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Zheng S, Guerrero-Haughton E, Foijer F. Chromosomal Instability-Driven Cancer Progression: Interplay with the Tumour Microenvironment and Therapeutic Strategies. Cells 2023; 12:2712. [PMID: 38067140 PMCID: PMC10706135 DOI: 10.3390/cells12232712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Chromosomal instability (CIN) is a prevalent characteristic of solid tumours and haematological malignancies. CIN results in an increased frequency of chromosome mis-segregation events, thus yielding numerical and structural copy number alterations, a state also known as aneuploidy. CIN is associated with increased chances of tumour recurrence, metastasis, and acquisition of resistance to therapeutic interventions, and this is a dismal prognosis. In this review, we delve into the interplay between CIN and cancer, with a focus on its impact on the tumour microenvironment-a driving force behind metastasis. We discuss the potential therapeutic avenues that have resulted from these insights and underscore their crucial role in shaping innovative strategies for cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siqi Zheng
- European Research Institute for the Biology of Ageing (ERIBA), University Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Erika Guerrero-Haughton
- European Research Institute for the Biology of Ageing (ERIBA), University Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Research in Sexual and Reproductive Health, Gorgas Memorial Institute for Health Studies, Panama City 0816-02593, Panama
- Sistema Nacional de Investigación, SENACYT, Panama City 0816-02593, Panama
| | - Floris Foijer
- European Research Institute for the Biology of Ageing (ERIBA), University Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
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Lu J, Kornmann M, Traub B. Role of Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition in Colorectal Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:14815. [PMID: 37834263 PMCID: PMC10573312 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241914815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a cellular reprogramming process that occurs during embryonic development and adult tissue homeostasis. This process involves epithelial cells acquiring a mesenchymal phenotype. Through EMT, cancer cells acquire properties associated with a more aggressive phenotype. EMT and its opposite, mesenchymal-epithelial transition (MET), have been described in more tumors over the past ten years, including colorectal cancer (CRC). When EMT is activated, the expression of the epithelial marker E-cadherin is decreased and the expression of the mesenchymal marker vimentin is raised. As a result, cells temporarily take on a mesenchymal phenotype, becoming motile and promoting the spread of tumor cells. Epithelial-mesenchymal plasticity (EMP) has become a hot issue in CRC because strong inducers of EMT (such as transforming growth factor β, TGF-β) can initiate EMT and regulate metastasis, microenvironment, and immune system resistance in CRC. In this review, we take into account the significance of EMT-MET in CRC and the impact of the epithelial cells' plasticity on the prognosis of CRC. The analysis of connection between EMT and colorectal cancer stem cells (CCSCs) will help to further clarify the current meager understandings of EMT. Recent advances affecting important EMT transcription factors and EMT and CCSCs are highlighted. We come to the conclusion that the regulatory network for EMT in CRC is complicated, with a great deal of crosstalk and alternate paths. More thorough research is required to more effectively connect the clinical management of CRC with biomarkers and targeted treatments associated with EMT.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Benno Traub
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, Ulm University Hospital, Albert-Einstein-Allee 23, 89081 Ulm, Germany; (J.L.); (M.K.)
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Jain SM, Deka D, Das A, Paul S, Pathak S, Banerjee A. Role of Interleukins in Inflammation-Mediated Tumor Immune Microenvironment Modulation in Colorectal Cancer Pathogenesis. Dig Dis Sci 2023:10.1007/s10620-023-07972-8. [PMID: 37277647 DOI: 10.1007/s10620-023-07972-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Tumor cells invade and spread through a procedure termed as epithelial-to-mesenchymal cell transition (EMT). EMT is triggered by any alterations in the genes that encode the extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, the enzymes that break down the ECM, and the activation of the genes that causes the epithelial cell to change into a mesenchymal type. The transcription factors NF-κB, Smads, STAT3, Snail, Zeb, and Twist are activated by inflammatory cytokines, for instance, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Tumor Growth Factors, Interleukin-1, Interleukin-8, and Interleukin-6, which promotes EMT. MATERIALS The current piece of work has been reviewed from the literature works published in last 10 years on the role interleukins in inflammation-mediated tumor immune microenvironment modulation in colorectal cancer pathogenesis utilizing the databases like Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct. RESULTS Recent studies have demonstrated that pathological situations, such as epithelial malignancies, exhibit EMT characteristics, such as the downregulation of epithelial markers and the overexpression of mesenchymal markers. Several growing evidence have also proved its existence in the human colon during the carcinogenesis of colorectal cancer. Most often, persistent inflammation is thought to be one factor contributing to the initiation of human cancers, such as colorectal cancer (CRC). Therefore, according to epidemiologic and clinical research, people with ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease have a greater probability of developing CRC. CONCLUSION A substantial amount of data points to the involvement of the NF-κB system, SMAD/STAT3 signaling cascade, microRNAs, and the Ras-mitogen-activated protein kinase/Snail/Slug in the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition-mediated development of colorectal malignancies. As a result, EMT is reported to play an active task in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer, and therapeutic interventions targeting the inflammation-mediated EMT might serve as a novel strategy for treating CRC. The illustration depicts the relationship between interleukins and their receptors as a driver of CRC development and the potential therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samatha M Jain
- Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Chettinad Academy of Research and Education (CARE), Chettinad Hospital and Research Institute (CHRI), Chennai, 603103, India
| | - Dikshita Deka
- Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Chettinad Academy of Research and Education (CARE), Chettinad Hospital and Research Institute (CHRI), Chennai, 603103, India
| | - Alakesh Das
- Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Chettinad Academy of Research and Education (CARE), Chettinad Hospital and Research Institute (CHRI), Chennai, 603103, India
| | - Sujay Paul
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Campus Queretaro, Av. Epigmenio Gonzalez, No.500 Fracc. San Pablo, 76130, Querétaro, CP, Mexico
| | - Surajit Pathak
- Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Chettinad Academy of Research and Education (CARE), Chettinad Hospital and Research Institute (CHRI), Chennai, 603103, India
| | - Antara Banerjee
- Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Chettinad Academy of Research and Education (CARE), Chettinad Hospital and Research Institute (CHRI), Chennai, 603103, India.
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Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition as Mechanism of Progression of Pancreatic Cancer: From Mice to Men. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14235797. [PMID: 36497278 PMCID: PMC9735867 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14235797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Owed to its aggressive yet subtle nature, pancreatic cancer remains unnoticed till an advanced stage so that in most cases the diagnosis is made when the cancer has already spread to other organs with deadly efficiency. The progression from primary tumor to metastasis involves an intricate cascade of events comprising the pleiotropic process of epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) facilitating cancer spread. The elucidation of this pivotal phenotypic change in cancer cell morphology, initially heretic, moved from basic studies dissecting the progression of pancreatic cancer in animal models to move towards human disease, although no clinical translation of the concept emerged yet. Despite this transition, a full-blown mesenchymal phenotype may not be accomplished; rather, the plasticity of the program and its dependency on heterotopic signals implies a series of fluctuating modifications of cancer cells encompassing mesenchymal and epithelial features. Despite the evidence supporting the activation of EMT and MET during cancer progression, our understanding of the relationship between tumor microenvironment and EMT is not yet mature for a clinical application. In this review, we attempt to resume the knowledge on EMT and pancreatic cancer, aiming to include the EMT among the hallmarks of cancer that could potentially modify our clinical thinking with the purpose of filling the gap between the results pursued in basic research by animal models and those achieved in translational research by surrogate biomarkers, as well as their application for prognostic and predictive purposes.
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Pavlič A, Hauptman N, Boštjančič E, Zidar N. Long Non-Coding RNAs as Potential Regulators of EMT-Related Transcription Factors in Colorectal Cancer—A Systematic Review and Bioinformatics Analysis. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14092280. [PMID: 35565409 PMCID: PMC9105237 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14092280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 04/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Emerging evidence highlights long non-coding RNAs as important regulators of epithelial–mesenchymal transition. Numerous studies have attempted to define their possible diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic values in various human cancers. The aim of this review is to summarize long non-coding RNAs involved in the regulation of epithelial–mesenchymal transition in colorectal carcinoma. Additional candidate long non-coding RNAs are identified through a bioinformatics analysis. Abstract Epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) plays a pivotal role in carcinogenesis, influencing cancer progression, metastases, stemness, immune evasion, metabolic reprogramming and therapeutic resistance. EMT in most carcinomas, including colorectal carcinoma (CRC), is only partial, and can be evidenced by identification of the underlying molecular drivers and their regulatory molecules. During EMT, cellular reprogramming is orchestrated by core EMT transcription factors (EMT-TFs), namely ZEB1/2, TWIST1/2, SNAI1 (SNAIL) and SNAI2 (SLUG). While microRNAs have been clearly defined as regulators of EMT, the role of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in EMT is poorly defined and controversial. Determining the role of lncRNAs in EMT remains a challenge, because they are involved in a number of cellular pathways and are operating through various mechanisms. Adding to the complexity, some lncRNAs have controversial functions across different tumor types, acting as EMT promotors in some tumors and as EMT suppressors in others. The aim of this review is to summarize the role of lncRNAs involved in the regulation of EMT-TFs in human CRC. Additional candidate lncRNAs were identified through a bioinformatics analysis.
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Zhao W, Dai S, Yue L, Xu F, Gu J, Dai X, Qian X. Emerging mechanisms progress of colorectal cancer liver metastasis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:1081585. [PMID: 36568117 PMCID: PMC9772455 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.1081585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common malignancy and the second most common cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. A total of 20% of CRC patients present with distant metastasis. The hepatic portal venous system, responsible for collecting most intestinal blood, makes the liver the most common site of CRC metastasis. The formation of liver metastases from colorectal cancer is a long and complex process. It involves the maintenance of primary tumors, vasculature invasion, distant colonization, and metastasis formation. In this review, we serve on how the CRC cells acquire stemness, invade the vascular, and colonize the liver. In addition, we highlight how the resident cells of the liver and immune cells interact with CRC cells. We also discuss the current immunotherapy approaches and challenges we face, and finally, we look forward to finding new therapeutic targets based on novel sequencing technologies.
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Greco L, Rubbino F, Morelli A, Gaiani F, Grizzi F, de’Angelis GL, Malesci A, Laghi L. Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition: A Challenging Playground for Translational Research. Current Models and Focus on TWIST1 Relevance and Gastrointestinal Cancers. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222111469. [PMID: 34768901 PMCID: PMC8584071 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222111469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2021] [Revised: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Resembling the development of cancer by multistep carcinogenesis, the evolution towards metastasis involves several passages, from local invasion and intravasation, encompassing surviving anoikis into the circulation, landing at distant sites and therein establishing colonization, possibly followed by the outgrowth of macroscopic lesions. Within this cascade, epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) works as a pleiotropic program enabling cancer cells to overcome local, systemic, and distant barriers against diffusion by replacing traits and functions of the epithelial signature with mesenchymal-like ones. Along the transition, a full-blown mesenchymal phenotype may not be accomplished. Rather, the plasticity of the program and its dependency on heterotopic signals implies a pendulum with oscillations towards its reversal, that is mesenchymal to epithelial transition. Cells in intermixed E⇔M states can also display stemness, enabling their replication together with the epithelial reversion next to successful distant colonization. If we aim to include the EMT among the hallmarks of cancer that could modify clinical practice, the gap between the results pursued in basic research by animal models and those achieved in translational research by surrogate biomarkers needs to be filled. We review the knowledge on EMT, derived from models and mechanistic studies as well as from translational studies, with an emphasis on gastrointestinal cancers (GI).
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Affiliation(s)
- Luana Greco
- Laboratory of Molecular Gastroenterology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, 20089 Rozzano, Italy; (L.G.); (F.R.); (A.M.)
| | - Federica Rubbino
- Laboratory of Molecular Gastroenterology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, 20089 Rozzano, Italy; (L.G.); (F.R.); (A.M.)
| | - Alessandra Morelli
- Laboratory of Molecular Gastroenterology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, 20089 Rozzano, Italy; (L.G.); (F.R.); (A.M.)
| | - Federica Gaiani
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy; (F.G.); (G.L.d.)
- Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit, University-Hospital of Parma, Via Gramsci 14, 43126 Parma, Italy
| | - Fabio Grizzi
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, 20089 Rozzano, Italy;
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Via Rita Levi Montalcini 4, 20072 Pieve Emanuele, Italy;
| | - Gian Luigi de’Angelis
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy; (F.G.); (G.L.d.)
- Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit, University-Hospital of Parma, Via Gramsci 14, 43126 Parma, Italy
| | - Alberto Malesci
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Via Rita Levi Montalcini 4, 20072 Pieve Emanuele, Italy;
- IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, 20089 Rozzano, Italy
| | - Luigi Laghi
- Laboratory of Molecular Gastroenterology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, 20089 Rozzano, Italy; (L.G.); (F.R.); (A.M.)
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy; (F.G.); (G.L.d.)
- Correspondence:
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8
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Gaiani F, Marchesi F, Negri F, Greco L, Malesci A, de’Angelis GL, Laghi L. Heterogeneity of Colorectal Cancer Progression: Molecular Gas and Brakes. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22105246. [PMID: 34063506 PMCID: PMC8156342 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22105246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The review begins with molecular genetics, which hit the field unveiling the involvement of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer (CRC) and uncovering genetic predispositions. Then the notion of molecular phenotypes with different clinical behaviors was introduced and translated in the clinical arena, paving the way to next-generation sequencing that captured previously unrecognized heterogeneity. Among other molecular regulators of CRC progression, the extent of host immune response within the tumor micro-environment has a critical position. Translational sciences deeply investigated the field, accelerating the pace toward clinical transition, due to its strong association with outcomes. While the perturbation of gut homeostasis occurring in inflammatory bowel diseases can fuel carcinogenesis, micronutrients like vitamin D and calcium can act as brakes, and we discuss underlying molecular mechanisms. Among the components of gut microbiota, Fusobacterium nucleatum is over-represented in CRC, and may worsen patient outcome. However, any translational knowledge tracing the multifaceted evolution of CRC should be interpreted according to the prognostic and predictive frame of the TNM-staging system in a perspective of clinical actionability. Eventually, we examine challenges and promises of pharmacological interventions aimed to restrain disease progression at different disease stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Gaiani
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy; (F.G.); (G.L.d.)
- Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit, University-Hospital of Parma, via Gramsci 14, 43126 Parma, Italy
| | - Federica Marchesi
- IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, via Manzoni 56, 20089 Rozzano, Italy; (F.M.); (A.M.)
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca Negri
- Medical Oncology Unit, University Hospital of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy;
| | - Luana Greco
- Laboratory of Molecular Gastroenterology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, via Manzoni 56, 20089 Rozzano, Italy;
| | - Alberto Malesci
- IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, via Manzoni 56, 20089 Rozzano, Italy; (F.M.); (A.M.)
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Via Rita Levi Montalcini 4, 20072 Pieve Emanuele, Italy
| | - Gian Luigi de’Angelis
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy; (F.G.); (G.L.d.)
- Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Unit, University-Hospital of Parma, via Gramsci 14, 43126 Parma, Italy
| | - Luigi Laghi
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy; (F.G.); (G.L.d.)
- Laboratory of Molecular Gastroenterology, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, via Manzoni 56, 20089 Rozzano, Italy;
- Correspondence:
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Fattahi F, Saeednejad Zanjani L, Vafaei S, Habibi Shams Z, Kiani J, Naseri M, Gheytanchi E, Madjd Z. Expressions of TWIST1 and CD105 markers in colorectal cancer patients and their association with metastatic potential and prognosis. Diagn Pathol 2021; 16:26. [PMID: 33752711 PMCID: PMC7983220 DOI: 10.1186/s13000-021-01088-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background TWIST1 and CD105, which contribute to tumor malignancy, are overexpressed in cancers. Accordingly, TWIST1 enhances epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and promotes the formation of cancer stem cells (CSCs). Also, CD105 is a neoangiogenesis marker in endothelial cells, which is introduced as a CSC marker in tumoral epithelial cells in several types of cancers. The present study was aimed to investigate expressions of TWIST1 and CD105 in colorectal cancer (CRC) patients. Methods Expressions of TWIST1 and CD105 in 250 CRC tissue samples were evaluated using immunohistochemistry on tissue microarrays (TMAs). In this regard, TWIST1 expression was investigated in the subcellular locations (cytoplasm and nucleus), while CD105 was mapped in endothelial cells and cytoplasmic tumor cells of CRC tissues. The association between the expression of these markers and clinicopathological parameters, as well as survival outcomes were analyzed. Results Results indicate a statistically significant association between higher nuclear expression levels of TWIST1 and distant metastases in CRC (P = 0.040) patients. In addition, it was shown that the increased nuclear expression of TWIST1 had a poor prognostic value for disease-specific survival (DSS) and progression-free survival (PFS) (P = 0.042, P = 0.043, respectively) in patients with CRC. Moreover, analysis of CD105 expression level has revealed that there is a statistically significant association between the increased expression of CD105 in tumoral epithelial cells and more advanced TNM stage (P = 0.050). Conclusions Our results demonstrate that nuclear TWIST1 and cytoplasmic CD105 expressions in tumor cells had associations with more aggressive tumor behavior and more advanced diseases in CRC cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fahimeh Fattahi
- Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences , Postal Code: 14496-14530, Hemmat Street (Highway), Next to Milad Tower, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Student Research Committee, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Leili Saeednejad Zanjani
- Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences , Postal Code: 14496-14530, Hemmat Street (Highway), Next to Milad Tower, Tehran, Iran
| | - Somayeh Vafaei
- Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences , Postal Code: 14496-14530, Hemmat Street (Highway), Next to Milad Tower, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Jafar Kiani
- Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences , Postal Code: 14496-14530, Hemmat Street (Highway), Next to Milad Tower, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Marzieh Naseri
- Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences , Postal Code: 14496-14530, Hemmat Street (Highway), Next to Milad Tower, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Elmira Gheytanchi
- Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences , Postal Code: 14496-14530, Hemmat Street (Highway), Next to Milad Tower, Tehran, Iran
| | - Zahra Madjd
- Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences , Postal Code: 14496-14530, Hemmat Street (Highway), Next to Milad Tower, Tehran, Iran. .,Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. .,Department of Pathology, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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FOLFOX Therapy Induces Feedback Upregulation of CD44v6 through YB-1 to Maintain Stemness in Colon Initiating Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22020753. [PMID: 33451103 PMCID: PMC7828641 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22020753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer initiating cells (CICs) drive tumor formation and drug-resistance, but how they develop drug-resistance characteristics is not well understood. In this study, we demonstrate that chemotherapeutic agent FOLFOX, commonly used for drug-resistant/metastatic colorectal cancer (CRC) treatment, induces overexpression of CD44v6, MDR1, and oncogenic transcription/translation factor Y-box-binding protein-1 (YB-1). Our study revealed that CD44v6, a receptor for hyaluronan, increased the YB-1 expression through PGE2/EP1-mTOR pathway. Deleting CD44v6, and YB-1 by the CRISPR/Cas9 system attenuates the in vitro and in vivo tumor growth of CICs from FOLFOX resistant cells. The results of DNA:CD44v6 immunoprecipitated complexes by ChIP (chromatin-immunoprecipitation) assay showed that CD44v6 maintained the stemness traits by promoting several antiapoptotic and stemness genes, including cyclin-D1,BCL2,FZD1,GINS-1, and MMP9. Further, computer-based analysis of the clones obtained from the DNA:CD44v6 complex revealed the presence of various consensus binding sites for core stemness-associated transcription factors “CTOS” (c-Myc, TWIST1, OCT4, and SOX2). Simultaneous expressions of CD44v6 and CTOS in CD44v6 knockout CICs reverted differentiated CD44v6-knockout CICs into CICs. Finally, this study for the first time describes a positive feedback loop that couples YB-1 induction and CD44 alternative splicing to sustain the MDR1 and CD44v6 expressions, and CD44v6 is required for the reversion of differentiated tumor cells into CICs.
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11
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Wang X, Qiu W, Liu H, Li T, Ye H, Li Y, Xu X, Chen P. The prognostic value of combining CD133 and mismatch repair proteins in patients with colorectal cancer. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2021; 48:54-63. [PMID: 32969057 DOI: 10.1111/1440-1681.13408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The prognostic value of cancer stem cells (CSCs) is a hot topic in colorectal carcinoma (CRC) research. CD133 has been identified as an important colorectal CSC marker, but its prognostic significance remains controversial. Recently, studies have reported a possible functional link between CSCs and DNA mismatch repair (MMR) system. However, the relationship between CRC stemness and MMR proteins remains little explored, and whether the predictive role of CD133 is affected by MMR proteins is still unknown. The aim of our study is to investigate the influence of MMR proteins on the predictive significance of CD133 in terms of CRC patient survival and to further analyze the correlation between MMR proteins and cancer stemness. In our study, we didn't observe the prognostic value of CD133 in CRC patients. However, we demonstrated that in patients with low expression of MSH6, MSH2, PMS2 and MLH1, especially MSH6, CD133 was an effective prognostic biomarker. Moreover, correlation analysis revealed a positive correlation between MSH6 and CD133 expression. In vitro studies supported our clinical data and showed that the expression of cancer-associated stemness markers CD133, BMI-1, OCT-4 and SOX-2 was significantly decreased in siRNA-MSH6/MLH1 CRC cells. Thus, our results demonstrated that MMR proteins might play an important role in modulating the stemness of CRC cells. MMR proteins might be a crucial determinant that can help to accurately identify tumour subclones that may benefit from using the CSC marker CD133 as a prognostic marker.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Wang
- College of Sericulture, Textile and Biomass Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Department of Stem Cell & Regenerative Medicine, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Chongqing, China
| | - Wei Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Department of Stem Cell & Regenerative Medicine, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Chongqing, China
| | - Haoyu Liu
- College of Sericulture, Textile and Biomass Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Tian Li
- College of Sericulture, Textile and Biomass Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Hua Ye
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Yateng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Department of Stem Cell & Regenerative Medicine, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Chongqing, China
| | - Xiang Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Department of Stem Cell & Regenerative Medicine, Daping Hospital and Research Institute of Surgery, Chongqing, China
| | - Ping Chen
- College of Sericulture, Textile and Biomass Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
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12
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Prognostic and Predictive Cross-Roads of Microsatellite Instability and Immune Response to Colon Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21249680. [PMID: 33353162 PMCID: PMC7766746 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21249680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding molecular features of colon cancer has shed light on its pathogenesis and progression. Over time, some of these features acquired clinical dignity and were incorporated in decision making. Namely, microsatellite instability (MSI) due to mismatch repair of defects, which primarily was adopted for the diagnosis of Lynch syndrome, became recognized as the biomarker of a different disease type, showing a less aggressive behavior. MSI tumors harbor high amounts of tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) due to their peculiar load in neoantigens. However, microsatellite stable colon cancer may also show high amounts of TILs, and this feature is as well associated with better outcomes. High TIL loads are in general associated with a favorable prognosis, especially in stage II colon cancer, and therein identifies a patient subset with the lowest probability of relapse. With respect to post-surgical adjuvant treatment, particularly in stage III, TILs predictive ability seems to weaken along with the progression of the disease, being less evident in high risk patients. Moving from cohort studies to the analysis of a series from clinical trials contributed to increase the robustness of TILs as a biomarker. The employment of high TIL densities as an indicator of good prognosis in early-stage colon cancers is strongly advisable, while in late-stage colon cancers the employment as an indicator of good responsiveness to post-surgical therapy requires refinement. It remains to be clarified whether TILs could help in identifying those patients with node-positive cancers to whom adjuvant treatment could be spared, at least in low-risk groups as defined by the TNM staging system.
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13
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Rosuvastatin inhibit spheroid formation and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in prostate cancer PC-3 cell line. Mol Biol Rep 2020; 47:8727-8737. [PMID: 33085048 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-020-05918-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
There is a growing body of evidence suggesting antitumor activity of statins. In metastasis and invasion of cancer the Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) of cancerous cells is an important process. Our goal was to understand the effect of Rosuvastatin on the EMT process in human prostate cancer cell line PC-3 cells in adherent 2 dimensional (2D) and spheroid 3 dimensional (3D) culture. PC-3 cells were cultured in adherence and/or spheroid culture system. The cells were treated with different concentrations of Rosuvastatin. After 96 h, the cell proliferation, viability, type and number of spheroids, the expression of E-Cadherin, Vimentin and Zeb-1 were analyzed. The results show that Rosuvastatin inhibit cell proliferation without significant cytotoxicity. The spheroid formation and spheroid sizes were inhibited by Rousavastatin in a dose dependent manner. In 2D culture, expression of the E-Cadherin was increased up to 2.0 fold in a dose dependent linear manner (R2 = 0.89). Vimentin and Zeb-1 expressions were decreased up to 40 and 20% of untreated control cells expression level respectively, (R2 = 0.99 and 0.92). In 3D system, the expression of E-Cadherin did not show a significant change, but Vimentin and Zeb-1 expressions were decreased up to 70 and 40% of untreated control cells expression level respectively in a dose dependent linear manner in comparison to 2D system (R2 = 0.36 and 0.90). Our finding indicates that Rousavastatin inhibit cell proliferation and spheroid formation of PC-3 cells. This inhibition accompanies by inhibition of EMT markers. Therefor, this cholesterol lowering agent could probably have potential in the prevention and suppression of cancer in androgen dependent prostate cancer.
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14
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Wang SC, Sun HL, Hsu YH, Liu SH, Lii CK, Tsai CH, Liu KL, Huang CS, Li CC. α-Linolenic acid inhibits the migration of human triple-negative breast cancer cells by attenuating Twist1 expression and suppressing Twist1-mediated epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Biochem Pharmacol 2020; 180:114152. [PMID: 32679125 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2020.114152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
α-Linolenic acid (ALA), an essential fatty acid, has anticancer activity in breast cancer, but the mechanism of its effects in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) remains unclear. We investigated the effect of ALA on Twist1, which is required to initiate epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and promotes tumor metastasis, and Twist1-mediated migration in MDA-MB231, MDA-MB468 and Hs578T cells. Twist1 protein was constitutively expressed in these TNBC cells, particularly MDA-MB-231 cells. Treatment with 100 μM ALA and Twist1 siRNA markedly decreased the Twist1 protein level and cell migration. Moreover, ALA transiently attenuated the nuclear accumulation of STAT3α as well as Twist1 mRNA expression. Treatment with ALA significantly attenuated the phosphorylation of JNK, ERK and Akt and decreased the phosphorylation of Twist1 at serine 68 in MDA-MB-231 cells. ALA accelerated Twist1 degradation in the presence of cycloheximide, whereas the ubiquitination and degradation of Twist1 by ALA was suppressed by MG-132. Pretreatment with ALA mimicked Twist1 siRNA, increased the protein expression of epithelial markers such as E-cadherin, and decreased the protein expression of mesenchymal markers including Twist1, Snail2, N-cadherin, vimentin, and fibronectin. Our findings suggest that ALA can be used not only to abolish EMT but also to suppress Twist1-mediated migration in TNBC cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shih-Chung Wang
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Changhua Christian Children's Hospital, Changhua, Taiwan
| | - Hai-Lun Sun
- Department of Pediatrics, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan; School of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Immunology Research Center, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Hsuan Hsu
- Department of Nutrition, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Hui Liu
- Department of Nutrition, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chong-Kuei Lii
- Department of Nutrition, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Health and Nutrition Biotechnology, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Han Tsai
- Department of Nutrition, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Kai-Li Liu
- Department of Nutrition, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Nutrition, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chin-Shiu Huang
- Department of Health and Nutrition Biotechnology, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Chun Li
- Department of Nutrition, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Nutrition, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan.
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15
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Khot M, Sreekumar D, Jahagirdar S, Kulkarni A, Hari K, Faseela EE, Sabarinathan R, Jolly MK, Sengupta K. Twist1 induces chromosomal instability (CIN) in colorectal cancer cells. Hum Mol Genet 2020; 29:1673-1688. [PMID: 32337580 PMCID: PMC7322571 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddaa076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Revised: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Twist1 is a basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor, essential during early development in mammals. While Twist1 induces epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), here we show that Twist1 overexpression enhances nuclear and mitotic aberrations. This is accompanied by an increase in whole chromosomal copy number gains and losses, underscoring the role of Twist1 in inducing chromosomal instability (CIN) in colorectal cancer cells. Array comparative genomic hybridization (array CGH) analysis further shows sub-chromosomal deletions, consistent with an increased frequency of DNA double strand breaks (DSBs). Remarkably, Twist1 overexpression downmodulates key cell cycle checkpoint factors-Bub1, BubR1, Mad1 and Mad2-that regulate CIN. Mathematical simulations using the RACIPE tool show a negative correlation of Twist1 with E-cadherin and BubR1. Data analyses of gene expression profiles of patient samples from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) reveal a positive correlation between Twist1 and mesenchymal genes across cancers, whereas the correlation of TWIST1 with CIN and DSB genes is cancer subtype-specific. Taken together, these studies highlight the mechanistic involvement of Twist1 in the deregulation of factors that maintain genome stability during EMT in colorectal cancer cells. Twist1 overexpression enhances genome instability in the context of EMT that further contributes to cellular heterogeneity. In addition, these studies imply that Twist1 downmodulates nuclear lamins that further alter spatiotemporal organization of the cancer genome and epigenome. Notwithstanding their genetic background, colorectal cancer cells nevertheless maintain their overall ploidy, while the downstream effects of Twist1 enhance CIN and DNA damage enriching for sub-populations of aggressive cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maithilee Khot
- B-216, Chromosome Biology Lab (CBL), Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Dr Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India
| | - Dyuthi Sreekumar
- B-216, Chromosome Biology Lab (CBL), Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Dr Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India
| | - Sanika Jahagirdar
- B-216, Chromosome Biology Lab (CBL), Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Dr Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India
| | - Apoorva Kulkarni
- B-216, Chromosome Biology Lab (CBL), Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Dr Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India
| | - Kishore Hari
- Center for BioSystems Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru 560012, India
| | | | - Radhakrishnan Sabarinathan
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bengaluru 560065, India
| | - Mohit Kumar Jolly
- Center for BioSystems Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru 560012, India
| | - Kundan Sengupta
- B-216, Chromosome Biology Lab (CBL), Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Dr Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India
- To whom correspondence should be addressed at: B-216, Chromosome Biology Lab (CBL), Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Dr Homi Bhabha Road, Pashan, Pune 411008, India. Tel: +91 20 25908071; Fax: +91-20-20251566;
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16
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Sommariva M, Gagliano N. E-Cadherin in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma: A Multifaceted Actor during EMT. Cells 2020; 9:E1040. [PMID: 32331358 PMCID: PMC7226001 DOI: 10.3390/cells9041040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a step-wise process observed in normal and tumor cells leading to a switch from epithelial to mesenchymal phenotype. In tumors, EMT provides cancer cells with a metastatic phenotype characterized by E-cadherin down-regulation, cytoskeleton reorganization, motile and invasive potential. E-cadherin down-regulation is known as a key event during EMT. However, E-cadherin expression can be influenced by the different experimental settings and environmental stimuli so that the paradigm of EMT based on the loss of E-cadherin determining tumor cell behavior and fate often becomes an open question. In this review, we aimed at focusing on some critical points in order to improve the knowledge of the dynamic role of epithelial cells plasticity in EMT and, specifically, address the role of E-cadherin as a marker for the EMT axis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicoletta Gagliano
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy;
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17
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Luo Y, Chen J, Liu M, Chen S, Su X, Su J, Zhao C, Han Z, Shi M, Ma X, Huang H. Twist1 promotes dendritic cell-mediated antitumor immunity. Exp Cell Res 2020; 392:112003. [PMID: 32278689 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2020.112003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Revised: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) play a central role in autoimmunity, immune homeostasis, and presentation of tumor antigens to T cells in order to prime antitumor responses. The number of tumor-infiltrating DCs is associated with survival and prognosis in cancer. Twist1 is a well-known regulator of tumor initiation and promotion, but whether and how DC-derived Twist1 regulates antitumor responses remains poorly understood. Here, we generated a mouse line with Twist1 conditionally depleted in DCs and found that Twist1-deficiency in DCs did not affect the DCs and T cell homeostasis under steady-state conditions; however, in melanoma models, the proportion of conventional DCs (cDCs) in draining lymph nodes (DLNs) was significantly decreased. Accordingly, a decreased ratio and number of tumor-infiltrating cDCs were observed, which reduced the recruitment of tumor-infiltrating T cells. Furthermore, production of IFN-γ, a crucial antitumor factor, by T cells, was dramatically decreased, which can further dampen the T cell antitumor functions. Collectively, our data indicate that Twist1 in DCs regulates antitumor functions by maintain the number of tumor-infiltrating DCs and T cells, and their antitumor activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuechen Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, National Clinical Research Center for Blood Disease, Institute of Hematology & Hospital of Blood Disease, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, 300020, China
| | - Jiadi Chen
- Fujian Institute of Hematology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory on Hematology, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, Fuzhou, China
| | - Maolan Liu
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Hematology Research Center of Yunnan Province, Kunming, 650032, China
| | - Song Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, National Clinical Research Center for Blood Disease, Institute of Hematology & Hospital of Blood Disease, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, 300020, China
| | - Xiuhua Su
- State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, National Clinical Research Center for Blood Disease, Institute of Hematology & Hospital of Blood Disease, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, 300020, China
| | - Jing Su
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Hematology Research Center of Yunnan Province, Kunming, 650032, China
| | - Chunxiao Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, National Clinical Research Center for Blood Disease, Institute of Hematology & Hospital of Blood Disease, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, 300020, China
| | - Zhongchao Han
- State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, National Clinical Research Center for Blood Disease, Institute of Hematology & Hospital of Blood Disease, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, 300020, China
| | - Mingxia Shi
- Department of Hematology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Hematology Research Center of Yunnan Province, Kunming, 650032, China.
| | - Xiaotong Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, National Clinical Research Center for Blood Disease, Institute of Hematology & Hospital of Blood Disease, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, 300020, China.
| | - Huifang Huang
- Central Laboratory, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, Fuzhou, China.
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18
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Iron Metabolism in Cancer Progression. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21062257. [PMID: 32214052 PMCID: PMC7139548 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21062257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Revised: 03/21/2020] [Accepted: 03/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron is indispensable for cell metabolism of both normal and cancer cells. In the latter, several disruptions of its metabolism occur at the steps of tumor initiation, progression and metastasis. Noticeably, cancer cells require a large amount of iron, and exhibit a strong dependence on it for their proliferation. Numerous iron metabolism-related proteins and signaling pathways are altered by iron in malignancies, displaying the pivotal role of iron in cancer. Iron homeostasis is regulated at several levels, from absorption by enterocytes to recycling by macrophages and storage in hepatocytes. Mutations in HFE gene alter iron homeostasis leading to hereditary hemochromatosis and to an increased cancer risk because the accumulation of iron induces oxidative DNA damage and free radical activity. Additionally, the iron capability to modulate immune responses is pivotal in cancer progression. Macrophages show an iron release phenotype and potentially deliver iron to cancer cells, resulting in tumor promotion. Overall, alterations in iron metabolism are among the metabolic and immunological hallmarks of cancer, and further studies are required to dissect how perturbations of this element relate to tumor development and progression.
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19
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Fan X, Jin S, Li Y, Khadaroo PA, Dai Y, He L, Zhou D, Lin H. Genetic And Epigenetic Regulation Of E-Cadherin Signaling In Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancer Manag Res 2019; 11:8947-8963. [PMID: 31802937 PMCID: PMC6801489 DOI: 10.2147/cmar.s225606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
E-cadherin is well known as a growth and invasion suppressor and belongs to the large cadherin family. Loss of E-cadherin is widely known as the hallmark of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) with the involvement of transcription factors such as Snail, Slug, Twist and Zeb1/2. Tumor cells undergoing EMT could migrate to distant sites and become metastases. Recently, numerous studies have revealed how the expression of E-cadherin is regulated by different kinds of genetic and epigenetic alteration, which are implicated in several crucial transcription factors and pathways. E-cadherin signaling plays an important role in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) initiation and progression considering the highly mutated frequency of CTNNB1 (27%). Combining the data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database and previous studies, we have summarized the roles of gene mutations, chromosome instability, DNA methylation, histone modifications and non-coding RNA in E-cadherin in HCC. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of the relationship between these modifications and HCC. Perspectives on E-cadherin-related research in HCC are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxiao Fan
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Shengxi Jin
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China.,School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yirun Li
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Parikshit Asutosh Khadaroo
- School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China.,School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Yili Dai
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China.,School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Lifeng He
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Daizhan Zhou
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Hui Lin
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
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20
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Borroni EM, Qehajaj D, Farina FM, Yiu D, Bresalier RS, Chiriva-Internati M, Mirandola L, Štifter S, Laghi L, Grizzi F. Fusobacterium nucleatum and the Immune System in Colorectal Cancer. CURRENT COLORECTAL CANCER REPORTS 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11888-019-00442-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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21
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Epithelial-To-Mesenchymal Transition Markers and CD44 Isoforms Are Differently Expressed in 2D and 3D Cell Cultures of Prostate Cancer Cells. Cells 2019; 8:cells8020143. [PMID: 30754655 PMCID: PMC6406374 DOI: 10.3390/cells8020143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Revised: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) cell cultures allow the mimic of functions of living tissues and provide key information encoded in tissue architecture. Considered the pivotal role of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in carcinoma progression, including prostate cancer (PCa), we aimed at investigating the effect of the 3D arrangement on the expression of some key markers of EMT in cultured human prostate cancer (PCa) cells, to better understand PCa cell behavior. PC3 and DU145 PCa cells were cultured in RPMI cell culture medium either in 2D-monolayers or in 3D-spheroids. The main EMT markers E-cadherin, N-cadherin, α-smooth muscle actin (αSMA), vimentin, Snail, Slug, Twist and Zeb1 were evaluated by confocal microscopy, real-time PCR and Western blot. Confocal microscopy revealed that E-cadherin was similarly expressed at the cell boundaries on the plasma membrane of PCa cells grown in 2D-monolayers, as well as in 3D-spheroids, but resulted up-regulated in 3D-spheroids, compared to 2D-monolayers, at the mRNA and protein level. Moreover, markers of the mesenchymal phenotype were expressed at very low levels in 3D-spheroids, suggesting important differences in the phenotype of PCa cells grown in 3D-spheroids or in 2D-monolayers. Considered as a whole, our findings contribute to a clarification of the role of EMT in PCa and confirm that a 3D cell culture model could provide deeper insight into the understanding of the biology of PCa.
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22
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Procacci P, Moscheni C, Sartori P, Sommariva M, Gagliano N. Tumor⁻Stroma Cross-Talk in Human Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma: A Focus on the Effect of the Extracellular Matrix on Tumor Cell Phenotype and Invasive Potential. Cells 2018; 7:cells7100158. [PMID: 30301152 PMCID: PMC6209911 DOI: 10.3390/cells7100158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Revised: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The extracellular matrix (ECM) in the tumor microenvironment modulates the cancer cell phenotype, especially in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), a tumor characterized by an intense desmoplastic reaction. Because the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), a process that provides cancer cells with a metastatic phenotype, plays an important role in PDAC progression, the authors aimed to explore in vitro the interactions between human PDAC cells and ECM components of the PDAC microenvironment, focusing on the expression of EMT markers and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) that are able to digest the basement membrane during tumor invasion. EMT markers and the invasive potential of HPAF-II, HPAC, and PL45 cells grown on different ECM substrates (fibronectin, laminin, and collagen) were analyzed. While N-cadherin, αSMA, and type I collagen were not significantly affected by ECM components, the E-cadherin/β-catenin complex was highly expressed in all the experimental conditions, and E-cadherin was upregulated by collagen in PL45 cells. Cell migration was unaffected by fibronectin and delayed by laminin. In contrast, collagen significantly stimulated cell migration and the secretion of MMPs. This study's results showed that ECM components impacted cell migration and invasive potential differently. Collagen exerted a more evident effect, providing new insights into the understanding of the intricate interplay between ECM molecules and cancer cells, in order to find novel therapeutic targets for PDAC treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Procacci
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, via L. Mangiagalli 31, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Claudia Moscheni
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "L. Sacco", Università degli Studi di Milano, via G.B. Grassi 74, 20157 Milan, Italy.
| | - Patrizia Sartori
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, via L. Mangiagalli 31, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Michele Sommariva
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, via L. Mangiagalli 31, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - Nicoletta Gagliano
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, via L. Mangiagalli 31, 20133 Milan, Italy.
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23
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Oh BY, Kim SY, Lee YS, Hong HK, Kim TW, Kim SH, Lee WY, Cho YB. Twist1-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition according to microsatellite instability status in colon cancer cells. Oncotarget 2018; 7:57066-57076. [PMID: 27494849 PMCID: PMC5302973 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.10974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2015] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) with microsatellite instability (MSI) may exhibit impaired epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), but little is known about the underlying mechanisms of this phenomenon. In this study, we investigated the role of Twist1 and its downstream signaling cascades in EMT induction according to MSI status. To investigate the effects of Twist1 on EMT induction according to MSI status, MSS LS513 and MSI LoVo colon cancer cell lines, which overexpress human Twist1, were generated. Twist1-induced EMT and its downstream signaling pathways were evaluated via in vitro and in vivo experiments. We found that Twist1 induced EMT markers and stem cell-like characteristics via AKT signaling pathways. Twist1 induced activation of AKT and suppression of glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3β, which resulted in the activation of β-catenin, increasing CD44 expression. In addition, Twist1 activated the AKT-induced NF-κB pathway, increasing CD44 and CD166 expression. Activation of both the AKT/GSK-3β/β-catenin and AKT/NF-κB pathways occurred in MSS LS513 cells, while only the AKT/GSK-3β/β-catenin pathway was activated in MSI LoVo cells. In conclusion, Twist1 induces stem cell-like characteristics in colon cancer cell lines related to EMT via AKT signaling pathways, and those pathways depend on MSI status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Young Oh
- Department of Surgery, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - So-Young Kim
- Samsung Biomedical Research Institute, Samsung Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Yeo Song Lee
- Samsung Biomedical Research Institute, Samsung Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hye Kyung Hong
- Samsung Biomedical Research Institute, Samsung Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Tae Won Kim
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, SAIHST, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Seok Hyung Kim
- Department of Pathology, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Woo Yong Lee
- Department of Surgery, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Department of Health Sciences and Technology, SAIHST, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Yong Beom Cho
- Department of Surgery, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Department of Health Sciences and Technology, SAIHST, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Korea.,Department of Medical Device Management & Research, SAIHST, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Korea
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24
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Grizzi F, Basso G, Borroni EM, Cavalleri T, Bianchi P, Stifter S, Chiriva-Internati M, Malesci A, Laghi L. Evolving notions on immune response in colorectal cancer and their implications for biomarker development. Inflamm Res 2018; 67:375-389. [PMID: 29322204 DOI: 10.1007/s00011-017-1128-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Revised: 12/27/2017] [Accepted: 12/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Colorectal cancer (CRC) still represents the third most commonly diagnosed type of cancer in men and women worldwide. CRC is acknowledged as a heterogeneous disease that develops through a multi-step sequence of events driven by clonal selections; this observation is sustained by the fact that histologically similar tumors may have completely different outcomes, including a varied response to therapy. METHODS In "early" and "intermediate" stage of CRC (stages II and III, respectively) there is a compelling need for new biomarkers fit to assess the metastatic potential of their disease, selecting patients with aggressive disease that might benefit from adjuvant and targeted therapies. Therefore, we review the actual notions on immune response in colorectal cancer and their implications for biomarker development. RESULTS The recognition of the key role of immune cells in human cancer progression has recently drawn attention on the tumor immune microenvironment, as a source of new indicators of tumor outcome and response to therapy. Thus, beside consolidated histopathological biomarkers, immune endpoints are now emerging as potential biomarkers. CONCLUSIONS The introduction of immune signatures and cellular and molecular components of the immune system as biomarkers is particularly important considering the increasing use of immune-based cancer therapies as therapeutic strategies for cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Grizzi
- Department of Immunology and Inflammation, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 56, 20089, Rozzano, Milan, Italy.
| | - Gianluca Basso
- Laboratory of Molecular Gastroenterology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy
| | - Elena Monica Borroni
- Department of Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Tommaso Cavalleri
- Laboratory of Molecular Gastroenterology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Bianchi
- Laboratory of Molecular Gastroenterology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy
| | - Sanja Stifter
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | | | - Alberto Malesci
- Laboratory of Molecular Gastroenterology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy
- Department of Gastroenterology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy
- Department of Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Luigi Laghi
- Laboratory of Molecular Gastroenterology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy
- Department of Gastroenterology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy
- Hereditary Cancer Genetics Clinic, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy
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25
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Vu T, Datta PK. Regulation of EMT in Colorectal Cancer: A Culprit in Metastasis. Cancers (Basel) 2017; 9:cancers9120171. [PMID: 29258163 PMCID: PMC5742819 DOI: 10.3390/cancers9120171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 332] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2017] [Revised: 12/05/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a process during which cells lose their epithelial characteristics, for instance cell polarity and cell-cell contact, and gain mesenchymal properties, such as increased motility. In colorectal cancer (CRC), EMT is associated with an invasive or metastatic phenotype. In this review, we discuss recent studies exploring novel regulation mechanisms of EMT in CRC, including the identification of new CRC EMT regulators. Upregulation of inducers can promote EMT, leading to increased invasiveness and metastasis in CRC. These inducers can downregulate E-cadherin and upregulate N-cadherin and vimentin (VIM) through modulating EMT-related signaling pathways, for instance WNT/β-catenin and TGF-β, and EMT transcription factors, such as zinc finger E-box binding homeobox 1 (ZEB1) and ZEB2. In addition, several microRNAs (miRNAs), including members of the miR-34 and miR-200 families, are found to target mRNAs of EMT-transcription factors, for example ZEB1, ZEB2, or SNAIL. Downregulation of these miRNAs is associated with distant metastasis and advanced stage tumors. Furthermore, the role of EMT in circulating tumor cells (CTCs) is also discussed. Mesenchymal markers on the surface of EMT CTCs were found to be associated with metastasis and could serve as potential biomarkers for metastasis. Altogether, these studies indicate that EMT is orchestrated by a complicated network, involving regulators of different signaling pathways. Further studies are required to understand the mechanisms underlying EMT in CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trung Vu
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA.
| | - Pran K Datta
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA.
- Birmingham Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Birmingham, AL 35233, USA.
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26
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Peterson SE, Garitaonandia I, Loring JF. The tumorigenic potential of pluripotent stem cells: What can we do to minimize it? Bioessays 2017; 38 Suppl 1:S86-95. [PMID: 27417126 DOI: 10.1002/bies.201670915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2015] [Revised: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 02/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) have the potential to fundamentally change the way that we go about treating and understanding human disease. Despite this extraordinary potential, these cells also have an innate capability to form tumors in immunocompromised individuals when they are introduced in their pluripotent state. Although current therapeutic strategies involve transplantation of only differentiated hPSC derivatives, there is still a concern that transplanted cell populations could contain a small percentage of cells that are not fully differentiated. In addition, these cells have been frequently reported to acquire genetic alterations that, in some cases, are associated with certain types of human cancers. Here, we try to separate the panic from reality and rationally evaluate the true tumorigenic potential of these cells. We also discuss a recent study examining the effect of culture conditions on the genetic integrity of hPSCs. Finally, we present a set of sensible guidelines for minimizing the tumorigenic potential of hPSC-derived cells. © 2016 The Authors. Inside the Cell published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne E Peterson
- Department of Chemical Physiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA.,Center for Regenerative Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Ibon Garitaonandia
- Department of Neurogenetics, International Stem Cell Corporation, Oceanside, CA, USA
| | - Jeanne F Loring
- Department of Chemical Physiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA.,Center for Regenerative Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
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27
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Ma J, Zeng S, Zhang Y, Deng G, Qu Y, Guo C, Yin L, Han Y, Cai C, Li Y, Wang G, Bonkovsky HL, Shen H. BMP4 promotes oxaliplatin resistance by an induction of epithelial-mesenchymal transition via MEK1/ERK/ELK1 signaling in hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer Lett 2017; 411:117-129. [PMID: 28987388 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2017.09.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2017] [Revised: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bone morphogenetic protein-4 (BMP4) is a key regulator of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), which is crucial for cancer cells to acquire chemoresistance. The effects of BMP4 on OXA sensitivity in HCC need to be elucidated. METHODS Functional analysis of BMP4 on EMT-regulated OXA sensitivity was performed in human HCC specimens, in the HCC cell lines HepG2 and HCCLM3, and in a subcutaneous tumor model receiving OXA treatment. The downstream signaling targets of BMP4 in HCC were profiled and confirmed. RESULTS BMP4 expression was significantly increased in HCC tissue, and was correlated with tumor de-differentiation and unfavorable prognosis. BMP4 promoted HCC EMT and was correlated with OXA resistance. Blocking of BMP4 reversed EMT and increased OXA chemosensitivity in vitro and in vivo. ELK1, a transcription factor involved in EMT, was an important mediator of BMP4-induced OXA resistance in HCC. Blocking of MEK/ERK/ELK1 attenuated BMP4-induced EMT and enhanced OXA sensitivity. CONCLUSIONS BMP4 induces EMT and OXA chemoresistance via MEK/ERK/ELK1 signaling pathway in HCC. BMP4 may be a valuable therapeutic target for HCC patients receiving OXA-based chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junli Ma
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China; Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China
| | - Shan Zeng
- Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China; Key Laboratory for Molecular Radiation Oncology of Hunan Province, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China; Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China
| | - Ganlu Deng
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China; Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China
| | - Yanling Qu
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China; Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China
| | - Cao Guo
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China; Key Laboratory for Molecular Radiation Oncology of Hunan Province, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China
| | - Ling Yin
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China; Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China
| | - Ying Han
- Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China
| | - Changjing Cai
- Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China; Key Laboratory for Molecular Radiation Oncology of Hunan Province, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China
| | - Yiyi Li
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China; Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China
| | - Guqi Wang
- School of Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157 USA; Whole Pharm Biotechnology Corp., Matthews, NC 28105, USA
| | - Herbert L Bonkovsky
- School of Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157 USA.
| | - Hong Shen
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China; Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China; Key Laboratory for Molecular Radiation Oncology of Hunan Province, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China.
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28
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Zhou J, Li X, Wu M, Lin C, Guo Y, Tian B. Knockdown of Long Noncoding RNA GHET1 Inhibits Cell Proliferation and Invasion of Colorectal Cancer. Oncol Res 2017; 23:303-9. [PMID: 27131316 PMCID: PMC7838607 DOI: 10.3727/096504016x14567549091305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging evidence has identified the vital role of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) in the development of colorectal cancer. In this study, we aimed to investigate the role of lncRNA gastric carcinoma highly expressed transcript 1 (GHET1) in colorectal cancer. We analyzed the expression of GHET1 in colorectal cancer (CRC) tissues by using ISH. We found that GHET1 expression was significantly increased in the CRC samples compared with adjacent tissues. Furthermore, the cancer tissues had higher GHET1 mRNA levels than their matched adjacent tissues. GHET1 expression was also significantly increased in the CRC cell lines compared with human normal colon epithelial cells. Downregulation of GHET1 mediated by shRNA suppressed the proliferation, cell cycle arrest, migration, and invasion of colorectal cancer cells in vitro. In addition, inhibition of GHET1 reversed the epithelial–mesenchymal transition in colorectal cancer cell lines. Taken together, our results suggest the potential use of GHET1 as a therapeutic target of colorectal cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianyu Zhou
- Department of General Surgery, The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
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29
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Berretta M, Alessandrini L, De Divitiis C, Nasti G, Lleshi A, Di Francia R, Facchini G, Cavaliere C, Buonerba C, Canzonieri V. Serum and tissue markers in colorectal cancer: State of art. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2017; 111:103-116. [PMID: 28259285 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2017.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2016] [Revised: 12/15/2016] [Accepted: 01/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) represents one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers worldwide. It is the second leading cause of cancer death in Western Countries. In the last decade, the survival of patients with metastatic CRC has improved dramatically. Due to the advent of new drugs (irinotecan and oxaliplatin) and target therapies (i.e. bevacizumab, cetuximab, panitumab, aflibercept and regorafenib), the median overall survival has risen from about 12 mo in the mid nineties to 30 mo recently. Molecular studies have recently widened the opportunity for testing new possible markers, but actually, only few markers can be recommended for practical use in clinic. In the next future, the hope is to have a complete panel of clinical biomarkers to use in every setting of CRC disease, and at the same time: 1) to receive information about prognostic significance by their expression and 2) to be oriented in the choice of the adequate treatment. Moreover, molecular analyses have shown that the natural history of all CRCs is not the same. Individual patients with same stage tumors may have different long-term prognosis and response to therapy. In addition, some prognostic variables are likely to be more important than others. Here we review the role of serum and tissue markers according to the recently published English literature. This paper is an extension of the article "Biological and clinical markers in colorectal cancer: state of art" by Cappellani A published in Jan 2010.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimiliano Berretta
- Department of Medical Oncology, National Cancer Institute, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico of Aviano, IRCCS, 33081 Aviano, PN, Italy.
| | - Lara Alessandrini
- Division of Pathology, National Cancer Institute, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico of Aviano, IRCCS, 33081 Aviano, PN, Italy
| | - Chiara De Divitiis
- Department of Medical Oncology, National Cancer Institute IRCCS Pascale, Naples, Italy
| | - Guglielmo Nasti
- Department of Medical Oncology, National Cancer Institute IRCCS Pascale, Naples, Italy
| | - Arben Lleshi
- Department of Medical Oncology, National Cancer Institute, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico of Aviano, IRCCS, 33081 Aviano, PN, Italy
| | - Raffaele Di Francia
- Hematology-Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation Unit, National Cancer Institute IRCCS Pascale, Naples, Italy
| | - Gaetano Facchini
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Uro-Gynaecological Oncology, Istituto Nazionale Tumori "Fondazione G. Pascale" - IRCCS, Naples, Italy
| | - Carla Cavaliere
- Department of Onco-Ematology Medical Oncology, S.G. Moscati Hospital of Taranto, Taranto, Italy
| | - Carlo Buonerba
- Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, University Federico II of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Canzonieri
- Division of Pathology, National Cancer Institute, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico of Aviano, IRCCS, 33081 Aviano, PN, Italy
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30
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Yeung KT, Yang J. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition in tumor metastasis. Mol Oncol 2016; 11:28-39. [PMID: 28085222 PMCID: PMC5242415 DOI: 10.1002/1878-0261.12017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 465] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2016] [Revised: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a developmental program that enables stationary epithelial cells to gain the ability to migrate and invade as single cells. Tumor cells reactivate EMT to acquire molecular alterations that enable the partial loss of epithelial features and partial gain of a mesenchymal phenotype. Our understanding of the contribution of EMT to tumor invasion, migration, and metastatic outgrowth has evolved over the past decade. In this review, we provide a summary of both historic and recent studies on the role of EMT in the metastatic cascade from various experimental systems, including cancer cell lines, genetic mouse tumor models, and clinical human breast cancer tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kay T Yeung
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Jing Yang
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Moores Cancer Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
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31
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Przygodzka P, Papiewska-Pajak I, Bogusz H, Kryczka J, Sobierajska K, Kowalska MA, Boncela J. Neuromedin U is upregulated by Snail at early stages of EMT in HT29 colon cancer cells. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2016; 1860:2445-2453. [PMID: 27450890 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2016.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Revised: 07/07/2016] [Accepted: 07/15/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is considered a core process that facilitates the escape of cancer cells from the primary tumor site. The transcription factor Snail was identified as a key regulator of EMT; however, the cascade of regulatory events leading to metastasis remains unknown and new predictive markers of the process are awaited. METHODS Gene expressions were analysed using real-time PCR, protein level by Western immunoblotting and confocal imaging. The motility of the cells was examined using time-lapse microscopy. Affymetrix GeneChip Human Genome U133 Plus 2.0 analysis was performed to identify transcriptomic changes upon Snail. Snail silencing was performed using siRNA nucleofection. NMU detection was performed by ELISA. RESULTS HT29 cells overexpressing Snail showed changed morphology, functions and transcriptomic profile indicating EMT induction. Changes in expression of 324 genes previously correlated with cell motility were observed. Neuromedin U was the second highest upregulated gene in HT29-Snail cells. This increase was validated by real-time PCR. Additionally elevated NMU protein was detected by ELISA in cell media. CONCLUSIONS These results show that Snail in HT29 cells regulates early phenotype conversion towards an intermediate epithelial state. We provided the first evidence that neuromedin U is associated with Snail regulatory function of metastatic induction in colon cancer cells. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE We described the global, early transcriptomic changes induced through Snail in HT29 colon cancer cells and suggested NMU involvement in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Helena Bogusz
- Institute of Medical Biology, PAS, 106 Lodowa Street, 93232 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Jakub Kryczka
- Institute of Medical Biology, PAS, 106 Lodowa Street, 93232 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Katarzyna Sobierajska
- Department of Molecular Cell Mechanisms, Medical University, 6/8 Mazowiecka Street, 92215 Lodz, Poland.
| | - M Anna Kowalska
- Institute of Medical Biology, PAS, 106 Lodowa Street, 93232 Lodz, Poland; Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | - Joanna Boncela
- Institute of Medical Biology, PAS, 106 Lodowa Street, 93232 Lodz, Poland.
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32
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Liang L, Huang J. Oxymatrine inhibits epithelial-mesenchymal transition through regulation of NF-κB signaling in colorectal cancer cells. Oncol Rep 2016; 36:1333-8. [PMID: 27430890 DOI: 10.3892/or.2016.4927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxymatrine, a traditional Chinese herb extracted from Sophora flavescens Ait., displays strong anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities, but how oxymatrine exhibits anticarcinogenic effects in human colorectal cancer (CRC) remains uncertain. The present study aimed to elucidate the exact mechanism by which oxymatrine exhibits anticarcinogenic effects in CRC using the human colon cancer RKO cell line as the experimental model. CRC cells were treated with oxymatrine, and cell proliferation, migration and invasion were examined by colorimetric MTT, Transwell chamber and wound healing assays, respectively. In addition, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers and p65 were assessed by western blot analysis. Our study demonstrated that oxymatrine hindered the proliferation, migration and invasion of the CRC cells. Mechanistically, we found that oxymatrine modulated the expression of EMT markers including E-cadherin, Snail and N-cadherin, and reduced expression of p65 which is crucial to NF-κB activation. In conclusion, our results indicate that oxymatrine reduces the activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway and inhibits CRC invasion by modulating EMT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Liang
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi 530021, P.R. China
| | - Jiean Huang
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi 530021, P.R. China
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33
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Gagliano N, Celesti G, Tacchini L, Pluchino S, Sforza C, Rasile M, Valerio V, Laghi L, Conte V, Procacci P. Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: Characterization in a 3D-cell culture model. World J Gastroenterol 2016; 22:4466-4483. [PMID: 27182158 PMCID: PMC4858630 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v22.i18.4466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2016] [Revised: 03/02/2016] [Accepted: 03/14/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To analyze the effect of three-dimensional (3D)-arrangement on the expression of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition markers in pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PDAC) cells.
METHODS: HPAF-II, HPAC, and PL45 PDAC cells were cultured in either 2D-monolayers or 3D-spheroids. Ultrastructure was analyzed by transmission electron microscopy. The expression of E-cadherin, β-catenin, N-cadherin, collagen type I (COL-I), vimentin, α-smooth muscle actin (αSMA), and podoplanin was assayed by confocal microscopy in cells cultured on 12-mm diameter round coverslips and in 3D-spheroids. Gene expression for E-cadherin, Snail, Slug, Twist, Zeb1, and Zeb2 was quantified by real-time PCR. E-cadherin protein level and its electrophoretic pattern were studied by Western blot in cell lysates obtained from cells grown in 2D-monolayers and 3D-spheroids.
RESULTS: The E-cadherin/β-catenin complex was expressed in a similar way in plasma membrane cell boundaries in both 2D-monolayers and 3D-spheroids. E-cadherin increased in lysates obtained from 3D-spheroids, while cleavage fragments were more evident in 2D-monolayers. N-cadherin expression was observed in very few PDAC cells grown in 2D-monolayers, but was more evident in 3D-spheroids. Some cells expressing COL-I were observed in 3D-spheroids. Podoplanin, expressed in collectively migrating cells, and αSMA were similarly expressed in both experimental conditions. The concomitant maintenance of the E-cadherin/β-catenin complex at cell boundaries supports the hypothesis of a collective migration for these cells, which is consistent with podoplanin expression.
CONCLUSION: We show that a 3D-cell culture model could provide deeper insight into understanding the biology of PDAC and allow for the detection of marked differences in the phenotype of PDAC cells grown in 3D-spheroids.
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MESH Headings
- Antigens, CD
- Biomarkers, Tumor/genetics
- Biomarkers, Tumor/metabolism
- Blotting, Western
- Cadherins/genetics
- Cadherins/metabolism
- Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/genetics
- Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/metabolism
- Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/pathology
- Carcinoma, Pancreatic Ductal/ultrastructure
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Shape
- Cell Survival
- Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- Humans
- Membrane Glycoproteins/genetics
- Membrane Glycoproteins/metabolism
- Microscopy, Confocal
- Microscopy, Electron, Transmission
- Pancreatic Neoplasms/genetics
- Pancreatic Neoplasms/metabolism
- Pancreatic Neoplasms/pathology
- Pancreatic Neoplasms/ultrastructure
- Phenotype
- Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Spheroids, Cellular
- beta Catenin/genetics
- beta Catenin/metabolism
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34
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Vellinga TT, den Uil S, Rinkes IHB, Marvin D, Ponsioen B, Alvarez-Varela A, Fatrai S, Scheele C, Zwijnenburg DA, Snippert H, Vermeulen L, Medema JP, Stockmann HB, Koster J, Fijneman RJA, de Rooij J, Kranenburg O. Collagen-rich stroma in aggressive colon tumors induces mesenchymal gene expression and tumor cell invasion. Oncogene 2016; 35:5263-5271. [PMID: 26996663 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2016.60] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2015] [Revised: 01/11/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Gene expression-based classification systems have identified an aggressive colon cancer subtype with mesenchymal features, possibly reflecting epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of tumor cells. However, stromal fibroblasts contribute extensively to the mesenchymal phenotype of aggressive colon tumors, challenging the notion of tumor EMT. To separately study the neoplastic and stromal compartments of colon tumors, we have generated a stroma gene filter (SGF). Comparative analysis of stromahigh and stromalow tumors shows that the neoplastic cells in stromahigh tumors express specific EMT drivers (ZEB2, TWIST1, TWIST2) and that 98% of differentially expressed genes are strongly correlated with them. Analysis of differential gene expression between mesenchymal and epithelial cancer cell lines revealed that hepatocyte nuclear factor 4α (HNF4α), a transcriptional activator of intestinal (epithelial) differentiation, and its target genes are highly expressed in epithelial cancer cell lines. However, mesenchymal-type cancer cell lines expressed only part of the mesenchymal genes expressed by tumor-derived neoplastic cells, suggesting that external cues were lacking. We found that collagen-I dominates the extracellular matrix in aggressive colon cancer. Mimicking the tumor microenvironment by replacing laminin-rich Matrigel with collagen-I was sufficient to induce tumor-specific mesenchymal gene expression, suppression of HNF4α and its target genes, and collective tumor cell invasion of patient-derived colon tumor organoids. The data connect collagen-rich stroma to mesenchymal gene expression in neoplastic cells and to collective tumor cell invasion. Targeting the tumor-collagen interface may therefore be explored as a novel strategy in the treatment of aggressive colon cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- T T Vellinga
- Cancer Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - S den Uil
- Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Surgery, Spaarne Gasthuis, Haarlem, The Netherlands
| | - I H B Rinkes
- Cancer Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - D Marvin
- Cancer Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - B Ponsioen
- Department Molecular Cancer Research, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - A Alvarez-Varela
- Department Molecular Cancer Research, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - S Fatrai
- Cancer Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - C Scheele
- Department Molecular Cancer Research, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - D A Zwijnenburg
- Department of Oncogenomics, Academic Medical Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - H Snippert
- Department Molecular Cancer Research, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - L Vermeulen
- Center of Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Academic Medical Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J P Medema
- Center of Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Academic Medical Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - H B Stockmann
- Department of Surgery, Spaarne Gasthuis, Haarlem, The Netherlands
| | - J Koster
- Center of Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Academic Medical Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - R J A Fijneman
- Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Pathology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J de Rooij
- Department of Surgery, Spaarne Gasthuis, Haarlem, The Netherlands
| | - O Kranenburg
- Cancer Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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35
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Matsusaka S, Zhang W, Cao S, Hanna DL, Sunakawa Y, Sebio A, Ueno M, Yang D, Ning Y, Parekh A, Okazaki S, Berger MD, Ichikawa W, Mizunuma N, Lenz HJ. TWIST1 Polymorphisms Predict Survival in Patients with Metastatic Colorectal Cancer Receiving First-Line Bevacizumab plus Oxaliplatin-Based Chemotherapy. Mol Cancer Ther 2016; 15:1405-11. [PMID: 26983880 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-15-0751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is an important mechanism of resistance to angiogenesis inhibition. The ability of EMT pathway genetic variants to predict the efficacy of antiangiogenic therapy is unknown. We analyzed associations between functional SNPs in EMT-related genes and outcomes in metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) patients undergoing first-line bevacizumab-based chemotherapy. A total of 220 mCRC patients were included in this study: 143 patients treated with first-line bevacizumab-based chemotherapy (bevacizumab cohort) and 77 patients treated with cetuximab-based chemotherapy (cetuximab cohort). SNPs in TWIST1 (rs2285682, rs2285681), ZEB1 (rs10826943, rs2839658), SNAIL (rs1543442, rs4647958), and E-cadherin (rs16260) genes were analyzed by PCR-based direct sequencing. Patients carrying a TWIST1 rs2285682 G allele had a significantly longer median progression-free survival (PFS) of 18.1 months and overall survival (OS) of 44.1 months compared with those with the T/T genotype, who had a median PFS of 13.3 months (HR, 0.57; P = 0.003) and OS of 29.2 months (HR, 0.53; P = 0.001) in the bevacizumab cohort. In multivariate analysis, associations between TWIST1 rs2285682 and PFS and OS remained significant. Among women, the G allele of TWIST1 rs2285682 (PFS HR, 0.39; P = 0.007; OS HR, 0.30; P = 0.001) and TWIST1 rs2285681 (PFS HR, 0.27; P < 0.001; OS HR, 0.25; P < 0.001) was associated with improved survival. No significant associations were found in the cetuximab cohort. Our findings suggest that TWIST1 polymorphisms are associated with survival in mCRC patients treated with first-line bevacizumab-based chemotherapy and may serve as clinically useful biomarkers for antiangiogenic therapy. Mol Cancer Ther; 15(6); 1405-11. ©2016 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Matsusaka
- Division of Medical Oncology, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Wu Zhang
- Division of Medical Oncology, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Shu Cao
- Division of Medical Oncology, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Diana L Hanna
- Division of Medical Oncology, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Yu Sunakawa
- Division of Medical Oncology, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Ana Sebio
- Division of Medical Oncology, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Masashi Ueno
- Department of Gastroenterological Surgery, Cancer Institute Hospital, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Dongyun Yang
- Division of Medical Oncology, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Yan Ning
- Division of Medical Oncology, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Anish Parekh
- Division of Medical Oncology, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Satoshi Okazaki
- Division of Medical Oncology, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Martin D Berger
- Division of Medical Oncology, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Wataru Ichikawa
- Division of Medical Oncology, Showa University Fujigaoka Hospital, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Nobuyuki Mizunuma
- Department of Gastroenterology, Cancer Institute Hospital, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Heinz-Josef Lenz
- Division of Medical Oncology, Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California.
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36
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Galván JA, Helbling M, Koelzer VH, Tschan MP, Berger MD, Hädrich M, Schnüriger B, Karamitopoulou E, Dawson H, Inderbitzin D, Lugli A, Zlobec I. TWIST1 and TWIST2 promoter methylation and protein expression in tumor stroma influence the epithelial-mesenchymal transition-like tumor budding phenotype in colorectal cancer. Oncotarget 2015; 6:874-85. [PMID: 25528769 PMCID: PMC4359262 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.2716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2014] [Accepted: 11/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor budding in colorectal cancer is likened to an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) characterized predominantly by loss of E-cadherin and up-regulation of E-cadherin repressors like TWIST1 and TWIST2. Here we investigate a possible epigenetic link between TWIST proteins and the tumor budding phenotype. TWIST1 and TWIST2 promoter methylation and protein expression were investigated in six cell lines and further correlated with tumor budding in patient cohort 1 (n = 185). Patient cohort 2 (n = 112) was used to assess prognostic effects. Laser capture microdissection (LCM) of tumor epithelium and stroma from low- and high-grade budding cancers was performed. In colorectal cancers, TWIST1 and TWIST2 expression was essentially restricted to stromal cells. LCM results of a high-grade budding case show positive TWIST1 and TWIST2 stroma and no methylation, while the low-grade budding case was characterized by negative stroma and strong hypermethylation. TWIST1 stromal cell staining was associated with adverse features like more advanced pT (p = 0.0044), lymph node metastasis (p = 0.0301), lymphatic vessel invasion (p = 0.0373), perineural invasion (p = 0.0109) and worse overall survival time (p = 0.0226). Stromal cells may influence tumor budding in colorectal cancers through expression of TWIST1. Hypermethylation of the tumor stroma may represent an alternative mechanism for regulation of TWIST1.
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Affiliation(s)
- José A Galván
- Translational Research Unit (TRU), Institute of Pathology, University of Bern, Bern 3010, Switzerland
| | - Melina Helbling
- Translational Research Unit (TRU), Institute of Pathology, University of Bern, Bern 3010, Switzerland
| | - Viktor H Koelzer
- Translational Research Unit (TRU), Institute of Pathology, University of Bern, Bern 3010, Switzerland.,Clinical Pathology Division, Institute of Pathology, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Mario P Tschan
- Experimental Pathology Division, Institute of Pathology, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Martin D Berger
- Department of Medical Oncology, Bern University Hospital, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Marion Hädrich
- Departments of Visceral Surgery and Medicine, Bern University Hospital, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Beat Schnüriger
- Departments of Visceral Surgery and Medicine, Bern University Hospital, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Eva Karamitopoulou
- Translational Research Unit (TRU), Institute of Pathology, University of Bern, Bern 3010, Switzerland.,Clinical Pathology Division, Institute of Pathology, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Heather Dawson
- Translational Research Unit (TRU), Institute of Pathology, University of Bern, Bern 3010, Switzerland.,Clinical Pathology Division, Institute of Pathology, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Inderbitzin
- Departments of Visceral Surgery and Medicine, Bern University Hospital, Bern, Switzerland.,Department of Surgery, Tiefenau Hospital, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Alessandro Lugli
- Translational Research Unit (TRU), Institute of Pathology, University of Bern, Bern 3010, Switzerland.,Clinical Pathology Division, Institute of Pathology, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Inti Zlobec
- Translational Research Unit (TRU), Institute of Pathology, University of Bern, Bern 3010, Switzerland
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Fatrai S, van Schelven SJ, Ubink I, Govaert KM, Raats D, Koster J, Verheem A, Borel Rinkes IHM, Kranenburg O. Maintenance of Clonogenic KIT(+) Human Colon Tumor Cells Requires Secretion of Stem Cell Factor by Differentiated Tumor Cells. Gastroenterology 2015; 149:692-704. [PMID: 25962936 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2015.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2014] [Revised: 04/21/2015] [Accepted: 05/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Colon tumors contain a fraction of undifferentiated stem cell-like cancer cells with high tumorigenic potential. Little is known about the signals that maintain these stem-like cells. We investigated whether differentiated tumor cells provide support. METHODS We established undifferentiated colonosphere cultures from human colon tumors and used them to generate stably differentiated cell lines. Antibody arrays were used to identify secreted factors. Expression of genes involved in stemness, differentiation, and the epithelial to mesenchymal transition was measured using reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Expression of KIT in human tumors was analyzed with gene expression arrays and by immunohistochemistry. Colonospheres were injected into the livers of CBy.Cg-Foxn1nu/J mice. After liver tumors had formed, hypoxia was induced by vascular clamping. RESULTS Differentiated cells from various tumors, or medium conditioned by them, increased the clonogenic capacity of colonospheres. Stem cell factor (SCF) was secreted by differentiated tumor cells and supported the clonogenic capacity of KIT(+) colonosphere cells. Differentiated tumor cells induced the epithelial to mesenchymal transition in colonosperes; this was prevented by inhibition of KIT or SCF. SCF prevented loss of clonogenic potential under differentiation-inducing conditions. Suppression of SCF or KIT signaling greatly reduced the expression of genes that regulate stemness and the epithelial to mesenchymal transition and inhibited clonogenicity and tumor initiation. Bioinformatic and immunohistochemical analyses revealed a correlation between expression of KIT- and hypoxia-related genes in colon tumors, which was highest in relapse-prone mesenchymal-type tumors. Hypoxia induced expression of KIT in cultured cells and in human colon tumor xenografts and this contributed to the clonogenic capacity of the tumor cells. CONCLUSIONS Paracrine signaling from SCF to KIT, between differentiated tumor cells and undifferentiated stem-like tumor cells, helps maintain the stem-like features of tumor cells, predominantly under conditions of hypoxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Szabolcs Fatrai
- Department of Surgery, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | | | - Inge Ubink
- Department of Surgery, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Klaas M Govaert
- Department of Surgery, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Danielle Raats
- Department of Surgery, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Koster
- Department of Oncogenomics, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Andre Verheem
- Department of Surgery, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | | | - Onno Kranenburg
- Department of Surgery, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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38
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Cao H, Xu E, Liu H, Wan L, Lai M. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition in colorectal cancer metastasis: A system review. Pathol Res Pract 2015; 211:557-69. [PMID: 26092594 DOI: 10.1016/j.prp.2015.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 269] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2015] [Accepted: 05/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Tumor metastasis is a multi-step process by which tumor cells disseminate from their primary site and form secondary tumors at a distant site. And metastasis is the major cause of death in the vast majority of cancer patients. However, the mechanisms underlying each step remain obscure. In the past decade, a developmental program epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) has been increasingly recognized to play pivotal and intricate roles in promoting carcinoma invasion and metastasis. The EMT process is very complex and controlled by various families of transcriptional regulators through different signaling pathways. In this system review, we focus on the molecular network of the EMT program and its malignant phenotypes associated with metastasis in colorectal cancer (CRC), including cancer stem cells, tumor budding, circulating tumor cells and drug resistance. A better understanding of the molecular regulation of the dynamic EMT program during tumor metastasis will help to provide much-needed therapeutic interventions to target this program when treating metastatic CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Cao
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Key Laboratory of Disease Proteomics of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Enping Xu
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Key Laboratory of Disease Proteomics of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Hong Liu
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Zhejiang Normal University-Jinhua People's Hospital Joint Center for Biomedical Research, Jinhua 321004, China
| | - Ledong Wan
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Key Laboratory of Disease Proteomics of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Maode Lai
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Key Laboratory of Disease Proteomics of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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39
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Expression of E-cadherin repressors SNAIL, ZEB1 and ZEB2 by tumour and stromal cells influences tumour-budding phenotype and suggests heterogeneity of stromal cells in pancreatic cancer. Br J Cancer 2015; 112:1944-50. [PMID: 25989272 PMCID: PMC4580384 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2015.177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2015] [Revised: 04/16/2015] [Accepted: 04/28/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: There is evidence that tumour–stroma interactions have a major role in the neoplastic progression of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Tumour budding is thought to reflect the process of epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT); however, the relationship between tumour buds and EMT remains unclear. Here we characterize the tumour-budding- and stromal cells in PDAC at protein and mRNA levels concerning factors involved in EMT. Methods: mRNA in situ hybridisation and immunostaining for E-cadherin, β-catenin, SNAIL1, ZEB1, ZEB2, N-cadherin and TWIST1 were assessed in the main tumour, tumour buds and tumour stroma on multipunch tissue microarrays from 120 well-characterised PDACs and associated with the clinicopathological features, including peritumoural (PTB) and intratumoural (ITB) budding. Results: Tumour-budding cells showed increased levels of ZEB1 (P<0.0001) and ZEB2 (P=0.0119) and reduced E-cadherin and β-catenin (P<0.0001, each) compared with the main tumour. Loss of membranous β-catenin in the main tumour (P=0.0009) and tumour buds (P=0.0053), without nuclear translocation, as well as increased SNAIL1 in tumour and stromal cells (P=0.0002, each) correlated with high PTB. ZEB1 overexpression in the main tumour-budding and stromal cells was associated with high ITB (P=0.0084; 0.0250 and 0.0029, respectively) and high PTB (P=0.0005; 0.0392 and 0.0007, respectively). ZEB2 overexpression in stromal cells correlated with higher pT stage (P=0.03), lymphatic invasion (P=0.0172) and lymph node metastasis (P=0.0152). Conclusions: In the tumour microenvironment of phenotypically aggressive PDAC, tumour-budding cells express EMT hallmarks at protein and mRNA levels underlining their EMT-type character and are surrounded by stromal cells expressing high levels of the E-cadherin repressors ZEB1, ZEB2 and SNAIL1, this being strongly associated with the tumour-budding phenotype. Moreover, our findings suggest the existence of subtypes of stromal cells in PDAC with phenotypical and functional heterogeneity.
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40
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Dawson H, Lugli A. Molecular and pathogenetic aspects of tumor budding in colorectal cancer. Front Med (Lausanne) 2015; 2:11. [PMID: 25806371 PMCID: PMC4354406 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2015.00011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2015] [Accepted: 02/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, tumor budding in colorectal cancer has gained much attention as an indicator of lymph node metastasis, distant metastatic disease, local recurrence, worse overall and disease-free survival, and as an independent prognostic factor. Tumor buds, defined as the presence of single tumor cells or small clusters of up to five tumor cells at the peritumoral invasive front (peritumoral buds) or within the main tumor body (intratumoral buds), are thought to represent the morphological correlate of cancer cells having undergone epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), an important mechanism for the progression of epithelial cancers. In contrast to their undisputed prognostic power and potential to influence clinical management, our current understanding of the biological background of tumor buds is less established. Most studies examining tumor buds have attempted to recapitulate findings of mechanistic EMT studies using immunohistochemical markers. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive summary of studies examining protein expression profiles of tumor buds and to illustrate the molecular pathways and crosstalk involved in their formation and maintenance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather Dawson
- Clinical Pathology Division, Institute of Pathology, University of Bern , Bern , Switzerland ; Translational Research Unit, Institute of Pathology, University of Bern , Bern , Switzerland
| | - Alessandro Lugli
- Clinical Pathology Division, Institute of Pathology, University of Bern , Bern , Switzerland ; Translational Research Unit, Institute of Pathology, University of Bern , Bern , Switzerland
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41
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Baba H, Okabe H, Mima K, Saito S, Hayashi H, Imai K, Nitta H, Hashimoto D, Chikamoto A, Ishiko T, Beppu T. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition in gastroenterological cancer. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.4103/2394-4722.165118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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42
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Chanrion M, Kuperstein I, Barrière C, El Marjou F, Cohen D, Vignjevic D, Stimmer L, Paul-Gilloteaux P, Bièche I, Tavares SDR, Boccia GF, Cacheux W, Meseure D, Fre S, Martignetti L, Legoix-Né P, Girard E, Fetler L, Barillot E, Louvard D, Zinovyev A, Robine S. Concomitant Notch activation and p53 deletion trigger epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and metastasis in mouse gut. Nat Commun 2014; 5:5005. [PMID: 25295490 PMCID: PMC4214431 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms6005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2014] [Accepted: 08/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition-like (EMT-like) is a critical process allowing initiation of metastases during tumour progression. Here, to investigate its role in intestinal cancer, we combine computational network-based and experimental approaches to create a mouse model with high metastatic potential. Construction and analysis of this network map depicting molecular mechanisms of EMT regulation based on the literature suggests that Notch activation and p53 deletion have a synergistic effect in activating EMT-like processes. To confirm this prediction, we generate transgenic mice by conditionally activating the Notch1 receptor and deleting p53 in the digestive epithelium (NICD/p53(-/-)). These mice develop metastatic tumours with high penetrance. Using GFP lineage tracing, we identify single malignant cells with mesenchymal features in primary and metastatic tumours in vivo. The development of such a model that recapitulates the cellular features observed in invasive human colorectal tumours is appealing for innovative drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maia Chanrion
- 1] Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris 75248, France [2] CNRS UMR 144, Paris 75248, France
| | - Inna Kuperstein
- 1] Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris 75248, France [2] Inserm, U900, Paris 75248, France
| | - Cédric Barrière
- 1] Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris 75248, France [2] CNRS UMR 144, Paris 75248, France
| | - Fatima El Marjou
- 1] Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris 75248, France [2] CNRS UMR 144, Paris 75248, France
| | - David Cohen
- 1] Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris 75248, France [2] Inserm, U900, Paris 75248, France
| | - Danijela Vignjevic
- 1] Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris 75248, France [2] CNRS UMR 144, Paris 75248, France
| | - Lev Stimmer
- 1] Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris 75248, France [2] CNRS UMR 144, Paris 75248, France
| | - Perrine Paul-Gilloteaux
- 1] Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris 75248, France [2] Cell and Tissue Imaging Facility, PICT-IBiSA, CNRS, UMR 144, Paris 75248, France
| | - Ivan Bièche
- 1] Inserm U735, Hôpital René Huguenin, 92210 Saint-Cloud, France [2] Institut Curie, Hôpital René Huguenin, 35 rue Dailly, 92210 Saint-Cloud, France
| | - Silvina Dos Reis Tavares
- 1] Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris 75248, France [2] CNRS UMR 144, Paris 75248, France
| | - Giuseppe-Fulvio Boccia
- 1] Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris 75248, France [2] CNRS UMR 144, Paris 75248, France
| | | | | | - Silvia Fre
- 1] Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris 75248, France [2] CNRS UMR3215, Paris 75248, France [3] Inserm U934, Paris 75248, France
| | - Loredana Martignetti
- 1] Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris 75248, France [2] Inserm, U900, Paris 75248, France
| | - Patricia Legoix-Né
- Next-Generation Sequencing Platform, Institut Curie, Paris 75248, France
| | - Elodie Girard
- 1] Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris 75248, France [2] Inserm, U900, Paris 75248, France
| | - Luc Fetler
- 1] Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris 75248, France [2] CNRS UMR168, Paris 75248, France
| | - Emmanuel Barillot
- 1] Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris 75248, France [2] Inserm, U900, Paris 75248, France
| | - Daniel Louvard
- 1] Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris 75248, France [2] CNRS UMR 144, Paris 75248, France
| | - Andreï Zinovyev
- 1] Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris 75248, France [2] Inserm, U900, Paris 75248, France
| | - Sylvie Robine
- 1] Institut Curie, Centre de Recherche, Paris 75248, France [2] CNRS UMR 144, Paris 75248, France
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Galon J, Mlecnik B, Bindea G, Angell HK, Berger A, Lagorce C, Lugli A, Zlobec I, Hartmann A, Bifulco C, Nagtegaal ID, Palmqvist R, Masucci GV, Botti G, Tatangelo F, Delrio P, Maio M, Laghi L, Grizzi F, Asslaber M, D'Arrigo C, Vidal-Vanaclocha F, Zavadova E, Chouchane L, Ohashi PS, Hafezi-Bakhtiari S, Wouters BG, Roehrl M, Nguyen L, Kawakami Y, Hazama S, Okuno K, Ogino S, Gibbs P, Waring P, Sato N, Torigoe T, Itoh K, Patel PS, Shukla SN, Wang Y, Kopetz S, Sinicrope FA, Scripcariu V, Ascierto PA, Marincola FM, Fox BA, Pagès F. Towards the introduction of the 'Immunoscore' in the classification of malignant tumours. J Pathol 2014; 232:199-209. [PMID: 24122236 PMCID: PMC4255306 DOI: 10.1002/path.4287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 987] [Impact Index Per Article: 98.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2013] [Revised: 09/25/2013] [Accepted: 09/26/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The American Joint Committee on Cancer/Union Internationale Contre le Cancer (AJCC/UICC) TNM staging system provides the most reliable guidelines for the routine prognostication and treatment of colorectal carcinoma. This traditional tumour staging summarizes data on tumour burden (T), the presence of cancer cells in draining and regional lymph nodes (N) and evidence for distant metastases (M). However, it is now recognized that the clinical outcome can vary significantly among patients within the same stage. The current classification provides limited prognostic information and does not predict response to therapy. Multiple ways to classify cancer and to distinguish different subtypes of colorectal cancer have been proposed, including morphology, cell origin, molecular pathways, mutation status and gene expression-based stratification. These parameters rely on tumour-cell characteristics. Extensive literature has investigated the host immune response against cancer and demonstrated the prognostic impact of the in situ immune cell infiltrate in tumours. A methodology named ‘Immunoscore’ has been defined to quantify the in situ immune infiltrate. In colorectal cancer, the Immunoscore may add to the significance of the current AJCC/UICC TNM classification, since it has been demonstrated to be a prognostic factor superior to the AJCC/UICC TNM classification. An international consortium has been initiated to validate and promote the Immunoscore in routine clinical settings. The results of this international consortium may result in the implementation of the Immunoscore as a new component for the classification of cancer, designated TNM-I (TNM-Immune). © 2013 The Authors. Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérôme Galon
- INSERM, U872, Laboratory of Integrative Cancer Immunology, Paris, France; Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France; Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris 6, France
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44
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Abstract
Tumor metastasis is a multistep process by which tumor cells disseminate from their primary site and form secondary tumors at a distant site. Metastasis occurs through a series of steps: local invasion, intravasation, transport, extravasation, and colonization. A developmental program termed epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) has been shown to play a critical role in promoting metastasis in epithelium-derived carcinoma. Recent experimental and clinical studies have improved our knowledge of this dynamic program and implicated EMT and its reverse program, mesenchymal-epithelial transition (MET), in the metastatic process. Here, we review the functional requirement of EMT and/or MET during the individual steps of tumor metastasis and discuss the potential of targeting this program when treating metastatic diseases.
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