Colonic anti-inflammatory mechanisms of conjugated linoleic acid

Exploring the therapeutic potential of Prinsepia utilis Royle seed oil: A comprehensive study on chemical composition, physicochemical properties, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic activities

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Prinsepiautilis (PU) Royle, native to the Himalayan region, is a deciduous thorny shrub with numerous traditional uses of its roots, leaves and seeds for treatment of conditions such as rheumatic pain, joint pain, arthritis, and inflammation.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Keeping in mind the growing demand of products of natural origin as alternate medicine, the present study was undertaken to scientifically validate for the first time the traditional claims of healing pain and inflammation by evaluating the fatty oil isolated from the seeds using established in vitro and in vivo models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

PU Seeds were Soxhlet extracted using n-hexane and fatty oil was isolated. Chemical composition of the oil was established with the aid of Gas Chromatography-Flame Ionization Detection (GC-FID) and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). The oil was then subjected to in vitro anti-inflammatory activity by following the established protocols of trypsin inhibitory and bovine serum albumin denaturation assays. The acute toxicity of the oil was also studied using OECD guidelines 423. The anti-inflammatory property of the oil was further evaluated using carrageenan-induced and formalin-induced edema in the rat paw. Moreover, hot plate latency and tail immersion assay were employed to evaluate analgesic activity of the oil. To establish the quality of the oil, various physicochemical properties were also studied.

RESULTS

GC-FID and GC-MS analysis of the oil revealed the presence of linoleic acid (59.06 ± 0.00%), oleic acid (28.11 ± 0.01%), palmitic acid (9.51 ± 0.01%) and stearic acid (3.32 ± 0.01%). In vitro trypsin inhibitory and bovine serum albumin denaturation assay revealed dose-dependent notable activity of the oil with IC50 value of 63.57 μg/mL and 518.14 μg/mL, respectively. The physico-chemical characterization demonstrated that the oil possesses a low acidity and a high oxidative stability index. The oil was found to be non-toxic and displayed effective anti-inflammatory activities with significant inhibition till 4 h in carrageenan-induced and formalin-induced rat paw edema at maximum tested dose of 200 mg/kg b.w. The oil also exhibited significant results in hot plate latency and tail immersion assay with positive effects showing up to 4 h after dose administration.

CONCLUSION

These findings, besides supporting the traditional claims, suggest that P. utilis seed oil has potential therapeutic applications as a natural anti-inflammatory and analgesic agent. Further studies are warranted to explore its mechanisms of action and potential use in pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries.

The effect of conjugated linoleic acids on inflammation, oxidative stress, body composition and physical performance: a comprehensive review of putative molecular mechanisms

Conjugated linoleic acids (CLAs) are polyunsaturated fatty acids primarily found in dairy products and ruminant animal products such as beef, lamb, and butter. Supplementation of CLAs has recently become popular among athletes due to the variety of health-promoting effects, including improvements in physical performance. Preclinical and some clinical studies have shown that CLAs can reduce inflammation and oxidative stress and favorably modulate body composition and physical performance; however, the results of previously published clinical trials are mixed. Here, we performed a comprehensive review of previously published clinical trials that assessed the role of CLAs in modulating inflammation, oxidative stress, body composition, and select indices of physical performance, emphasizing the molecular mechanisms governing these changes. The findings of our review demonstrate that the effect of supplementation with CLAs on inflammation and oxidative stress is controversial, but this supplement can decrease body fat mass and increase physical performance. Future well-designed randomized clinical trials are warranted to determine the effectiveness of (1) specific doses of CLAs; (2) different dosing durations of CLAs; (3) various CLA isomers, and the exact molecular mechanisms by which CLAs positively influence oxidative stress, inflammation, body composition, and physical performance.

In Vitro: The Effects of the Anticoccidial Activities of Calotropis procera Leaf Extracts on Eimeria stiedae Oocysts Isolated from Rabbits

Hepatic coccidiosis is an infectious and mortal disease that causes global economic losses in rabbits. The research aimed to assess the efficacy of Calotropis procure leaf extracts on the inhibition of Eimeria stiedae oocysts and to determine the optimal dosage for suppressing the parasite's infective phase. In this experiment, oocyst samples per milliliter were tested, and 6-well plates (2 mL) of 2.5% potassium dichromate solution containing 10² non-sporulated oocysts on Calotropis procera leaf extracts were exposed after 24, 48, 72, and 96 h, and the treatments were as follows: a nontreated control, 25%, 50%, 100%, and 150% of C. procera for oocyst activities. In addition, amprolium was utilized as a reference drug. The Calotropis procera was analyzed by GC-Mass, and results showed that the botanical extract contained 9 chemical components that were able to inhibit the oocysts of E. stiedae at 100% and 150% concentrations by about 78% and 93%, respectively. In general, an increase in the incubation period and a greater dose resulted in a decrease in the inhibition rate. The results showed that C. procera has an effective ability, inhibitory potential, and protective effect on the coccidian oocyst sporulation of E. stiedae. It can be used in the disinfection and sterilization of poultry and rabbit houses to get rid of Eimeria oocysts.

An Insight into Wheat Germ Oil Nutrition, Identification of Its Bioactive Constituents and Computer-Aided Multidimensional Data Analysis of Its Potential Anti-Inflammatory Effect via Molecular Connections

Wheat germ oil (WGO) is the richest source of unexplored antioxidants and anti-inflammatory compounds. In this study, we identified the constituents of WGO by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The physicochemical and pharmacokinetic behaviors were evaluated for the top 12 constituents with the common target FABP4. Three fatty acids with significant anti-inflammatory activity were evaluated for their interaction with FABP4 by molecular docking. The molecular mechanisms involved in anti-inflammatory responses were analyzed by various in-silico analytical tools and multidimensional data analysis. WGO showed anti-inflammatory activities via FABP4 interacting physically with target genes (77.84%) and by co-expressing with 8.01% genes. Primary targets for inflammatory pathways were PPARα, PPARγ, LPL, LEP, and ADIPOQ, as depicted by gene network enrichment analysis. The key pathways implicated were the metabolism of lipids, PPAR signaling, cellular response to alcohol, oxygen and nitrogen pathway, inflammatory response pathway, and regulation of the inflammatory pathway. The common transcription factors implicated were HNF1, AP2α, CEBP, FOX, STATS, MYC, Zic, etc. In this study, we found that WGO possesses anti-inflammatory potential via FABP4 binding to PPARα, PPARγ, LPL, LEP, and ADIPOQ gene expression by regulatory transcription factors HNF, AP2α, and CEPB.

Colon microbiota modulation by dairy-derived diet: new strategy for prevention and treatment of colorectal cancer

An unbalanced diet is one of the well-known risk factors for the development of colorectal cancer (CRC). This type of cancer is currently the main cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide, urging the need for new and more effective preventive and therapeutic approaches. It is already known that CRC patients have alterations in the microbial community and metabolism. In this regard, a concept that has been recently attracting the attention of the scientific community is the development of functional food or nutraceuticals, as a new and more effective strategy to overcome CRC patient-associated dysbiosis. Particularly, dairy product enriched diets are the major dairy source of dietary calcium, vitamin D and folate intake, which are well-known to have a protective effect against CRC development. In addition, these products are rich in both pre- and probiotics, constituting a double strategy to modulate both the intestinal microbiota composition and the production of microbial metabolites. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), namely, acetate, butyrate, and propionate, are major contributors to colonic homeostasis since they regulate several biological and metabolic processes. In this review, we performed a state of art study concerning the use of dietary patterns, specifically the dairy-derived diet, in the modulation of the human microbiota and their potential use as pre-, pro- or synbiotics for the development of new preventive and therapeutic strategies for CRC.

Chemical Composition in Kernels of Ten Grafted Pecan (Carya illinoensis) Varieties in Southeastern China

As woody oil crop, pecan [Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch] may be a solution to the shortage of edible oil in the future. In this study, fruit traits, kernel nutrition and fatty acid composition of 10 pecan varieties were determined to assess the potential of pecans for exploitation as edible oil, as well as to further screen varieties that could be used as edible oil resources and to understand their development prospects for cultivation in mountainous hills. The study showed that all the fruit trait indicators measured, including green-fruit weight (mean 28.47 g), nut weight (10.33 g), kernel weight (5.25 g), nut percentage (36.83%) and kernel percentage (50.50%), showed highly significant differences among the 10 varieties. Among the main nutritional indicators of the kernels, the crude fat content was stable (mean 70.01%) with non-significant differences, while protein (67.50 mg·g−1), soluble sugar (10.7 mg·g−1) and tannin (6.07 mg·g−1) showed highly significant differences between varieties. The oil percentage of nuts (kernel percentage * crude fat) averaged 35.36%, with highly significant differences between varieties. The fatty acid composition was dominated by unsaturated fatty acids (mean 91.82%), with unsaturated fatty acids being 11.24 times more abundant than saturated fatty acids. Among the monounsaturated fatty acids, oleic acid was the highest (mean 70.02%), with highly significant differences between varieties, followed by cis-11-eicosanoic acid (0.25%), with non-significant differences between varieties; among the polyunsaturated fatty acids, linoleic acid was the highest (19.58%), followed by linolenic acid (0.97%), both of which showed highly significant differences between varieties; monounsaturated fatty acids were 2.42 times more abundant than polyunsaturated fatty acids. Compared to other oilseed crops, pecan has the potential to produce “nutritious, healthy and stable” edible oil, while its wide habitat and good productivity benefits offer broad prospects for development in the hills and mountains of subtropical China.

Polysaccharides and extracts from Agaricus brasiliensis Murill - A comprehensive review

Edible mushrooms have been increasingly introduced into the human diet, which has driven research into their functional properties. Thus, Agaricus brasiliensis Murill or Agaricus blazei Murill (ABM) is a species native to the Brazilian biome, whose fruiting body has been used not only for dietary purposes, but also in the development of functional foods or as source of molecules of pharmacological interest. The bioactivity of ABM has been related to the presence of polysaccharides, although the contribution of other metabolites cannot be discharged. This work describes the polysaccharides isolation methodology and preparation of the extracts of ABM and their biological activities. Furthermore, it presents a general outline of its characterizations regarding composition, chemical structure and properties in solution. The ABM and its chemical constituents exhibit several biological activities that support their potential use for prevention or treatment of diseases with inflammatory background, such as cancer, diabetes and atherosclerosis. The mechanism of action of the extracts and polysaccharides from ABM is mainly related to a modulation of immune system response or reduction of inflammatory response. This review shows that the ABM has great potential in the pharmaceutical, biotechnological and food sectors that deserves additional research using standardized products.

PhoQ is an unsaturated fatty acid receptor that fine-tunes Salmonella pathogenic traits

The Salmonella enterica PhoP/PhoQ two-component signaling system coordinates the spatiotemporal expression of key virulence factors that confer pathogenic traits. Through biochemical and structural analyses, we found that the sensor histidine kinase PhoQ acted as a receptor for long-chain unsaturated fatty acids (LCUFAs), which induced a conformational change in the periplasmic domain of the PhoQ protein. This resulted in the repression of PhoQ autokinase activity, leading to inhibition of the expression of PhoP/PhoQ-dependent genes. Recognition of the LCUFA linoleic acid (LA) by PhoQ was not stereospecific because positional and geometrical isomers of LA equally inhibited PhoQ autophosphorylation, which was conserved in multiple S. enterica serovars. Because orally acquired Salmonella encounters conjugated LA (CLA), a product of the metabolic conversion of LA by microbiota, in the human intestine, we tested how short-term oral administration of CLA affected gut colonization and systemic dissemination in a mouse model of Salmonella-induced colitis. Compared to untreated mice, CLA-treated mice showed increased gut colonization by wild-type Salmonella, as well as increased dissemination to the spleen. In contrast, the inability of the phoP strain to disseminate systemically remained unchanged by CLA treatment. Together, our results reveal that, by inhibiting PhoQ, environmental LCUFAs fine-tune the fate of Salmonella during infection. These findings may aid in the design of new anti-Salmonella therapies.

In vitro assessment of metabolic profile of Enterococcus strains of human origin

Background

In the present study, previously isolated, safe, and avirulent enterococci strains were exploited for their metabolic profile (Bhagwat et al., Asian J Pharm Clin Res 12: 2019).

Results

Thirteen enterococci strains of human origin produced important enzymes like amylase (0.5–0.7 mg ml⁻¹), protease (192–264 mg ml⁻¹), lipase (8–10 mg ml⁻¹), bile salt hydrolase, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), and lactic acid (highest 12 mg ml⁻¹), thus implicating potential attributes of starter cultures in food and dairy industry. Biogenic amines like arginine and tryptamine were produced after 4 days above 25 °C. Castor oil (highest yield 60 μg ml⁻¹) and sunflower oil (highest yield 48 μg ml⁻¹) both proved to be excellent sources of CLA production. Reduction assays using FRAP, ABTS (above 83%), and DPPH (30–50%) revealed excellent radical scavenging properties of cell-free supernatants of Enterococcus strains.

Conclusion

The results implicate the future potential of application enterococci for therapeutic purpose as well as the food industry.

Intestinal microbiota - A modulator of the Trypanosoma cruzi-vector-host triad

Chagas disease affects millions of people, and it is a major cause of death in Latin America. Prevention and development of an effective treatment for this infection can be favored by a more thorough understanding of T. cruzi interaction with the microbiome of vectors and hosts. Next-generation sequencing technology vastly broadened the knowledge about intestinal bacteria composition, showing that microbiota within each host (triatomines and mammals) is composed by high diversity of species, although few dominant phyla. This fact may represent an ecological balance that was acquired during the evolutionary process of the microbiome-host complex, and that serves to perpetuate this system. In this context, commensal microbiota is also essential to protect hosts, conferring them resistance to pathogens colonization. However, in some situations, the microbiota is not able to prevent infection but only modulate it. Here we will review the role of the microbiota on the parasite-vector-host triad with a focus on the kinetoplastida of medical importance Trypanosoma cruzi. Novel strategies to control Chagas disease based on intestinal microbiome will also be discussed.

Adherence to Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH)-Style Diet and the Risk of Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies

Objective: Several investigators have proposed a protective association between dietary approaches to stop hypertension (DASH) style diet and risk of cancers; however, they have had inconsistent results. The present study aimed to systematically review the prospective cohort studies and if possible quantify the overall effect using meta-analysis. Methods: PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar were searched for cohort studies published up to July 2018. Relative risks (RRs) that were reported for fully adjusted models and their confidence intervals were extracted for meta-analysis. The random effects model was used to combine the RRs. Results: Seventeen studies were eligible to be included in the systematic review, from which nine reports assessed the association between the DASH diet and risk of mortality from all cancer types, four assessed incidence of colorectal cancer, and two studies assessed the risk of colon and rectal cancer separately. Four studies examined the association with the incidence of other cancers (breast, hepatic, endometrial, and lung cancer). Meta-analysis showed that high adherence to DASH is associated with a decreased mortality from all cancer types (RR = 0.84, 95% confidence interval [95%CI]: 0.81-0.86). Participants with the highest adherence to the DASH diet had a lower risk of developing colorectal (RR = 0.79, 95%CI: 0.75-0.83), colon (RR = 0.80, 95%CI: 0.74-0.87), and rectal (RR = 0.84, 95%CI: 0.74-0.96) cancers compared to those with the lowest adherence. Conclusion: DASH-style diet should be suggested as a healthy approach associated with decreased risk of cancer in the community. Prospective studies exploring the association for other cancer types and from regions other than the United States are highly recommended.

Association Between Dairy Product Consumption and Colorectal Cancer Risk in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Epidemiologic Studies

Dairy product consumption may decrease colorectal cancer (CRC) risk, but very few studies have evaluated the association between different types of dairy products and CRC location. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to examine the associations between dairy product consumption and CRC incidence. Summary RRs and ORs with 95% CIs were estimated. A total of 15 cohort studies and 14 case-control studies comprising a total of >22,000 cases were included in the quantitative synthesis. The cohort studies showed a consistent significant decrease in CRC risk associated with higher consumption of total dairy products (RR: 0.80; 95% CI: 0.70, 0.91) and total milk (RR: 0.82; 95% CI: 0.76, 0.88) compared with the CRC risk associated with lower consumption. These studies also showed a significant protective association between low-fat milk consumption and CRC (RR: 0.76; 95% CI: 0.66, 0.88), but only for colon cancer (RR: 0.73; 95% CI: 0.61, 0.87). Cheese consumption was inversely associated with the risk of CRC (RR: 0.85; 95% CI: 0.76, 0.96) and proximal colon cancer (RR: 0.74; 95% CI: 0.60, 0.91). No significant associations with CRC were found for the consumption of low-fat dairy products, whole milk, fermented dairy products, or cultured milk. Most of these associations were not supported by the case-control studies. In conclusion, high consumption of total dairy products and total milk was associated with a lower risk of developing CRC at any anatomic location, including the proximal and distal colon and the rectum. Low-fat milk consumption was associated with a lower risk of CRC, but this association was restricted to colon cancer. Cheese consumption was associated with the prevention of CRC, specifically proximal colon cancer. Further studies on larger samples and with longer follow-up periods, along with appropriately designed and executed clinical trials, are warranted to determine whether dairy product consumption affects CRC development.

GC/MS-Based Metabolomics Approach to Evaluate the Effect of Jackyakgamcho-Tang on Acute Colitis

The objective of this study was to examine the effects of Jackyakgamcho-tang (JGT) on acute colitis. GC/MS-based metabolomics and NGS-based metagenomics were applied to investigate the alteration of metabolites and microbiota in an acute colitis model. The severity of acute colitis symptoms was alleviated by JGT treatment. Induction of colitis and JGT treatment changed compositions of gut microbiota and inflammatory cytokine levels (TNF-α and IL-6). They also substantially change metabolites (i.e., lactic acid, linoleic acid, monostearin, and palmitoylglycerol). In addition, some clear correlations were observed among metabolites, cytokine, and microbiota. This study highlights the applicability of metabolomics and metagenomics study for evaluating anti-inflammatory effects of a new functional herbal medicine as a therapeutic agent for acute colitis.

Therapeutic Microbiology: The Role of Bifidobacterium breve as Food Supplement for the Prevention/Treatment of Paediatric Diseases

The human intestinal microbiota, establishing a symbiotic relationship with the host, plays a significant role for human health. It is also well known that a disease status is frequently characterized by a dysbiotic condition of the gut microbiota. A probiotic treatment can represent an alternative therapy for enteric disorders and human pathologies not apparently linked to the gastrointestinal tract. Among bifidobacteria, strains of the species Bifidobacterium breve are widely used in paediatrics. B. breve is the dominant species in the gut of breast-fed infants and it has also been isolated from human milk. It has antimicrobial activity against human pathogens, it does not possess transmissible antibiotic resistance traits, it is not cytotoxic and it has immuno-stimulating abilities. This review describes the applications of B. breve strains mainly for the prevention/treatment of paediatric pathologies. The target pathologies range from widespread gut diseases, including diarrhoea and infant colics, to celiac disease, obesity, allergic and neurological disorders. Moreover, B. breve strains are used for the prevention of side infections in preterm newborns and during antibiotic treatments or chemotherapy. With this documentation, we hope to increase knowledge on this species to boost the interest in the emerging discipline known as "therapeutic microbiology".

The anti-inflammatory effect of Agaricus brasiliensis is partly due to its linoleic acid content

For hundreds of years mushrooms have been used as functional food for health. The basidiomycete Agaricus brasiliensis (A. brasiliensis) is famous for the medicinal properties of its beta glucans and of its antioxidants. Most researchers have studied polysaccharides from A. brasiliensis for their anti-inflammatory activity. However, active compounds from this mushroom have not yet been studied for the inactivation of NO inhibitory activity. The present study aimed to find the active compounds from A. brasiliensis for their NO inhibitory activity related inflammatory activity. This study found that linoleic acid isolated from A. brasiliensis inhibited NO production and suppressed the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines including TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and NOS2 in RAW 264.7 cells. Linoleic acid also suppressed the expression of NF-κB subunit p50 and restored PPARα. This leads to the conclusion that linoleic acid from A. brasiliensis could reduce NO production and inflammatory activity in RAW 264.7 cells by the inhibition of p50 and via the activation of PPARα. This study suggests that linoleic acid present in A. brasiliensis could play a role in the prevention of inflammatory diseases for which this edible mushroom is already known.

Conjugated linoleic acid prevents damage caused by intestinal mucositis induced by 5-fluorouracil in an experimental model

BACKGROUND

Studies have showed the protective effects of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) on intestinal epithelium, modulating host immune and inflammatory responses on intestinal diseases.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the preventive effects of CLA on the intestinal mucositis induced by 5-FU in a murine model.

METHODS

Sixty-four BALB/c mice were randomly divided into four groups: Control (CTL), fed a standard chow diet; CLAs, fed a diet supplemented with CLA; Mucositis (5-FU), fed a standard chow diet and underwent mucositis induction and CLAs 5-FU, fed a diet supplemented with CLA and underwent mucositis induction. Mucositis was induced by intraperitoneal injection of 300 mg/kg 5-FU. After 72 h, the animals were euthanized and intestinal permeability, bacterial translocation, inflammatory mediators, and intestinal histology were evaluated.

RESULTS

Mice in the CLAs 5-FU group showed reduced weight loss compared to those in the 5-FU group (p < 0.005). Furthermore, the results also showed that the treatment with CLA reduced intestinal permeability, bacterial translocation, and biomarkers of inflammatory response besides minor damage to ZO-1 and occludin with maintenance of the integrity of the intestinal epithelium and a favorable balance between the inflammatory and regulatory cytokines.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that CLA reduced the adverse effects from 5-FU administration on the intestinal mucosa.

Dairy product consumption and risk of colorectal cancer in an older mediterranean population at high cardiovascular risk

Prospective studies have reported an inverse association between the consumption of total dairy products and milk and the risk of colorectal cancer (CRC). Nonetheless, there is little and inconsistent evidence regarding subtypes of dairy product and CRC risk. We assessed the associations between the consumption of total dairy products, their different subtypes and CRC risk in older Mediterranean individuals at high cardiovascular risk. We analyzed data from 7,216 men and women (55-80 years) without CRC at baseline from the PREvención con DIeta MEDiterránea study. Individuals were recruited between 2003 and 2009 and followed up until December 2012. At baseline and yearly thereafter, consumption of total and specific dairy products was assessed using a validated 137-item food-frequency questionnaire. Cox proportional hazards ratios (HRs) of CRC incidence were estimated for tertiles of mean consumption of dairy products during the follow-up. During a median [interquartile range] follow-up of 6.0 [4.4-7.3] years, we documented 101 incident CRC cases. In the multivariable-adjusted models, HRs and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of CRC for the comparison of extreme tertiles of total dairy product and low-fat milk consumption were 0.55 (95% CI: 0.31-0.99; p-trend = 0.037) and 0.54 (95% CI: 0.32-0.92; p-trend = 0.022), respectively. No significant associations with other dairy products (whole-fat and low-fat dairy products; total, low-fat and whole-fat yogurt; cheese; total, low-fat and whole-fat milk; concentrated full-fat dairy products, sugar-enriched dairy products and fermented dairy products) were found. A high consumption of total dairy products and low-fat milk was significantly associated with a reduced CRC risk.

Effect of conjugated linoleic acids and omega-3 fatty acids with or without resistance training on muscle mass in high-fat diet-fed middle-aged mice

NEW FINDINGS

What is the central question of this study? This study examined the effects of 20 weeks of administration of conjugated linoleic acids/omega-3 fatty acids with or without programed resistance exercise training on body composition, skeletal muscle properties and functional capacity in middle-aged mice fed a high-fat diet. What is the main finding and its importance? Chronic daily administration of conjugated linoleic acids/omega-3 fatty acids with resistance exercise training can help to blunt fat gain, alleviate loss of myogenic capacity and sensorimotor function and lower tissue inflammation in middle-aged mice during chronic high-fat diet-induced catabolism. This study investigated the effects of 20 weeks of combined conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)/omega-3 fatty acid (n-3) administration independently or combined with resistance exercise training (RET) on skeletal muscle in middle-aged mice consuming a high-fat diet (HFD). Nine-month-old C57BL/6 mice were randomly assigned into four experimental groups (H, high-fat diet; HE, H + RET; HCN, H + CLA/n-3; and HECN, H + CLA/n3 + RET). Body composition and functional capacity were assessed pre- and post-intervention. Muscle tissues were collected at 14 months of age. ANOVA was used, with significance set at P ≤ 0.05. Fat mass significantly increased in H (+74%), HE (+142%) and HECN (+43%) but not in HCN. Muscle wet weights were significantly lower in H and HCN than in HE and HECN. Grip strength substantially declined in H (-15%) and HCN (-17%), whereas sensorimotor function significantly declined only in H (-11%). HECN exhibited improvement in strength (+22%) and sensorimotor coordination (+17%). In comparison to H, muscle tumour necrosis factor-α mRNA expression was significantly lower in HE (-39%), HCN (-24%) and HECN (-21%), respectively. Mean myofibre cross-sectional areas were markedly lower in H and HCN than in HE and HECN. H showed significantly lower satellite cell abundance and numbers of myonuclei than all other groups. Our findings suggest that long-term daily CLA/n-3 intake with resistance training improved sensorimotor function, ameliorated fat gain and prevented loss of myogenic capacity while lowering tumour necrosis factor-α expression during chronic HFD.

An update on diet and nutritional factors in systemic lupus erythematosus management

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic inflammatory and autoimmune disease characterised by multiple organ involvement and a large number of complications. SLE management remains complicated owing to the biological heterogeneity between patients and the lack of safe and specific targeted therapies. There is evidence that dietary factors can contribute to the geoepidemiology of autoimmune diseases such as SLE. Thus, diet therapy could be a promising approach in SLE owing to both its potential prophylactic effects, without the side effects of classical pharmacology, and its contribution to reducing co-morbidities and improving quality of life in patients with SLE. However, the question arises as to whether nutrients could ameliorate or exacerbate SLE and how they could modulate inflammation and immune function at a molecular level. The present review summarises preclinical and clinical experiences to provide the reader with an update of the positive and negative aspects of macro- and micronutrients and other nutritional factors, including dietary phenols, on SLE, focusing on the mechanisms of action involved.

Microbes, Immunity, and Behavior: Psychoneuroimmunology Meets the Microbiome

There is now a large volume of evidence to support the view that the immune system is a key communication pathway between the gut and brain, which plays an important role in stress-related psychopathologies and thus provides a potentially fruitful target for psychotropic intervention. The gut microbiota is a complex ecosystem with a diverse range of organisms and a sophisticated genomic structure. Bacteria within the gut are estimated to weigh in excess of 1 kg in the adult human and the microbes within not only produce antimicrobial peptides, short chain fatty acids, and vitamins, but also most of the common neurotransmitters found in the human brain. That the microbial content of the gut plays a key role in immune development is now beyond doubt. Early disruption of the host-microbe interplay can have lifelong consequences, not just in terms of intestinal function but in distal organs including the brain. It is clear that the immune system and nervous system are in continuous communication in order to maintain a state of homeostasis. Significant gaps in knowledge remain about the effect of the gut microbiota in coordinating the immune-nervous systems dialogue. However, studies using germ-free animals, infective models, prebiotics, probiotics, and antibiotics have increased our understanding of the interplay. Early life stress can have a lifelong impact on the microbial content of the intestine and permanently alter immune functioning. That early life stress can also impact adult psychopathology has long been appreciated in psychiatry. The challenge now is to fully decipher the molecular mechanisms that link the gut microbiota, immune, and central nervous systems in a network of communication that impacts behavior patterns and psychopathology, to eventually translate these findings to the human situation both in health and disease. Even at this juncture, there is evidence to pinpoint key sites of communication where gut microbial interventions either with drugs or diet or perhaps fecal microbiota transplantation may positively impact mental health.

CLA Has a Useful Effect on Bone Markers in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis is a systemic, chronic disease which may increase the risk of osteoporosis. This study was carried out in order to examine the effect of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) on bone markers in rheumatoid arthritis disease which is the most common autoimmune disease. The present study is a randomized double-blind clinical trial. Subjects included 52 patients with active rheumatoid arthritis who were divided into two groups. Group I received standard treatment plus 2 daily 1.25 g capsules (Containing about 2 g of 9-cis 11-trans isomer and 10-cis 12-trans isomer in ratio of 50 -50 CLA in glycerinated form), Group II received standard treatment plus 2 Placebo 1.25 g capsules containing sunflower oil with high oleic acid. Telopeptides C, osteocalcin, and MMP3 were analyzed by ELISA method, PGE₂ was done by competitive enzymatic immunoassay method, and IGF-1 was analyzed by the IRMA method based on the sandwich method and ALK-P of bone. Before and after the intervention, the questionnaires about general information, nutrition assessment and medical history were filled out by the subjects. Nutritional assessment was done by a 24-h record questionnaire for the three-day diet. The results were analyzed using SPSS software (version 18).

FINDINGS

There was no significant difference between the groups in enzyme activity of ALK-P of bone, PGE₂ and MMP3 variables. However, differences between the two groups in terms of activity of telopeptides C, Osteocalcin, and IGF1 were significant (P < 0.05). CLA has a potentially beneficial effect on bone markers in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Therefore, in order to study the effect of CLA on bone health in patients with RA and all patients with autoimmune and bone diseases more studies with longer duration and evaluation of bone mass density are required.

Gender-specific differences in PPARγ regulation of follicular helper T cell responses with estrogen

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ), a master regulator of adipocyte differentiation, has recently been connected with effector T cells, though its role is still not clear. Here, we investigated the roles of PPARγ in follicular helper T (T_FH) cell responses regarding gender specificity. NP-OVA immunization in female but not male CD4-PPARγ^KO mice induced higher proportions of T_FH cells and germinal center (GC) B cells following immunization than were seen in wild type mice. Treatment with the PPARγ agonist pioglitazone significantly reduced T_FH cell responses in female mice while pioglitazone and estradiol (E2) co-treatment ameliorated T_FH cells and GC responses in male mice. E2 treatment significantly enhanced PPARγ expression in male T cells, while T cell activation in the estrus but not in the diestrus stage of the menstrual cycle of females was inhibited by pioglitazone, suggesting that an estrogen-sufficient environment is important for PPARγ-mediated T cell regulation. These results demonstrate gender-based differences in sensitivities of PPARγ in T_FH responses. These findings suggest that appropriate function of PPARγ is required in the regulation of female GC responses and that therapeutic strategies for autoimmune diseases using PPARγ agonists need to be tailored accordingly.

Modulation of inflammation and immunity by dietary conjugated linoleic acid

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a mixture of positional and geometric isomers of linoleic acid. This family of polyunsaturated fatty acids has drawn significant attention in the last three decades for its variety of biologically beneficial properties and health effects. CLA has been shown to exert various potent protective functions such as anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, antiadipogenic, antidiabetic and antihypertensive properties in animal models of disease. Therefore, CLA represents a nutritional avenue to prevent lifestyle diseases or metabolic syndrome. Initially, the overall effects of CLA were thought to be the result of interactions between its two major isomers: cis-9, trans-11 and trans-10, cis-12. However, later evidence suggests that such physiological effects of CLA might be different between the isomers: t-10, c-12-CLA is thought to be anticarcinogenic, antiobesity and antidiabetic, whereas c-9, t-11-CLA is mainly anti-inflammatory. Although preclinical data support a benefit of CLA supplementation, human clinical findings have yet to show definitive evidence of a positive effect. The purpose of this review is to comprehensively summarize the mechanisms of action and anti-inflammatory properties of dietary CLA supplementation and evaluate the potential uses of CLA in human health and disease.

Nutrients, foods, and colorectal cancer prevention

Diet has an important role in the development of colorectal cancer. In the past few decades, findings from extensive epidemiologic and experimental investigations have linked consumption of several foods and nutrients to the risk of colorectal neoplasia. Calcium, fiber, milk, and whole grains have been associated with a lower risk of colorectal cancer, and red meat and processed meat have been associated with an increased risk. There is substantial evidence for the potential chemopreventive effects of vitamin D, folate, fruits, and vegetables. Nutrients and foods also may interact, as a dietary pattern, to influence colorectal cancer risk. Diet likely influences colorectal carcinogenesis through several interacting mechanisms. These include the direct effects on immune responsiveness and inflammation, and the indirect effects of overnutrition and obesity-risk factors for colorectal cancer. Emerging evidence also implicates the gut microbiota as an important effector in the relationship between diet and cancer. Dietary modification therefore has the promise of reducing colorectal cancer incidence.

Evaluation of the medicinal properties of Cyrtocarpa procera Kunth fruit extracts

Background

The fruit of Cyrtocarpa procera is used to treat stomach diseases by people living in San Rafael, Coxcatlan, Puebla. This work investigated the antibacterial, antioxidant, cytotoxic and anti-inflammatory activities of the fruit produced by this species.

Methods

Methanol extract was obtained by maceration. After obtaining the methanol extract (MeOH1), methanol subextract (MeOH2) and hexane (H) were obtained. The antibacterial activities of MeOH1, MeOH2 and H were evaluated through disc-diffusion. The quenching of free radicals was evaluated by decolorizing a methanolic DPPH solution. The cytotoxic activity of MeOH2 was evaluated by in vitro assay system of growth inhibition of human cervical carcinoma cell line (CasKi). The IL-1β and TNF-α were determined through ELISA in the supernatants of the macrophage cell line (RAW 264.7). The MeOH2 subextract was separated by column chromatography, seventy-three fractions were collected.

Results

The Gram-positive and -negative bacteria examined were sensitive to MeOH1 and MeOH2; the MeOH2 was bactericidal toward Staphyloccocus aureus (MIC = 4 mg/mL) and Vibrio cholera (MIC = 4 mg/mL). The MeOH2 inhibited the DPPH radical (SC₅₀ = 69.7 μg/mL), but a cytotoxicity assay revealed that the extract is not toxic according to the National Cancer Institute (LD₅₀ = 22.03 μg/mL). The production of proinflammatory cytokines (IL- 1β and TNF- α) by LPS- stimulated macrophages was reduced after the treatments. The methanol extract contained various organic acids, such as citric acid, palmitic acid and α- linoleic acid.

Conclusions

The fruits of Cyrtocarpa procera are employed to treat ailments such as diarrhea, in this study were demonstrated some biological activities involved in a bacterial infection. This is the first research about of the medicinal properties of C. procera fruit.

Bacterial neuroactive compounds produced by psychobiotics

We recently coined the phrase 'psychobiotics' to describe an emerging class of probiotics of relevance to psychiatry [Dinan et al., Biol Psychiatry 2013;74(10):720-726]. Such "mind-altering" probiotics may act via their ability to produce various biologically active compounds, such as peptides and mediators normally associated with mammalian neurotransmission. Several molecules with neuroactive functions such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), serotonin, catecholamines and acetylcholine have been reported to be microbially-derived, many of which have been isolated from bacteria within the human gut. Secreted neurotransmitters from bacteria in the intestinal lumen may induce epithelial cells to release molecules that in turn modulate neural signalling within the enteric nervous system and consequently signal brain function and behaviour of the host. Consequently, neurochemical containing/producing probiotic bacteria may be viewed as delivery vehicles for neuroactive compounds and as such, probiotic bacteria may possibly have the potential as a therapeutic strategy in the prevention and/or treatment of certain neurological and neurophysiological conditions.

Anti-inflammatory mechanism of polyunsaturated fatty acids in Helicobacter pylori-infected gastric epithelial cells

Helicobacter pylori is an important risk factor for gastric inflammation, which is mediated by multiple signaling pathways. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), such as linoleic acid (LA), alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), on the expression of the proinflammatory chemokine interleukin-8 (IL-8) in H. pylori-infected gastric epithelial AGS cells. To investigate whether PUFAs modulate H. pylori-induced inflammatory signaling, we determined the activation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), protein kinase C-δ (PKC δ), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF- κB), and activator protein-1 (AP-1) as well as IL-8 expression in H. pylori-infected gastric epithelial cells that had been treated with or without PUFAs. We found that PUFAs inhibited IL-8 mRNA and protein expression in H. pylori-infected cells. ω-3 fatty acids (ALA, and DHA) suppressed the activation of EGFR, PKC δ, MAPK, NF- κB, and AP-1 in these infected cells. LA did not prevent EGFR transactivation and exhibited a less potent inhibitory effect on IL-8 expression than did ALA and DHA. In conclusion, PUFAs may be beneficial for prevention of H. pylori-associated gastric inflammation by inhibiting proinflammatory IL-8 expression.

Probiotics in colorectal cancer (CRC) with emphasis on mechanisms of action and current perspectives

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common form of cancer. Diverse therapies such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy and radiation have shown beneficial effects, but are limited because of their safety and toxicity. Probiotic formulations have shown great promise in CRC as preventive and early stage therapeutics. This review highlights the importance of a balanced intestinal microbiota and summarizes the recent developments in probiotics for treating CRC. Specifically, this report describes evidence of the role of probiotics in modulating the microbiota, in improving the physico-chemical conditions of the gut and in reducing oxidative stress. It also discusses the mechanisms of probiotics in inhibiting tumour progression, in producing anticancer compounds and in modulating the host immune response. Even though some of these effects were observed in several clinical trials, when probiotic formulations were used as a supplement to CRC therapies, the application of probiotics as biotherapeutics against CRC still needs further investigation.

Nutritional protective mechanisms against gut inflammation

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a debilitating and widespread immune-mediated illness characterized by excessive inflammatory and effector mucosal responses leading to tissue destruction at the gastrointestinal tract. Interactions among the immune system, the commensal microbiota and the host genotype are thought to underlie the pathogenesis of IBD. However, the precise etiology of IBD remains unknown. Diet-induced changes in the composition of the gut microbiome can modulate the induction of regulatory versus effector immune responses at the gut mucosa and improve health outcomes. Therefore, manipulation of gut microbiota composition and the local production of microbial-derived metabolites by using prebiotics, probiotics and dietary fibers is being explored as a promising avenue of prophylactic and therapeutic intervention against gut inflammation. Prebiotics and fiber carbohydrates are fermented by resident microflora into short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in the colon. SCFAs then activate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)γ, a nuclear transcription factor with widely demonstrated anti-inflammatory efficacy in experimental IBD. The activation of PPARγ by naturally ocurring compounds such as conjugated linoleic acid, pomegranate seed oil-derived punicic acid, eleostearic acid and abscisic acid has been explored as nutritional interventions that suppress colitis by directly modulating the host immune response. The aim of this review is to summarize the status of innovative nutritional interventions against gastrointestinal inflammation, their proposed mechanisms of action, preclinical and clinical efficacy as well as bioinformatics and computational modeling approaches that accelerate discovery in nutritional and mucosal immunology research.

Fish oil attenuates omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid-induced dysbiosis and infectious colitis but impairs LPS dephosphorylation activity causing sepsis

Clinically, excessive ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) and inadequate ω-3 PUFA have been associated with enhanced risks for developing ulcerative colitis. In rodent models, ω-3 PUFAs have been shown to either attenuate or exacerbate colitis in different studies. We hypothesized that a high ω-6: ω-3 PUFA ratio would increase colitis susceptibility through the microbe-immunity nexus. To address this, we fed post-weaned mice diets rich in ω-6 PUFA (corn oil) and diets supplemented with ω-3 PUFA (corn oil+fish oil) for 5 weeks. We evaluated the intestinal microbiota, induced colitis with Citrobacter rodentium and followed disease progression. We found that ω-6 PUFA enriched the microbiota with Enterobacteriaceae, Segmented Filamentous Bacteria and Clostridia spp., all known to induce inflammation. During infection-induced colitis, ω-6 PUFA fed mice had exacerbated intestinal damage, immune cell infiltration, prostaglandin E2 expression and C. rodentium translocation across the intestinal mucosae. Addition of ω-3 PUFA on a high ω-6 PUFA diet, reversed inflammatory-inducing microbial blooms and enriched beneficial microbes like Lactobacillus and Bifidobacteria, reduced immune cell infiltration and impaired cytokine/chemokine induction during infection. While, ω-3 PUFA supplementation protected against severe colitis, these mice suffered greater mortality associated with sepsis-related serum factors such as LPS binding protein, IL-15 and TNF-α. These mice also demonstrated decreased expression of intestinal alkaline phosphatase and an inability to dephosphorylate LPS. Thus, the colonic microbiota is altered differentially through varying PUFA composition, conferring altered susceptibility to colitis. Overall, ω-6 PUFA enriches pro-inflammatory microbes and augments colitis; but prevents infection-induced systemic inflammation. In contrast, ω-3 PUFA supplementation reverses the effects of the ω-6 PUFA diet but impairs infection-induced responses resulting in sepsis. We conclude that as an anti-inflammatory agent, ω-3 PUFA supplementation during infection may prove detrimental when host inflammatory responses are critical for survival.

Dietary conjugated linoleic acid activates PPARγ and the intestinal trefoil factor in SW480 cells and mice with dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis

A central event in inflammatory bowel disease is the disruption of the mucosal homeostasis. Trefoil peptides [(TFF)] are emerging as key mediators in the defense and repair of the gastrointestinal mucosa. Here, we demonstrate induction of TFF by CLA with therapeutic antiinflammatory effects in a mouse model of inflammatory bowel disease. SW480 cells were treated with linoleic acid or CLA (0-2.5 μmol/L) in the absence or presence of the PPARγ inhibitor GW9662. Cells treated with CLA showed an upregulation of the intestinal trefoil factor, which was prevented by pretreatment with GW9662. Dextran sulfate sodium (2%) was used to induce colitis in mice and they were simultaneously fed with a standard or a CLA-supplemented (100 mg · kg(-1) · d(-1)) diet for 7 d. The CLA-enriched diet prevented the colon shortening induced by DSS and markedly reduced the disease activity index and the colonic expression of inducible NO synthase and NF-κB. Immunohistochemistry revealed an increase in PPARγ and TFF3 expression after CLA administration. Altogether, these results indicate that dietary CLA protects against DSS-induced colitis in a process involving induction of PPARγ and TFF3.

Modulation of PPAR-γ by Nutraceutics as Complementary Treatment for Obesity-Related Disorders and Inflammatory Diseases

A direct correlation between adequate nutrition and health is a universally accepted truth. The Western lifestyle, with a high intake of simple sugars, saturated fat, and physical inactivity, promotes pathologic conditions. The main adverse consequences range from cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome to several cancers. Dietary components influence tissue homeostasis in multiple ways and many different functional foods have been associated with various health benefits when consumed. Natural products are an important and promising source for drug discovery. Many anti-inflammatory natural products activate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR); therefore, compounds that activate or modulate PPAR-gamma (PPAR-γ) may help to fight all of these pathological conditions. Consequently, the discovery and optimization of novel PPAR-γ agonists and modulators that would display reduced side effects is of great interest. In this paper, we present some of the main naturally derived products studied that exert an influence on metabolism through the activation or modulation of PPAR-γ, and we also present PPAR-γ-related diseases that can be complementarily treated with nutraceutics from functional foods.

Bifidobacterium breve with α-linolenic acid and linoleic acid alters fatty acid metabolism in the maternal separation model of irritable bowel syndrome

The aim of this study was to compare the impact of dietary supplementation with a Bifidobacterium breve strain together with linoleic acid & α-linolenic acid, for 7 weeks, on colonic sensitivity and fatty acid metabolism in rats. Maternally separated and non-maternally separated Sprague Dawley rats (n = 15) were orally gavaged with either B. breve DPC6330 (10(9) microorganisms/day) alone or in combination with 0.5% (w/w) linoleic acid & 0.5% (w/w) α-linolenic acid, daily for 7 weeks and compared with trehalose and bovine serum albumin. Tissue fatty acid composition was assessed by gas-liquid chromatography and visceral hypersensitivity was assessed by colorectal distension. Significant differences in the fatty acid profiles of the non-separated controls and maternally separated controls were observed for α-linolenic acid and arachidonic acid in the liver, oleic acid and eicosenoic acid (c11) in adipose tissue, and for palmitoleic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in serum (p<0.05). Administration of B. breve DPC6330 to MS rats significantly increased palmitoleic acid, arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in the liver, eicosenoic acid (c11) in adipose tissue and palmitoleic acid in the prefrontal cortex (p<0.05), whereas feeding B. breve DPC6330 to non separated rats significantly increased eicosapentaenoic acid and docosapentaenoic acid in serum (p<0.05) compared with the NS un-supplemented controls. Administration of B. breve DPC6330 in combination with linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid to maternally separated rats significantly increased docosapentaenoic acid in the serum (p<0.01) and α-linolenic acid in adipose tissue (p<0.001), whereas feeding B. breve DPC6330 with fatty acid supplementation to non-separated rats significantly increased liver and serum docosapentaenoic acid (p<0.05), and α-linolenic acid in adipose tissue (p<0.001). B. breve DPC6330 influenced host fatty acid metabolism. Administration of B. breve DPC6330 to maternally separated rats significantly modified the palmitoleic acid, arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid contents in tissues. The effect was not observed in non-separated animals.

Effects of conjugated linoleic acid and high oleic acid safflower oil in the treatment of children with HPV-induced laryngeal papillomatosis: a randomized, double-blinded and crossover preliminary study

BACKGROUND

Surgery is the mainstay therapy for HPV-induced laryngeal papillomatosis (LP) and adjuvant therapies are palliative at best. Research revealed that conjugated-linoleic acid (CLA) may improve the outcome of virally-induced diseases. The effects of Clarinol™ G-80 (CLA) and high oleic safflower oil (HOSF) on children with LP (concomitant with surgery) were evaluated.

DESIGN

A randomized, double-blinded, crossover and reference-oil controlled trial was conducted at a South African medical university. Study components included clinical, HPV type/load and lymphocyte/cytokine analyses, according to routine laboratory methods.

PARTICIPANTS

Overall: ten children enrolled; eight completed the trial; five remained randomized; seven received CLA first; all treatments remained double-blinded.

INTERVENTION

Children (4 to 12 years) received 2.5 ml p/d CLA (8 weeks) and 2.5 ml p/d HOSF (8 weeks) with a washout period (6 weeks) in-between. The one-year trial included a post-treatment period (30 weeks) and afterwards was a one-year follow-up period.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Changes in numbers of surgical procedures for improved disease outcome, total/anatomical scores (staging system) for papillomatosis prevention/viral inhibition, and lymphocyte/cytokine counts for immune responses between baselines and each treatment/end of trial were measured.

FINDINGS

After each treatment all the children were in remission (no surgical procedures); after the trial two had recurrence (surgical procedures in post-treatment period); after the follow-up period three had recurrence (several surgical procedures) and five recovered (four had no surgical procedures). Effects of CLA (and HOSF to a lesser extent) were restricted to mildly/moderately aggressive papillomatosis. Children with low total scores (seven/less) and reduced infections (three/less laryngeal sub-sites) recovered after the trial. No harmful effects were observed. The number of surgical procedures during the trial (n6/available records) was significantly lower [(p 0.03) (95% CI 1.1; 0)]. Changes in scores between baselines and CLA treatments (n8) were significantly lower: total scores [(p 0.02) (95% CI -30.00; 0.00)]; anatomical scores [(p 0.008) (95% CI -33.00: -2.00)]. Immune enhancement could not be demonstrated.

CONCLUSIONS

These preliminary case and group findings pave the way for further research on the therapeutic potential of adjuvant CLA in the treatment of HPV-induced LP.

Appraisal of conjugated linoleic acid production by probiotic potential of Pediococcus spp. GS4

Probiotics with ability to produce conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is considered as an additive health benefit property for its known role in colon cancer mitigation. The conversion involves the biohydrogenation of the unsaturated fatty acid into conjugated form. Probiotic strain Pediococcus spp. GS4 was efficiently able to biohydrogenate linoleic acid (LA) into its conjugated form within 48 h of incubation. Quantum of CLA produced with a concentration of 121 μg/ml and sustained cell viability of 8.94 log cfu/ml maximally. Moreover, antibacterial effect of LA on the strain ability for biohydrogenation was examined at different concentrations and concluded to have a direct relationship between LA and amount of CLA produced. The efficiency of the strain for CLA production at different pH was also estimated and found maximum at pH 6.0 with 149 μg/ml while this ability was reduced at pH 9.0 to 63 μg/ml. Sesame oil, which is rich in the triacylglycerol form of LA, was also found to act as a substrate for CLA production by Pediococcus spp. GS4 with the aid of lipase-catalyzed triacylglycerol hydrolysis and amount of CLA produced was 31 μg/ml at 0.2 % while 150 μg/ml at 1.0 % of lipolysed oil in skim milk medium. Conjugated form was analyzed using UV scanning, RP-HPLC, and GC-MS. This study also focused on the alternative use of lipolysed sesame oil instead of costly LA for biohydrogenation and could be a potential source for the industrial production of CLA.

Implication of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in human health

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) has drawn significant attention in the last two decades for its variety of biologically beneficial effects. CLA reduces body fat, cardiovascular diseases and cancer, and modulates immune and inflammatory responses as well as improves bone mass. It has been suggested that the overall effects of CLA are the results of interactions between two major isomers, cis-9,trans-11 and trans-10,cis-12. This review will primarily focus on current CLA publications involving humans, which are also summarized in the tables. Along with a number of beneficial effects of CLA, there are safety considerations for CLA supplementation in humans, which include effects on liver functions, milk fat depression, glucose metabolism, and oxidative stresses.

Effect of conjugated linoleic acid on proliferation and cytokine expression of bovine peripheral blood mononuclear cells and splenocytes ex vivo

Twenty-five primiparous Holstein cows were divided into five experimental groups (five animals per group) by different feeding (control fat preparation [CON] or conjugated linoleic acid [CLA] supplement) and slaughtering times. The daily consumption of CLA was 6.0 g of the trans-10, cis-12 CLA-isomer and 5.7 g cis-9, trans-11 CLA isomer. An initial group (IG) was slaughtered one day post partum (pp) and the remaining 20 animals after 42 and 105 days pp, respectively. Blood for peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) separation was taken seven days ante partum and immediately before slaughter. The spleen was removed during dissection for isolation of splenocytes and samples for histopathological examination. Cell viability and Concanavalin A-stimulated proliferation was analysed by MTT and Alamar Blue assay. Basal expression of cytokines (interleukin [IL]-4, IL-10, IL-12, tumour necrosis factor alpha [TNF-alpha] and interferon gamma [IFN-gamma]) was measured by quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) in unstimulated PMBC and splenocytes. With PBMC, stimulation indices increased from 1 day pp to 105 days pp with no differences between CLA and CON groups. With splenocytes, the stimulation index of the CLA group was lower compared to CON group 105 days pp. Baseline expression of cytokines was not effected by CLA feeding comparing similar time points. Also, no differences occurred in the expression of IL-4 in PBMC and IL-10 as well as TNF-alpha in both cell populations, when comparing the feeding groups separately with IG. IL-4 was more frequently expressed in CLA group 42 days pp in splenocytes. IFN-gamma expression was increased 105 days pp in CLA group in splenocytes and PBMC. IL-12 was higher expressed 105 days (PBMC) or 42 days pp (splenocytes) when compared to IG. There was no effect of CLA feeding or slaughter time on histopathology of the spleen. In conclusion, the present results demonstrate an inhibiting effect of CLA on the mitogen-induced activation of splenocytes.

Backfat Fatty Acid Profile of Crossbred Pigs Fed a Diet Supplemented with Conjugated Linoleic acid or Sunflower Oil

The aim of the study was to investigate the impact of feeding pigs with different levels of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) or sunflower oil (SFO) on the backfat fatty acid profile. The subjects of research were 60 crossbred gilts divided into 6 groups, which were fed different levels of conjugated linoleic acid or sunflower oil (0.5, 1.0 and 2.0%, respectively). All fatteners were kept and fed under standardized conditions. Animals were slaughtered at 95 kg of body weight. Fatty acid profile was determined in samples of backfat from each animal using gas chromatography. The significance of differences between groups was verified by Duncan's test. In the present study, a beneficial effect of adding CLA was that it reduced saturated fatty acids and increased unsaturated fatty acids in the adipose tissue (backfat) of pigs as compared to fatteners receiving SFO. The amount of monounsaturated fatty acids in the backfat decreased with increasing amounts of CLA or SFO. Modifying the fatty acid profile of pig backfat through addition of CLA or SFO would be beneficial to the health of consumers because relatively large amounts of fat pork, including backfat, are added to the sausages.

Immunoregulatory mechanisms underlying prevention of colitis-associated colorectal cancer by probiotic bacteria

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) increases the risk of colorectal cancer. Probiotic bacteria produce immunoregulatory metabolites in vitro such as conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), a polyunsaturated fatty acid with potent anti-carcinogenic effects. This study aimed to investigate the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the efficacy of probiotic bacteria in mouse models of cancer.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

The immune modulatory mechanisms of VSL#3 probiotic bacteria and CLA were investigated in mouse models of inflammation-driven colorectal cancer. Colonic specimens were collected for histopathology, gene expression and flow cytometry analyses. Immune cell subsets in the mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN), spleen and colonic lamina propria lymphocytes (LPL) were phenotypically and functionally characterized. Mice treated with CLA or VSL#3 recovered faster from the acute inflammatory phase of disease and had lower disease severity in the chronic, tumor-bearing phase of disease. Adenoma and adenocarcinoma formation was also diminished by both treatments. VSL#3 increased the mRNA expression of TNF-α, angiostatin and PPAR γ whereas CLA decreased COX-2 levels. Moreover, VSL#3-treated mice had increased IL-17 expression in MLN CD4+ T cells and accumulation of Treg LPL and memory CD4+ T cells.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Both CLA and VSL#3 suppressed colon carcinogenesis, although VSL#3 showed greater anti-carcinogenic and anti-inflammatory activities than CLA. Mechanistically, CLA modulated expression of COX-2 levels in the colonic mucosa, whereas VSL#3 targeted regulatory mucosal CD4+ T cell responses.

Uptake of conjugated linolenic acids and conversion to cis-9, trans-11-or trans-9, trans-11-conjugated linoleic acids in Caco-2 cells

Dietary oils containing large amounts of conjugated linolenic acids (CLnA) may be regarded as a source of conjugated linoleic acids (CLA), which have been suspected to bear health-promoting properties. Indeed, CLnA can be converted into CLA in mammals. The objective of the present study was to investigate the uptake of CLnA and their metabolism into CLA in Caco-2 cells, as a validated in vitro model of the intestinal barrier. Caco-2 cells were incubated for 24 h in the presence of either α-eleostearic, β-eleostearic, catalpic or punicic acid. We first observed that Caco-2 cells take these CLnA up at different rates and then convert them but with varying efficiency depending on the structure of the Δ13 double bond. Finally, the distribution of CLnA between neutral lipids (NL) and phospholipids appeared to be linked to their number of trans double bonds: the higher the number, the higher the accumulation in the NL fraction.

Conversion of t11t13 CLA into c9t11 CLA in Caco-2 cells and inhibition by sterculic oil

BACKGROUND

Conjugated linoleic acids (CLA), and principally c9t11 CLA, are suspected to have numerous preventive properties regarding non-infectious pathologies such as inflammatory diseases, atherosclerosis and several types of cancer. C9t11 CLA is produced in the rumen during biohydrogenation of linoleic acid, but can also be synthesized in mammalian tissues from trans-vaccenic acid (C18:1 t11) through the action of delta-9 desaturase (D9D). For several years, it is also known that c9t11 CLA can be synthesized from conjugated linolenic acids (CLnA), i.e. c9t11c13 CLnA and c9t11t13 CLnA. This study aimed at investigating to which extent and by which route c9t11 CLA can be produced from another isomer of CLA, the t11t13 CLA that is structurally very similar to c9t11t13 CLnA, in Caco-2 cells.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Caco-2 cells were incubated for 24 h with 20 µmol/l of t11t13 CLA in the absence or presence of sterculic oil used as an inhibitor of D9D. Caco-2 cells were able to convert t11t13 CLA into c9t11 CLA, and c9t11t13 CLnA was formed as an intermediate compound. In the presence of sterculic oil, the production of this intermediate was decreased by 46% and the formation of c9t11 CLA was decreased by 26%. No other metabolite was detected.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

These results not only highlight the conversion of t11t13 CLA into c9t11 CLA but demonstrate also that this conversion involves first a desaturation step catalysed by D9D to produce c9t11t13 CLnA and then the action of another enzyme reducing the double bond on the Δ13 position.

Probiotic bacteria produce conjugated linoleic acid locally in the gut that targets macrophage PPAR γ to suppress colitis

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) therapies are modestly successful and associated with significant side effects. Thus, the investigation of novel approaches to prevent colitis is important. Probiotic bacteria can produce immunoregulatory metabolites in vitro such as conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), a polyunsaturated fatty acid with potent anti-inflammatory effects. This study aimed to investigate the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory efficacy of probiotic bacteria using a mouse model of colitis.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

The immune modulatory mechanisms of VSL#3 probiotic bacteria and CLA were investigated in a mouse model of DSS colitis. Colonic specimens were collected for histopathology, gene expression and flow cytometry analyses. Immune cell subsets in the mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN), spleen, blood and colonic lamina propria cells were phenotypically and functionally characterized. Fecal samples and colonic contents were collected to determine the effect of VSL#3 and CLA on gut microbial diversity and CLA production. CLA and VSL#3 treatment ameliorated colitis and decreased colonic bacterial diversity, a finding that correlated with decreased gut pathology. Colonic CLA concentrations were increased in response to probiotic bacterial treatment, but without systemic distribution in blood. VSL#3 and CLA decreased macrophage accumulation in the MLN of mice with DSS colitis. The loss of PPAR γ in myeloid cells abrogated the protective effect of probiotic bacteria and CLA in mice with DSS colitis.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Probiotic bacteria modulate gut microbial diversity and favor local production of CLA in the colon that targets myeloid cell PPAR γ to suppress colitis.

Obesity: the preventive role of the pomegranate (Punica granatum)

Obesity represents a rapidly growing threat to the health of populations in an increasing number of countries. Diet intervention has been proposed as one of the strategies for weight loss and weight maintenance. Traditionally, the pomegranate, including its roots, tree bark, fruit juice, leaves, and flowers, has been used to treat some conditions such as diarrhea, hemorrhage, acidosis, and microbial infections. Pomegranate extracts have been found to have strong anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and even antitumor properties in vivo and in vitro. More recently, positive effects on fat reduction have been shown using the pomegranate and its extracts. Many of the beneficial effects are related to the presence of anthocyanins, tannins, and very high levels of antioxidants, including polyphenols and flavonoids. Many studies have explored the effects of the pomegranate in obesity, and various mechanisms have been proposed as to how these different extracts help in fat reduction. This article provides an overview of the work done addressing the potential benefits of the pomegranate on obesity and assesses the efficacy of intervention by means of the pomegranate and its extracts. Human studies in this field are still limited and need more attention that would help in understanding the preventive and protective roles pomegranate extracts have on obesity.

Effect of conjugated linoleic acid on inhibition of prolyl hydroxylase 1 in hearts of mice

BACKGROUND

Results from different trails have provided evidence of protective effects of cis-9,trans-11-conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) on cardiovascular diseases. But the inhibition of prolyl hydroxylase 1 (PHD1) associated with induction of hypoxia inducible factors (HIFs) by CLA in these protective effects has never been reported before. The objective of this study was to evaluate if the two predominant cis-9,trans-11 (c9, t11), trans-10,cis-12 (t10, c12) CLA isomers and mixture of these two isomers can inhibit PHD1 with induction of HIFs in myocardium in mice and subsequent effects on myocardium metabolism.

RESULTS

CLA mixture and c9, t11 CLA inhibited PHD1 protein expression and increased the levels of protein and mRNA in HIF-2α in myocardium in mice. Meanwhile, CLA mixture and c9, t11 CLA also elevated the expression of HIF related transcriptional factors like PDK4 and PPARα. The reprogramming of basal metabolism in myocardium in mice was shown on increasing of GLUT4 gene expression by c9, t11 CLA supplemented group. UCP2 was increased by CLA mixture and c9, t11 CLA for attenuating production of ROS.

CONCLUSION

CLA mixture and c9, t11 CLA could inhibit PHD1 and induce HIF-2α in myocardium in mice, which is associated with upregulation of PDK4 by activation of PPARα. This process also implies a reprogramming of basal metabolism and oxidative damage protection in myocardium in mice. All the effects shown in hearts of mice are due to c9, t11 CLA but not t10, c12 CLA.