed indistinguishable electrophoretic mobility, suggesting similar processing of the SP. Deletion of SP generated a ~72 kDa protein devoid of N-linked oligosaccharides allowing irrefutable identification of GP82 precursor. SP transposition to an internal region of GP82 rendered the signal unrecognizable by the signal peptidase and incapable to direct the nascent protein for ER-membrane association. Altogether our data strongly suggests that GP82 SP fails to function as transmembrane domain and its recognition by the signal peptidase shows strict dependence on the signal localization at protein N-terminus. This report presents the first experimental characterization of the full-length GP82 and its signal peptide.
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Bradwell KR, Koparde VN, Matveyev AV, Serrano MG, Alves JMP, Parikh H, Huang B, Lee V, Espinosa-Alvarez O, Ortiz PA, Costa-Martins AG, Teixeira MMG, Buck GA. Genomic comparison of Trypanosoma conorhini and Trypanosoma rangeli to Trypanosoma cruzi strains of high and low virulence. BMC Genomics 2018; 19:770. [PMID: 30355302 PMCID: PMC6201504 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-018-5112-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Trypanosoma conorhini and Trypanosoma rangeli, like Trypanosoma cruzi, are kinetoplastid protist parasites of mammals displaying divergent hosts, geographic ranges and lifestyles. Largely nonpathogenic T. rangeli and T. conorhini represent clades that are phylogenetically closely related to the T. cruzi and T. cruzi-like taxa and provide insights into the evolution of pathogenicity in those parasites. T. rangeli, like T. cruzi is endemic in many Latin American countries, whereas T. conorhini is tropicopolitan. T. rangeli and T. conorhini are exclusively extracellular, while T. cruzi has an intracellular stage in the mammalian host. Results Here we provide the first comprehensive sequence analysis of T. rangeli AM80 and T. conorhini 025E, and provide a comparison of their genomes to those of T. cruzi G and T. cruzi CL, respectively members of T. cruzi lineages TcI and TcVI. We report de novo assembled genome sequences of the low-virulent T. cruzi G, T. rangeli AM80, and T. conorhini 025E ranging from ~ 21–25 Mbp, with ~ 10,000 to 13,000 genes, and for the highly virulent and hybrid T. cruzi CL we present a ~ 65 Mbp in-house assembled haplotyped genome with ~ 12,500 genes per haplotype. Single copy orthologs of the two T. cruzi strains exhibited ~ 97% amino acid identity, and ~ 78% identity to proteins of T. rangeli or T. conorhini. Proteins of the latter two organisms exhibited ~ 84% identity. T. cruzi CL exhibited the highest heterozygosity. T. rangeli and T. conorhini displayed greater metabolic capabilities for utilization of complex carbohydrates, and contained fewer retrotransposons and multigene family copies, i.e. trans-sialidases, mucins, DGF-1, and MASP, compared to T. cruzi. Conclusions Our analyses of the T. rangeli and T. conorhini genomes closely reflected their phylogenetic proximity to the T. cruzi clade, and were largely consistent with their divergent life cycles. Our results provide a greater context for understanding the life cycles, host range expansion, immunity evasion, and pathogenesis of these trypanosomatids. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-018-5112-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie R Bradwell
- Center for the Study of Biological Complexity, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA.,Present address: Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Vishal N Koparde
- Center for the Study of Biological Complexity, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Andrey V Matveyev
- Center for the Study of Biological Complexity, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Myrna G Serrano
- Center for the Study of Biological Complexity, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - João M P Alves
- Department of Parasitology, ICB, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Hardik Parikh
- Center for the Study of Biological Complexity, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Bernice Huang
- Center for the Study of Biological Complexity, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Vladimir Lee
- Center for the Study of Biological Complexity, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
| | | | - Paola A Ortiz
- Department of Parasitology, ICB, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Marta M G Teixeira
- Department of Parasitology, ICB, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Gregory A Buck
- Center for the Study of Biological Complexity, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA. .,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA.
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25
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Inhibition of Host Cell Lysosome Spreading by Trypanosoma cruzi Metacyclic Stage-Specific Surface Molecule gp90 Downregulates Parasite Invasion. Infect Immun 2017; 85:IAI.00302-17. [PMID: 28607099 PMCID: PMC5563561 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00302-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2017] [Accepted: 06/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Successful infection by Trypanosoma cruzi, the agent of Chagas' disease, is critically dependent on host cell invasion by metacyclic trypomastigote (MT) forms. Two main metacyclic stage-specific surface molecules, gp82 and gp90, play determinant roles in target cell invasion in vitro and in oral T. cruzi infection in mice. The structure and properties of gp82, which is highly conserved among T. cruzi strains, are well known. Information on gp90 is still rather sparse. Here, we attempted to fill that gap. gp90, purified from poorly invasive G strain MT and expressing gp90 at high levels, inhibited HeLa cell lysosome spreading and the gp82-mediated internalization of a highly invasive CL strain MT expressing low levels of a diverse gp90 molecule. A recombinant protein containing the conserved C-terminal domain of gp90 exhibited the same properties as the native G strain gp90: it counteracted the host cell lysosome spreading induced by recombinant gp82 and exhibited an inhibitory effect on HeLa cell invasion by CL strain MT. Assays to identify the gp90 sequence associated with the property of downregulating MT invasion, using synthetic peptides spanning the gp90 C-terminal domain, revealed the sequence GVLYTADKEW. These data, plus the findings that lysosome spreading was induced upon HeLa cell interaction with CL strain MT, but not with G strain MT, and that in mixed infection CL strain MT internalization was inhibited by G strain MT, suggest that the inhibition of target cell lysosome spreading is the mechanism by which the gp90 molecule exerts its downregulatory role.
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26
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Pech-Canul ÁDLC, Monteón V, Solís-Oviedo RL. A Brief View of the Surface Membrane Proteins from Trypanosoma cruzi. J Parasitol Res 2017; 2017:3751403. [PMID: 28656101 PMCID: PMC5474541 DOI: 10.1155/2017/3751403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2017] [Revised: 03/31/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is the causal agent of Chagas' disease which affects millions of people around the world mostly in Central and South America. T. cruzi expresses a wide variety of proteins on its surface membrane which has an important role in the biology of these parasites. Surface molecules of the parasites are the result of the environment to which the parasites are exposed during their life cycle. Hence, T. cruzi displays several modifications when they move from one host to another. Due to the complexity of this parasite's cell surface, this review presents some membrane proteins organized as large families, as they are the most abundant and/or relevant throughout the T. cruzi membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ángel de la Cruz Pech-Canul
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, The University of Nottingham, University Park, University Blvd, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Victor Monteón
- Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, Av. Patricio Trueba s/n, Col. Lindavista, 24039 Campeche, CAM, Mexico
| | - Rosa-Lidia Solís-Oviedo
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, The University of Nottingham, University Park, University Blvd, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
- Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, Av. Patricio Trueba s/n, Col. Lindavista, 24039 Campeche, CAM, Mexico
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27
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Beta-adrenergic antagonist propranolol inhibits mammalian cell lysosome spreading and invasion by Trypanosoma cruzi metacyclic forms. Microbes Infect 2017; 19:295-301. [PMID: 28111357 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2017.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Revised: 01/10/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The involvement of β-adrenergic receptor (β-AR) in host cell invasion by Trypanosoma cruzi metacyclic trypomastigote (MT) is not known. We examined whether isoproterenol, an agonist of β-AR, or nonselective β-blocker propranolol affected MT internalization mediated the stage-specific surface molecule gp82. Treatment of HeLa cells with propranolol significantly inhibited MT invasion whereas isoproterenol had no effect. Propranolol, but not isoproterenol, also inhibited the lysosome spreading required for gp82-dependent MT invasion. The effect of propranolol in inhibiting MT internalization was not due to the prevention of gp82 interaction with β-AR. It was mainly associated with its ability to impair lysosome spreading.
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28
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Borges BC, Uehara IA, Dias LOS, Brígido PC, da Silva CV, Silva MJB. Mechanisms of Infectivity and Evasion Derived from Microvesicles Cargo Produced by Trypanosoma cruzi. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2016; 6:161. [PMID: 27921011 PMCID: PMC5118865 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2016.00161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell invasion by the intracellular protozoans requires interaction of proteins from both the host and the parasite. Many parasites establish chronic infections, showing they have the potential to escape the immune system; for example, Trypanosoma cruzi is an intracellular parasite that causes Chagas disease. Parasite internalization into host cell requires secreted and surface molecules, such as microvesicles. The release of microvesicles and other vesicles, such as exosomes, by different eukaryotic organisms was first observed in the late twentieth century. The characterization and function of these vesicles have recently been the focus of several investigations. In this review, we discuss the release of microvesicles by T. cruzi. The molecular content of these vesicles is composed of several molecules that take place during parasite-host cell interaction and contribute to the parasite-driven mechanism of evasion from the host immune system. These new findings appear to have a profound impact on the comprehension of T. cruzi biology and highlight novel potential strategies for developing more efficient therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruna C Borges
- Laboratório de Osteoimunologia e Imunologia dos Tumores, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de UberlândiaUberlândia, Brazil; Laboratório de Tripanossomatídeos, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de UberlândiaUberlândia, Brazil
| | - Isadora A Uehara
- Laboratório de Osteoimunologia e Imunologia dos Tumores, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Laysa O S Dias
- Laboratório de Osteoimunologia e Imunologia dos Tumores, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Paula C Brígido
- Laboratório de Tripanossomatídeos, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Claudio V da Silva
- Laboratório de Tripanossomatídeos, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - Marcelo J B Silva
- Laboratório de Osteoimunologia e Imunologia dos Tumores, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia Uberlândia, Brazil
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29
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Balouz V, Agüero F, Buscaglia CA. Chagas Disease Diagnostic Applications: Present Knowledge and Future Steps. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2016; 97:1-45. [PMID: 28325368 PMCID: PMC5363286 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apar.2016.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, is a lifelong and debilitating illness of major significance throughout Latin America and an emergent threat to global public health. Being a neglected disease, the vast majority of Chagasic patients have limited access to proper diagnosis and treatment, and there is only a marginal investment into R&D for drug and vaccine development. In this context, identification of novel biomarkers able to transcend the current limits of diagnostic methods surfaces as a main priority in Chagas disease applied research. The expectation is that these novel biomarkers will provide reliable, reproducible and accurate results irrespective of the genetic background, infecting parasite strain, stage of disease, and clinical-associated features of Chagasic populations. In addition, they should be able to address other still unmet diagnostic needs, including early detection of congenital T. cruzi transmission, rapid assessment of treatment efficiency or failure, indication/prediction of disease progression and direct parasite typification in clinical samples. The lack of access of poor and neglected populations to essential diagnostics also stresses the necessity of developing new methods operational in point-of-care settings. In summary, emergent diagnostic tests integrating these novel and tailored tools should provide a significant impact on the effectiveness of current intervention schemes and on the clinical management of Chagasic patients. In this chapter, we discuss the present knowledge and possible future steps in Chagas disease diagnostic applications, as well as the opportunity provided by recent advances in high-throughput methods for biomarker discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Balouz
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas - Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (IIB-INTECH), Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), San Martín, B 1650 HMP, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Fernán Agüero
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas - Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (IIB-INTECH), Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), San Martín, B 1650 HMP, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Carlos A. Buscaglia
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas - Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (IIB-INTECH), Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), San Martín, B 1650 HMP, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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30
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Clemente TM, Cortez C, Novaes ADS, Yoshida N. Surface Molecules Released by Trypanosoma cruzi Metacyclic Forms Downregulate Host Cell Invasion. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0004883. [PMID: 27483135 PMCID: PMC4970754 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2016] [Accepted: 07/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The question whether metacylic trypomastigote (MT) forms of different T. cruzi strains differentially release surface molecules, and how they affect host cell invasion, remains to be fully clarified. We addressed that question using T. cruzi strains that differ widely in the ability to invade cells. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Metacyclic forms were incubated at 37°C for 1 h in complete D10 medium or in nutrient-deprived PBS containing Ca2+ and Mg2+ (PBS++). The conditioned medium (CM), collected after parasite centrifugation, was used for cell invasion assays and Western blot analysis, using monoclonal antibodies directed to gp82 and gp90, the MT surface molecules that promote and negatively regulate invasion, respectively. CM of poorly invasive G strain (G-CM) contained high amounts of gp90 and gp82, either in vesicles or as soluble molecules. CM of highly invasive CL strain (CL-CM) contained gp90 and gp82 at very low levels. HeLa cells were incubated for 1 h with CL strain MT in D10, in absence or in the presence of G-CM or CL-CM. Parasite invasion was significantly inhibited by G-CM, but not by CL-CM. As G strain MT invasion rate in D10 is very low, assays with this strain were performed in PBS++, which induces invasion-promoting lysosome-spreading. G-CM, but not CL-CM, significantly inhibited G strain internalization, effect that was counteracted by preincubating G-CM with an anti-gp90 monoclonal antibody or anti-gp82 polyclonal antibody that do not recognize live MT. G strain CM generated in PBS++ contained much lower amounts of gp90 and gp82 as compared to CM produced in D10, and exhibited lower inhibitory effect on host cell invasion. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE Our data suggest that the surface molecules spontaneously released by MT impair parasite-host cell interaction, gp82 presumably competing with the molecule expressed on MT surface for the host cell receptor, and gp90 further contributing to down modulate invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Mordente Clemente
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Cristian Cortez
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil
| | | | - Nobuko Yoshida
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil
- * E-mail:
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31
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Cortez C, Real F, Yoshida N. Lysosome biogenesis/scattering increases host cell susceptibility to invasion by Trypanosoma cruzi metacyclic forms and resistance to tissue culture trypomastigotes. Cell Microbiol 2016; 18:748-60. [PMID: 26572924 PMCID: PMC5064668 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2015] [Revised: 10/08/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
A fundamental question to be clarified concerning the host cell invasion by Trypanosoma cruzi is whether the insect-borne and mammalian-stage parasites use similar mechanisms for invasion. To address that question, we analysed the cell invasion capacity of metacyclic trypomastigotes (MT) and tissue culture trypomastigotes (TCT) under diverse conditions. Incubation of parasites for 1 h with HeLa cells in nutrient-deprived medium, a condition that triggered lysosome biogenesis and scattering, increased MT invasion and reduced TCT entry into cells. Sucrose-induced lysosome biogenesis increased HeLa cell susceptibility to MT and resistance to TCT. Treatment of cells with rapamycin, which inhibits mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), induced perinuclear lysosome accumulation and reduced MT invasion while augmenting TCT invasion. Metacylic trypomastigotes, but not TCT, induced mTOR dephosphorylation and the nuclear translocation of transcription factor EB (TFEB), a mTOR-associated lysosome biogenesis regulator. Lysosome biogenesis/scattering was stimulated upon HeLa cell interaction with MT but not with TCT. Recently, internalized MT, but not TCT, were surrounded by colocalized lysosome marker LAMP2 and mTOR. The recombinant gp82 protein, the MT-specific surface molecule that mediates invasion, induced mTOR dephosphorylation, nuclear TFEB translocation and lysosome biogenesis/scattering. Taken together, our data clearly indicate that MT invasion is mainly lysosome-dependent, whereas TCT entry is predominantly lysosome-independent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristian Cortez
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Pedro de Toledo, 669-6° andar, 04039-032, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Fernando Real
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Pedro de Toledo, 669-6° andar, 04039-032, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Nobuko Yoshida
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Pedro de Toledo, 669-6° andar, 04039-032, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Ferreira ÉR, Horjales E, Bonfim-Melo A, Cortez C, da Silva CV, De Groote M, Sobreira TJP, Cruz MC, Lima FM, Cordero EM, Yoshida N, da Silveira JF, Mortara RA, Bahia D. Unique behavior of Trypanosoma cruzi mevalonate kinase: A conserved glycosomal enzyme involved in host cell invasion and signaling. Sci Rep 2016; 6:24610. [PMID: 27113535 PMCID: PMC4845012 DOI: 10.1038/srep24610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2015] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Mevalonate kinase (MVK) is an essential enzyme acting in early steps of sterol isoprenoids biosynthesis, such as cholesterol in humans or ergosterol in trypanosomatids. MVK is conserved from bacteria to mammals, and localizes to glycosomes in trypanosomatids. During the course of T. cruzi MVK characterization, we found that, in addition to glycosomes, this enzyme may be secreted and modulate cell invasion. To evaluate the role of TcMVK in parasite-host cell interactions, TcMVK recombinant protein was produced and anti-TcMVK antibodies were raised in mice. TcMVK protein was detected in the supernatant of cultures of metacyclic trypomastigotes (MTs) and extracellular amastigotes (EAs) by Western blot analysis, confirming its secretion into extracellular medium. Recombinant TcMVK bound in a non-saturable dose-dependent manner to HeLa cells and positively modulated internalization of T. cruzi EAs but inhibited invasion by MTs. In HeLa cells, TcMVK induced phosphorylation of MAPK pathway components and proteins related to actin cytoskeleton modifications. We hypothesized that TcMVK is a bifunctional enzyme that in addition to playing a classical role in isoprenoid synthesis in glycosomes, it is secreted and may modulate host cell signaling required for T. cruzi invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Éden Ramalho Ferreira
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Alexis Bonfim-Melo
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Cristian Cortez
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Claudio Vieira da Silva
- Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, MG, Brazil
| | | | | | - Mário Costa Cruz
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Fabio Mitsuo Lima
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Esteban Mauricio Cordero
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Nobuko Yoshida
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - José Franco da Silveira
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Renato Arruda Mortara
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Diana Bahia
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.,Departamento de Biologia Geral, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, MG, Brazil
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Molecular Characterization of a Novel Family of Trypanosoma cruzi Surface Membrane Proteins (TcSMP) Involved in Mammalian Host Cell Invasion. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0004216. [PMID: 26565791 PMCID: PMC4643927 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The surface coat of Trypanosoma cruzi is predominantly composed of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins, which have been extensively characterized. However, very little is known about less abundant surface proteins and their role in host-parasite interactions. Methodology/ Principal Findings Here, we described a novel family of T. cruzi surface membrane proteins (TcSMP), which are conserved among different T. cruzi lineages and have orthologs in other Trypanosoma species. TcSMP genes are densely clustered within the genome, suggesting that they could have originated by tandem gene duplication. Several lines of evidence indicate that TcSMP is a membrane-spanning protein located at the cellular surface and is released into the extracellular milieu. TcSMP exhibited the key elements typical of surface proteins (N-terminal signal peptide or signal anchor) and a C-terminal hydrophobic sequence predicted to be a trans-membrane domain. Immunofluorescence of live parasites showed that anti-TcSMP antibodies clearly labeled the surface of all T. cruzi developmental forms. TcSMP peptides previously found in a membrane-enriched fraction were identified by proteomic analysis in membrane vesicles as well as in soluble forms in the T. cruzi secretome. TcSMP proteins were also located intracellularly likely associated with membrane-bound structures. We demonstrated that TcSMP proteins were capable of inhibiting metacyclic trypomastigote entry into host cells. TcSMP bound to mammalian cells and triggered Ca2+ signaling and lysosome exocytosis, events that are required for parasitophorous vacuole biogenesis. The effects of TcSMP were of lower magnitude compared to gp82, the major adhesion protein of metacyclic trypomastigotes, suggesting that TcSMP may play an auxiliary role in host cell invasion. Conclusion/Significance We hypothesized that the productive interaction of T. cruzi with host cells that effectively results in internalization may depend on diverse adhesion molecules. In the metacyclic forms, the signaling induced by TcSMP may be additive to that triggered by the major surface molecule gp82, further increasing the host cell responses required for infection. Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiologic agent of Chagas’ disease, which infects 6–7 million people worldwide, mostly in Latin America. Currently, there are no vaccines available, and the drugs used for treatment are toxic and are not fully effective. To infect mammalian hosts, T. cruzi relies on the ability to invade host cells, replicate intracellularly and spread the infection in different organs of the mammalian host. Knowledge of the structure and function of T. cruzi surface molecules is fundamental to understanding the mechanisms by which the parasite interacts with its host. T. cruzi infective forms engage a repertoire of surface and secreted molecules, some of which are involved in triggering signaling pathways both in the parasite and the host cell, leading to intracellular Ca2+ mobilization, a process essential for parasite internalization. Here, we described a novel family of T. cruzi surface membrane proteins (TcSMP), including their genomic distribution, expression and cellular localization. We studied the mechanism of action of TcSMP in host-cell invasion and proposed a triggering role for TcSMP in host-cell lysosome exocytosis during metacyclic internalization. TcSMP genes are conserved among different T. cruzi lineages and share orthologs in other Trypanosoma species. These results suggest that the diversification of TcSMP genes in mammalian trypanosomes occurred after continental drift. In T. cruzi this gene family expanded by gene duplication.
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Rodríguez-Angulo HO, Toro-Mendoza J, Marques JA, Concepción JL, Bonfante-Cabarcas R, Higuerey Y, Thomas LE, Balzano-Nogueira L, López JR, Mijares A. Evidence of reversible bradycardia and arrhythmias caused by immunogenic proteins secreted by T. cruzi in isolated rat hearts. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0003512. [PMID: 25647069 PMCID: PMC4315581 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2014] [Accepted: 01/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Rationale Chagas cardiomyopathy, caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, is characterized by alterations in intracellular ion, heart failure and arrhythmias. Arrhythmias have been related to sudden death, even in asymptomatic patients, and their molecular mechanisms have not been fully elucidated. Objective The aim of this study is to demonstrate the effect of proteins secreted by T. cruzi on healthy, isolated beating rat heart model under a non-damage-inducing protocol. Methods and Results We established a non-damage-inducing recirculation-reoxygenation model where ultrafiltrate fractions of conditioned medium control or conditioned infected medium were perfused at a standard flow rate and under partial oxygenation. Western blotting with chagasic patient serum was performed to determine the antigenicity of the conditioned infected medium fractions. We observed bradycardia, ventricular fibrillation and complete atrioventricular block in hearts during perfusion with >50 kDa conditioned infected culture medium. The preincubation of conditioned infected medium with chagasic serum abolished the bradycardia and arrhythmias. The proteins present in the conditioned infected culture medium of >50 kDa fractions were recognized by the chagasic patient sera associated with arrhythmias. Conclusions These results suggest that proteins secreted by T. cruzi are involved in Chagas disease arrhythmias and may be a potential biomarker in chagasic patients. Chagas disease, caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, is an endemic disease of Latin-American countries, affecting an estimated 8 million people in 21 countries. It is spread by the bite of triatomine reduvid bug. Due to immigration towards non-endemic regions, the disease can spread and affect people around the world via blood transfusions. Infection usually occurs in childhood, and some patients may develop acute myocarditis; however, most remain asymptomatic for many years before chronic cardiac and/or gastrointestinal manifestations appear. Chagas disease is characterized by an acute phase, which is generally asymptomatic, or oligosymptomatic, an indeterminate phase, which may persist for several years, and a chronic phase in which dilated cardiomyopathy and arrhythmias are primarily observed and sudden death may occur. Once heart failure develops, death usually occurs within several years. In this work, we demonstrate the pathophysiological role of proteins secreted by T. cruzi on cardiac arrhythmias. The antigenicity of these fractions was tested by an immunological test using chagasic patients’ sera associated with arrhythmias. We showed that perfusion of the proteins secreted by T. cruzi, in an isolated beating rat heart model, induced cardiac arrhythmias such as bradycardia and complete atrioventricular block.
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Affiliation(s)
- Héctor O. Rodríguez-Angulo
- Laboratorio de Fisiología de Parásitos, Centro de Biofísica y Bioquímica, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Jhoan Toro-Mendoza
- Centro de Estudios Interdisciplinarios de la Física. Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Juan A. Marques
- Servicio de Cardiología, Instituto de Medicina Tropical, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Juan L. Concepción
- Laboratorio de Enzimología de Parásitos, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Los Andes, Mérida, Venezuela
| | - Rafael Bonfante-Cabarcas
- Unidad de Investigaciones en Bioquímica, Decanato de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Centroccidental “Lisandro Alvarado”, Barquisimeto, Venezuela
| | - Yoliver Higuerey
- Servicio de Cultivos de Células y Tejidos, Centro de Biofísica y Bioquímica, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Luz E. Thomas
- Laboratorio de Fisiología Molecular Centro de Biofísica y Bioquímica, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - Leandro Balzano-Nogueira
- Unidad de Agronomía y Soberanía Agroalimentaria, Instituto de Estudios Avanzados (IDEA), Caracas, Venezuela
| | - José R. López
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Alfredo Mijares
- Laboratorio de Fisiología de Parásitos, Centro de Biofísica y Bioquímica, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Caracas, Venezuela
- * E-mail: ,
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Immunomodulation by Trypanosoma cruzi: toward understanding the association of dendritic cells with infecting TcI and TcII populations. J Immunol Res 2014; 2014:962047. [PMID: 25371910 PMCID: PMC4211313 DOI: 10.1155/2014/962047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2014] [Revised: 08/12/2014] [Accepted: 09/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are major immune components, and depending on how these cells are modulated, the protective host immune response changes drastically. Trypanosoma cruzi is a parasite with high genetic variability and modulates DCs by interfering with their capacity for antigen recognition, migration, and maturation. Despite recent efforts, the association between DCs and T. cruzi I (TcI) and TcII populations is unknown. Herein, it was demonstrated that AQ1.7 and MUTUM TcI strains present low rates of invasion of bone marrow-derived DCs, whereas the 1849 and 2369 TcII strains present higher rates. Whereas the four strains similarly induced the expression of PD-L1, the production and expression of IL-10 and TLR-2, respectively, in DCs were differentially increased. The production of TNF-α, IL-12, IL-6, and CCL2 and the expression of CD40, CD80, MHC-II, CCR5, and CCR7 changed depending on the strain. The 2369 strain yielded the most remarkable results because greater invasion correlated with an increase in the levels of anti-inflammatory molecules IL-10 and PD-L1 but not with a change in the levels of TNF-α, MHC-II, or CD40 molecules. These results suggest that T. cruzi strains belonging to different populations have evolved specific evasion strategies that subvert DCs and consequently the host response.
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Meza SKL, Kaneshima EN, Silva SDO, Gabriel M, de Araújo SM, Gomes ML, Monteiro WM, Barbosa MDGV, Toledo MJDO. Comparative pathogenicity in Swiss mice of Trypanosoma cruzi IV from northern Brazil and Trypanosoma cruzi II from southern Brazil. Exp Parasitol 2014; 146:34-42. [PMID: 25296157 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2014.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2013] [Revised: 07/28/2014] [Accepted: 08/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The geographical heterogeneity of Chagas disease (ChD) is mainly caused by genetic variability of the etiological agent Trypanosoma cruzi. Our hypothesis was that the pathogenicity for mice may vary with the genetic lineage (or Discrete Typing Unit - DTU) of the parasite. To test this hypothesis, parasitological and histopathological evaluations were performed in mice inoculated with strains belonging to the DTU T. cruzi IV (TcIV) from the State of Amazonas (northern Brazil), or the DTU T. cruzi II (TcII) from the State of Paraná (southern Brazil). Groups of 10 Swiss mice were inoculated with eight strains of TcIV obtained from acute cases (7) from two outbreaks of orally acquired ChD, and from the triatomine Rhodnius robustus (1) from Amazonas; and three strains of TcII obtained from chronic patients in Paraná. We evaluated the pre-patent period, patent period, maximum peak of parasitemia, day of maximum peak of parasitemia, area under the parasitemia curve, inflammatory process, and tissue parasitism in the acute phase. TcIV was less virulent than TcII, and showed significantly (p < 0.005) lower parasitemia levels. Although the levels of tissue parasitism did not differ statistically, mice infected with TcIV displayed significantly (p < 0.001) fewer inflammatory processes than mice infected with TcII. This supported the working hypothesis, since TcIV from Amazonas was less pathogenic than TcII from Paraná; and agreed with the lower severity of human cases of ChD in the Amazon region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheila Karina Lüders Meza
- Post-Graduate Program in Health Sciences, State University of Maringá (UEM), Paraná, Brazil; Center for Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, State University of Western Paraná, Paraná, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Silvana Marques de Araújo
- Post-Graduate Program in Health Sciences, State University of Maringá (UEM), Paraná, Brazil; Department of Basic Health Sciences, UEM, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Mônica Lúcia Gomes
- Post-Graduate Program in Health Sciences, State University of Maringá (UEM), Paraná, Brazil; Department of Basic Health Sciences, UEM, Paraná, Brazil
| | | | - Maria das Graças Vale Barbosa
- Post-Graduate Program in Tropical Medicine, State University of Amazonas, Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado Tropical Medicine Foundation, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Max Jean de Ornelas Toledo
- Post-Graduate Program in Health Sciences, State University of Maringá (UEM), Paraná, Brazil; Department of Basic Health Sciences, UEM, Paraná, Brazil.
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McCall LI, McKerrow JH. Determinants of disease phenotype in trypanosomatid parasites. Trends Parasitol 2014; 30:342-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2014.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2014] [Revised: 05/05/2014] [Accepted: 05/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Bastos IMD, Motta FN, Grellier P, Santana JM. Parasite prolyl oligopeptidases and the challenge of designing chemotherapeuticals for Chagas disease, leishmaniasis and African trypanosomiasis. Curr Med Chem 2014; 20:3103-15. [PMID: 23514419 PMCID: PMC3778648 DOI: 10.2174/0929867311320250006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2012] [Accepted: 10/16/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The trypanosomatids Trypanosoma cruzi, Leishmania spp. and Trypanosoma brucei spp. cause Chagas disease, leishmaniasis and human African trypanosomiasis, respectively. It is estimated that over 10 million people worldwide suffer from these neglected diseases, posing enormous social and economic problems in endemic areas. There are no vaccines to prevent these infections and chemotherapies are not adequate. This picture indicates that new chemotherapeutic agents must be developed to treat these illnesses. For this purpose, understanding the biology of the pathogenic trypanosomatid-host cell interface is fundamental for molecular and functional characterization of virulence factors that may be used as targets for the development of inhibitors to be used for effective chemotherapy. In this context, it is well known that proteases have crucial functions for both metabolism and infectivity of pathogens and are thus potential drug targets. In this regard, prolyl oligopeptidase and oligopeptidase B, both members of the S9 serine protease family, have been shown to play important roles in the interactions of pathogenic protozoa with their mammalian hosts and may thus be considered targets for drug design. This review aims to discuss structural and functional properties of these intriguing enzymes and their potential as targets for the development of drugs against Chagas disease, leishmaniasis and African trypanosomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- I M D Bastos
- Pathogen-Host Interface Laboratory, Department of Cell Biology, The University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
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Jimenez V. Dealing with environmental challenges: mechanisms of adaptation in Trypanosoma cruzi. Res Microbiol 2014; 165:155-65. [PMID: 24508488 DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2014.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2013] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Protozoan parasites have a significant impact upon global health, infecting millions of people around the world. With limited therapeutic options and no vaccines available, research efforts are focused upon unraveling cellular mechanisms essential for parasite survival. During its life cycle, Trypanosoma cruzi, the causal agent of Chagas disease, is exposed to multiple external conditions and different hosts. Environmental cues are linked to the differentiation process allowing the parasite to complete its life cycle. Successful transmission depends on the ability of the cells to trigger adaptive responses and cope with stressors while regulating proliferation and transition to different life stages. This review focuses upon different aspects of the stress response in T. cruzi, proposing new hypotheses regarding cross-talk and cross-tolerance with respect to environmental changes and discussing open questions and future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Jimenez
- Department of Biological Science, College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, California State University Fullerton, 800 N State College Blvd, McCarthy Hall 307, 92831 Fullerton, CA, USA.
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Cortez C, Sobreira TJP, Maeda FY, Yoshida N. The gp82 surface molecule of Trypanosoma cruzi metacyclic forms. Subcell Biochem 2014; 74:137-150. [PMID: 24264244 DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-7305-9_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Gp82 is a surface glycoprotein expressed in Trypanosoma cruzi metacyclic trypomastigotes, the parasite forms from the insect vector that initiate infection in the mammalian host. Studies with metacyclic forms generated in vitro, as counterparts of insect-borne parasites, have shown that gp82 plays an essential role in host cell invasion and in the establishment of infection by the oral route. Among the gp82 properties relevant for infection are the gastric mucin-binding capacity and the ability to induce the target cell signaling cascades that result in actin cytoskeleton disruption and lysosome exocytosis, events that facilitate parasite internalization. The gp82 sequences from genetically divergent T. cruzi strains are highly conserved, displaying >90 % identity. Both the host cell-binding sites, as well as the gastric mucin-binding sequence of gp82, are localized in the C-terminal domain of the molecule. In the gp82 structure model, the main cell-binding site consists of an α-helix, which connects the N-terminal β-propeller domain to the C-terminal β-sandwich domain, where the second cell binding site is nested. The two cell binding sites are fully exposed on gp82 surface. Downstream and close to the α-helix is the gp82 gastric mucin-binding site, which is partially exposed. All available data support the notion that gp82 is structurally suited for metacyclic trypomastigote invasion of host cells and for initiating infection by the oral route.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristian Cortez
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Pedro de Toledo, 669 - 6º andar, 04039-032, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Molecular characterization of Trypanosoma cruzi SAP proteins with host-cell lysosome exocytosis-inducing activity required for parasite invasion. PLoS One 2013; 8:e83864. [PMID: 24391838 PMCID: PMC3877114 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0083864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2013] [Accepted: 11/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background To invade target cells, Trypanosoma cruzi metacyclic forms engage distinct sets of surface and secreted molecules that interact with host components. Serine-, alanine-, and proline-rich proteins (SAP) comprise a multigene family constituted of molecules with a high serine, alanine and proline residue content. SAP proteins have a central domain (SAP-CD) responsible for interaction with and invasion of mammalian cells by metacyclic forms. Methods and Findings Using a 513 bp sequence from SAP-CD in blastn analysis, we identified 39 full-length SAP genes in the genome of T. cruzi. Although most of these genes were mapped in the T. cruzi in silico chromosome TcChr41, several SAP sequences were spread out across the genome. The level of SAP transcripts was twice as high in metacyclic forms as in epimastigotes. Monoclonal (MAb-SAP) and polyclonal (anti-SAP) antibodies produced against the recombinant protein SAP-CD were used to investigate the expression and localization of SAP proteins. MAb-SAP reacted with a 55 kDa SAP protein released by epimastigotes and metacyclic forms and with distinct sets of SAP variants expressed in amastigotes and tissue culture-derived trypomastigotes (TCTs). Anti-SAP antibodies reacted with components located in the anterior region of epimastigotes and between the nucleus and the kinetoplast in metacyclic trypomastigotes. In contrast, anti-SAP recognized surface components of amastigotes and TCTs, suggesting that SAP proteins are directed to different cellular compartments. Ten SAP peptides were identified by mass spectrometry in vesicle and soluble-protein fractions obtained from parasite conditioned medium. Using overlapping sequences from SAP-CD, we identified a 54-aa peptide (SAP-CE) that was able to induce host-cell lysosome exocytosis and inhibit parasite internalization by 52%. Conclusions This study provides novel information about the genomic organization, expression and cellular localization of SAP proteins and proposes a triggering role for extracellular SAP proteins in host-cell lysosome exocytosis during metacyclic internalization.
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Extracellular vesicles shed by Trypanosoma cruzi are linked to small RNA pathways, life cycle regulation, and susceptibility to infection of mammalian cells. Parasitol Res 2013; 113:285-304. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-013-3655-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2013] [Accepted: 10/14/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Walker DM, Oghumu S, Gupta G, McGwire BS, Drew ME, Satoskar AR. Mechanisms of cellular invasion by intracellular parasites. Cell Mol Life Sci 2013; 71:1245-63. [PMID: 24221133 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-013-1491-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2013] [Revised: 10/04/2013] [Accepted: 10/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Numerous disease-causing parasites must invade host cells in order to prosper. Collectively, such pathogens are responsible for a staggering amount of human sickness and death throughout the world. Leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, toxoplasmosis, and malaria are neglected diseases and therefore are linked to socio-economical and geographical factors, affecting well-over half the world's population. Such obligate intracellular parasites have co-evolved with humans to establish a complexity of specific molecular parasite-host cell interactions, forming the basis of the parasite's cellular tropism. They make use of such interactions to invade host cells as a means to migrate through various tissues, to evade the host immune system, and to undergo intracellular replication. These cellular migration and invasion events are absolutely essential for the completion of the lifecycles of these parasites and lead to their for disease pathogenesis. This review is an overview of the molecular mechanisms of protozoan parasite invasion of host cells and discussion of therapeutic strategies, which could be developed by targeting these invasion pathways. Specifically, we focus on four species of protozoan parasites Leishmania, Trypanosoma cruzi, Plasmodium, and Toxoplasma, which are responsible for significant morbidity and mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawn M Walker
- Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, Wexner Medical Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
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Mendonça-Previato L, Penha L, Garcez TC, Jones C, Previato JO. Addition of α-O-GlcNAc to threonine residues define the post-translational modification of mucin-like molecules in Trypanosoma cruzi. Glycoconj J 2013; 30:659-66. [PMID: 23430107 PMCID: PMC3769586 DOI: 10.1007/s10719-013-9469-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2012] [Revised: 02/03/2013] [Accepted: 02/06/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, an intracellular protozoan etiologic agent of Chagas disease is covered by a dense coat of mucin-type glycoproteins, which is important to promote the parasite entry and persistence in the mammalian host cells. The O-glycosylation of T. cruzi mucins (Tc-mucins) is initiated by enzymatic addition of α-O-N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) to threonine (Thr) by the UDP-GlcNAc:polypeptide α-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase (pp-α-GlcNAcT) in the Golgi. The Tc-mucin is characterized by the presence of a high structural diversity of O-linked oligosaccharides found among different parasite strains, comprising two O-glycan Cores. In the Core 1, from strains principally associated with the domestic transmission cycle of Chagas disease, the GlcNAc O-4 is substituted with a β-galactopyranose (βGalp) unit, and in the most complex oligosaccharides the GlcNAc O-6 is further processed by the addition of β1 → 2-linked Galp residues creating a short linear Galp-containing chain. In the Core 2 structures, expressed by strains isolated from T. cruzi sylvatic hosts, the GlcNAc O-4 carries a β-galactofuranose (βGalf) unit and the GlcNAc O-6 can carry a branched Galpβ1 → 3[Galpβ1 → 2]Galpβ1 → 6 motif. The O-glycans carrying nonreducing terminal βGalp are available for sialylation by a surface T. cruzi trans-sialidase activity. Based on structural results, this review summarizes available data on the highly conserved process, which adds the GlcNAc unit in α-linkage to Thr residues the basis of the post-translational modification system in T. cruzi mucins. In addition, a mechanism unique employed by the parasite to transfer exogenous sialic acid residues to Tc-mucins is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Mendonça-Previato
- Laboratório de Glicobiologia, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, 21 941 902, Ilha do Fundão, Cidade Universitária, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil,
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Piacenza L, Peluffo G, Alvarez MN, Martínez A, Radi R. Trypanosoma cruzi antioxidant enzymes as virulence factors in Chagas disease. Antioxid Redox Signal 2013; 19:723-34. [PMID: 22458250 PMCID: PMC3739954 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2012.4618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Chagas disease (CD) affects several million people in Latin America and is spreading beyond its classical boundaries due to the migration of infected host and insect vectors, HIV co-infection, and blood transfusion. The current therapy is not adequate for treatment of the chronic phase of CD, and new drugs are warranted. RECENT ADVANCES Trypanosoma cruzi is equipped with a specialized and complex network of antioxidant enzymes that are located at different subcellular compartments which defend the parasite against host oxidative assaults. Recently, strong evidence has emerged which indicates that enzyme components of the T. cruzi antioxidant network (cytosolic and mitochondrial peroxiredoxins and trypanothione synthetase) in naturally occurring strains act as a virulence factor for CD. This precept is recapitulated with the observed increased resistance of T. cruzi peroxirredoxins overexpressers to in vivo or in vitro nitroxidative stress conditions. In addition, the modulation of mitochondrial superoxide radical levels by iron superoxide dismutase (FeSODA) influences parasite programmed cell death, underscoring the role of this enzyme in parasite survival. CRITICAL ISSUES The unraveling of the biological significance of FeSODs in T. cruzi programmed cell death in the context of chronic infection in CD is still under examination. FUTURE DIRECTIONS The role of the antioxidant enzymes in the pathogenesis of CD, including parasite virulence and persistence, and their feasibility as pharmacological targets justifies further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucía Piacenza
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
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Bayer-Santos E, Cunha-e-Silva NL, Yoshida N, Franco da Silveira J. Expression and cellular trafficking of GP82 and GP90 glycoproteins during Trypanosoma cruzi metacyclogenesis. Parasit Vectors 2013; 6:127. [PMID: 23634710 PMCID: PMC3652755 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-6-127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2012] [Accepted: 04/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The transformation of noninfective epimastigotes into infective metacyclic trypomastigotes (metacyclogenesis) is a fundamental step in the life cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi, comprising several morphological and biochemical changes. GP82 and GP90 are glycoproteins expressed at the surface of metacyclic trypomastigote, with opposite roles in mammalian cell invasion. GP82 is an adhesin that promotes cell invasion, while GP90 acts as a negative regulator of parasite internalization. Our understanding of the synthesis and intracellular trafficking of GP82 and GP90 during metacyclogenesis is still limited. Therefore, we decided to determine whether GP82 and GP90 are expressed only in fully differentiated metacyclic forms or they start to be expressed in intermediate forms undergoing differentiation. Methods Parasite populations enriched in intermediate forms undergoing differentiation were analyzed by quantitative real-time PCR, Western blot, flow cytometry and immunofluorescence to assess GP82 and GP90 expression. Results We found that GP82 and GP90 mRNAs and proteins are expressed in intermediate forms and reach higher levels in fully differentiated metacyclic forms. Surprisingly, GP82 and GP90 presented distinct cellular localizations in intermediate forms compared to metacyclic trypomastigotes. In intermediate forms, GP82 is localized in organelles at the posterior region and colocalizes with cruzipain, while GP90 is localized at the flagellar pocket region. Conclusions This study discloses new aspects of protein expression and trafficking during T. cruzi differentiation by showing that the machinery involved in GP82 and GP90 gene expression starts to operate early in the differentiation process and that different secretion pathways are responsible for delivering these glycoproteins toward the cell surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethel Bayer-Santos
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 04023-062, Brazil
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Trypanosoma cruzi I and IV stocks from Brazilian Amazon are divergent in terms of biological and medical properties in mice. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013; 7:e2069. [PMID: 23437410 PMCID: PMC3578774 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2012] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In the Brazilian Amazon, clinical and epidemiological frameworks of Chagas disease are very dissimilar in relation to the endemic classical areas of transmission, possibly due to genetic and biological characteristics of the circulating Trypanosoma cruzi stocks. Twenty six T. cruzi stocks from Western Amazon Region attributed to the TcI and TcIV DTUs were comparatively studied in Swiss mice to test the hypothesis that T. cruzi clonal structure has a major impact on its biological and medical properties. Methodology/Principal Findings Seventeen parameters were assayed in mice infected with 14 T. cruzi strains belonging to DTU TcI and 11 strains typed as TcIV. In comparison with TcI, TcIV stocks promoted a significantly shorter pre-patent period (p<0.001), a longer patent period (p<0.001), higher values of mean daily parasitemia (p = 0.009) and maximum of parasitemia (p = 0.015), earlier days of maximum parasitemia (p<0.001) and mortality (p = 0.018), higher mortality rates in the acute phase (p = 0.047), higher infectivity rates (p = 0.002), higher positivity in the fresh blood examination (p<0.001), higher positivity in the ELISA at the early chronic phase (p = 0.022), and a higher positivity in the ELISA at the late chronic phase (p = 0.003). On the other hand TcI showed higher values of mortality rates in the early chronic phase (p = 0.014), higher frequency of mice with inflammatory process in any organ (p = 0.005), higher frequency of mice with tissue parasitism in any organ (p = 0.027) and a higher susceptibility to benznidazole (p = 0.002) than TcIV. Survival analysis showing the time elapsed from the day of inoculation to the beginning of the patent period was significantly shorter for TcIV strains and the death episodes triggered following the infection with TcI occurred significantly later in relation to TcIV. The notable exceptions come from positivity in the hemocultures and PCR, for which the results were similar. Conclusion/Significance T. cruzi stocks belonging to TcI and TcIV DTUs from Brazilian Amazon are divergent in terms of biological and medical properties in mice. Chagas disease is caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, constituting an important health problem in the American Continent. In the Brazilian Amazon, Chagas disease has been recognized as an emerging problem. There are few studies exploring the genetic and biological framework of stocks of T. cruzi from the Western Brazilian Amazon, where Chagas disease has a profile of lower morbidity and mortality, appearing mainly in the chronic latent form. Here, we carried out the biological characterization in mice of T. cruzi isolates belonging to TcI and TcIV DTUs from the State of Amazonas, Western Brazilian Amazon. T. cruzi stocks belonging to TcI and TcIV DTUs from Brazilian Amazon are divergent in terms of biological and medical properties in mice, with a higher virulence for the latter DTU as revealed by several biological parameters. Results strongly support the working hypothesis that biological differences are proportional to the evolutionary divergence among the DTUs, and highlight the need to take into account the phylogenetic diversity of T. cruzi natural stocks circulating in the emergent areas for Chagas disease in all applied studies dealing with clinical diversity of Chagas disease, immunology, diagnosis, prognosis, and drug and vaccine trials.
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Correa PRC, Cordero EM, Gentil LG, Bayer-Santos E, da Silveira JF. Genetic structure and expression of the surface glycoprotein GP82, the main adhesin of Trypanosoma cruzi metacyclic trypomastigotes. ScientificWorldJournal 2013; 2013:156734. [PMID: 23431251 PMCID: PMC3575623 DOI: 10.1155/2013/156734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2012] [Accepted: 12/30/2012] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
T. cruzi improves the likelihood of invading or adapting to the host through its capacity to present a large repertoire of surface molecules. The metacyclic stage-specific surface glycoprotein GP82 has been implicated in host cell invasion. GP82 is encoded by multiple genes from the trans-sialidase superfamily. GP82 shows a modular organization, with some variation of N-terminal region flanking a conserved central core where the binding sites to the mammalian cell and gastric mucin are located. The function of GP82 as adhesin in host cell invasion process could expose the protein to an intense conservative and selective pressure. GP82 is a GPI-anchored surface protein, synthesized as a 70 kDa precursor devoid of N-linked sugars. GPI-minus variants accumulate in the ER indicating that GPI anchor acts as a forward transport signal for progressing along the secretory pathway as suggested for T. cruzi mucins. It has been demonstrated that the expression of GP82 is constitutive and may be regulated at post-transcriptional level, for instance, at translational level and/or mRNA stabilization. GP82 mRNAs are mobilized to polysomes and consequently translated, but only in metacyclic trypomastigotes. Analysis of transgenic parasites indicates that the mechanism regulating GP82 expression involves multiple elements in the 3'UTR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo Roberto Ceridorio Correa
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Botucatu 862, 04023-062 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Esteban Mauricio Cordero
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Botucatu 862, 04023-062 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Luciana Girotto Gentil
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Botucatu 862, 04023-062 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Ethel Bayer-Santos
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Botucatu 862, 04023-062 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - José Franco da Silveira
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Botucatu 862, 04023-062 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Rodríguez-Angulo H, Toro-Mendoza J, Marques J, Bonfante-Cabarcas R, Mijares A. Induction of chagasic-like arrhythmias in the isolated beating hearts of healthy rats perfused with Trypanosoma cruzi-conditioned medium. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 46:58-64. [PMID: 23314340 PMCID: PMC3854352 DOI: 10.1590/1414-431x20122409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2012] [Accepted: 09/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Chagas' myocardiopathy, caused by the intracellular protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, is characterized by microvascular alterations, heart failure and arrhythmias. Ischemia and arrythmogenesis have been attributed to proteins shed by the parasite, although this has not been fully demonstrated. The aim of the present investigation was to study the effect of substances shed by T. cruzi on ischemia/reperfusion-induced arrhythmias. We performed a triple ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) protocol whereby the isolated beating rat hearts were perfused with either Vero-control or Vero T. cruzi-infected conditioned medium during the different stages of ischemia and subsequently reperfused with Tyrode's solution. ECG and heart rate were recorded during the entire experiment. We observed that triple I/R-induced bradycardia was associated with the generation of auricular-ventricular blockade during ischemia and non-sustained nodal and ventricular tachycardia during reperfusion. Interestingly, perfusion with Vero-infected medium produced a delay in the reperfusion-induced recovery of heart rate, increased the frequency of tachycardic events and induced ventricular fibrillation. These results suggest that the presence of parasite-shed substances in conditioned media enhances the arrhythmogenic effects that occur during the I/R protocol.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Rodríguez-Angulo
- Centro de Biofísica y Bioquímica, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Caracas, Venezuela
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Maeda FY, Cortez C, Yoshida N. Cell signaling during Trypanosoma cruzi invasion. Front Immunol 2012; 3:361. [PMID: 23230440 PMCID: PMC3515895 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2012] [Accepted: 11/12/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell signaling is an essential requirement for mammalian cell invasion by Trypanosoma cruzi. Depending on the parasite strain and the parasite developmental form, distinct signaling pathways may be induced. In this short review, we focus on the data coming from studies with metacyclic trypomastigotes (MT) generated in vitro and tissue culture-derived trypomastigotes (TCT), used as counterparts of insect-borne and bloodstream parasites, respectively. During invasion of host cells by MT or TCT, intracellular Ca2+ mobilization and host cell lysosomal exocytosis are triggered. Invasion mediated by MT surface molecule gp82 requires the activation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), and protein kinase C (PKC) in the host cell, associated with Ca2+-dependent disruption of the actin cytoskeleton. In MT, protein tyrosine kinase, PI3K, phospholipase C, and PKC appear to be activated. TCT invasion, on the other hand, does not rely on mTOR activation, rather on target cell PI3K, and may involve the host cell autophagy for parasite internalization. Enzymes, such as oligopeptidase B and the major T. cruzi cysteine proteinase cruzipain, have been shown to generate molecules that induce target cell Ca2+ signal. In addition, TCT may trigger host cell responses mediated by transforming growth factor β receptor or integrin family member. Further investigations are needed for a more complete and detailed picture of T. cruzi invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Y Maeda
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Imunologia e Parasitologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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