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Knobbe MG, Aden BJ, Ashbaugh HR. Comparison of Theater Medical Data Store and Reportable Medical Event Records to Theater Animal Bite Reports Submissions, 2018-2019. Mil Med 2024; 189:e1166-e1173. [PMID: 37997678 DOI: 10.1093/milmed/usad445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION This analysis evaluates potential reporting discrepancies of the DD2341 Form (Report of Animal Bite-Potential Rabies Exposure) submitted to a forward-deployed Rabies Advisory Board to the Theater Medical Data Store (TMDS) and Reportable Medical Event (RME) systems to identify reporting gaps that can lead to improved best practices that ensure documentation of Post Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP) of potential rabies exposures into service members (SMs) electronic medical records. MATERIALS AND METHODS The project compares the number of Service Member animal exposure DD2341 reports submitted to the Camp Arifjan, Kuwait Rabies Advisory Board to in-theater treatment electronic records at the same forward deployed locations from January 1, 2018 to December 31, 2019 recorded in the TMDS and RME databases. Records included active duty and reserve SM deployed to six countries in the United States Central Command (USCENTCOM) area of responsibility. The analysis compared some demographic information, type of potential rabies exposure (e.g., whether a bite or scratch), and PEP to rabies with Human Rabies Immune Globulin (HRIG), Human Rabies Vaccine (HRV), or both between the reporting systems. RESULTS There were 44 fewer records of PEP from the TMDS data records than reported from in theater written reports. Electronic record data showed 85 coded rabies exposure diagnoses. Twenty-two received HRV and no HRIG, while four received HRIG and HRV for PEP. Only seven of the 26 SM receiving rabies PEP had a confirmed RME associated with the electronic record. There were 116 SM animal exposure written reports, with 70 reporting PEP. There were 41 records indicating the SM received HRIG and HRV as part of PEP, while 29 reports indicated that the patient received only HRV PEP. Of the 41 SM receiving HRIG, 32 of the exposures were from cat scratches or bites. Seven records specified HRIG was indicated for treatment but not available at the location; therefore, HRV was the only treatment available. The most common reason indicated on the written report for not receiving rabies PEP was that treatment was not indicated based on the risk category of animal exposure. CONCLUSIONS This study is the first to compare the electronic medical record data to in theater reports for potential rabies exposure in a theater of operations. The analysis suggests that some written forms generated in the USCENTCOM theater are not entered into SM Military Health System electronic medical records, indicating that electronic medical records may be a less sensitive method than in-theatre reports for rabies program surveillance in a deployed setting. There is under-reporting in electronic medical records of rabies PEP in both TMDS and RME databases. Rabies PEP is an RME according to the Armed Forces Health Surveillance Division guidelines and case definitions. There needs to be better integration of the DD2341 into the electronic medical records system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc G Knobbe
- Surgeon Directorate, 1st Special Forces Command (Airborne), Fort Liberty, NC 28310, USA
| | - Brandon J Aden
- Surgeon Directorate, 804th Medical Brigade (USAR), Fort Devens, MA 01434, USA
| | - Hayley R Ashbaugh
- Surgeon Directorate, U.S. Army Central Command, Camp Arifjan, APO, AE 09366 Kuwait
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Farahtaj F, Alizadeh L, Gholami A, Khosravy MS, Bashar R, Gharibzadeh S, Mahmoodzadeh Niknam H, Ghaemi A. Differential pathogenesis of intracerebral and intramuscular inoculation of street rabies virus and CVS-11 strains in a mouse model. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF BASIC MEDICAL SCIENCES 2021; 24:943-950. [PMID: 34712425 PMCID: PMC8528248 DOI: 10.22038/ijbms.2021.54264.12188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Objective(s): The mechanisms of rabies evasion and immunological interactions with the host defense have not been completely elucidated. Here, we evaluated the dynamic changes in the number of astrocytes, microglial and neuronal cells in the brain following intramuscular (IM) and intracerebral (IC) inoculations of street rabies virus (SRV). Materials and Methods: The SRV isolated from a jackal and CVS-11 were used to establish infection in NMRI-female mice. The number of astrocytes (by expression of GFAP), microglial (by Iba1), and neuronal cells (by MAP-2) in the brain following IM and IC inoculations of SRV were evaluated by immunohistochemistry and H & E staining 7 to 30 days post-infection. Results: Increased numbers of astrocytes and microglial cells in dead mice infected by SRV via both IC and IM routes were recorded. The number of neuronal cells in surviving mice was decreased only in IC-infected mice, while in the dead group, this number was decreased by both routes. The risk of death in SRV-infected mice was approximately 3 times higher than in the CVS-11 group. In IC-inoculated mice, viral dilution was the only influential factor in mortality, while the type of strain demonstrated a significant impact on the mortality rate in IM inoculations. Conclusion: Our results suggested that microglial cells and their inflammatory cytokines may not contribute to the neuroprotection and recovery in surviving mice following intracerebral inoculation of SRV. An unexpected decrease in MAP2 expression via intramuscular inoculation indicates the imbalance in the integrity and stability of neuronal cytoskeleton which aggravates rabies infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Firozeh Farahtaj
- National Center for Reference & Research on Rabies, Institut Pasteur of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Leila Alizadeh
- Department of Virology, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Gholami
- Viral vaccine Production, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Karaj, Iran
| | | | - Rouzbeh Bashar
- National Center for Reference & Research on Rabies, Institut Pasteur of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Safoora Gharibzadeh
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Research Center for Emerging and Reemerging of Infectious Diseases, Institut Pasteur of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Amir Ghaemi
- Department of Virology, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
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3
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Bacus MG, Buenaventura SGC, Mamites AMC, Elizagaque HG, Labrador CC, Delfin FC, Eng MNJ, Lagare AP, Marquez GN, Murao LAE. Genome-based local dynamics of canine rabies virus epidemiology, transmission, and evolution in Davao City, Philippines, 2018-2019. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2021; 92:104868. [PMID: 33878454 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2021.104868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Rabies is a fatal zoonotic and neglected tropical disease caused by the rabies virus (RABV) and is associated with neuronal dysfunction and death, with dogs as the predominant carrier. The Philippines plans to eradicate rabies by 2022, but this is challenged with sub-optimal coverage of vaccination programs coupled with sustained transmission chains, making it unable to eradicate the disease. We investigated the dynamics of canine rabies in the highly urbanized Davao City of the Philippines and its neighboring localities by assessing genetic relationships, transmission patterns, selection pressure, and recombination events using the whole genome sequence of 49 RABV cases from June 2018 to May 2019, majority of which (46%) were from the district of Talomo, Davao City. Although phylogeographic clustering was observed, local variants also exhibited genetic sub-lineages. Phylogenetic and spatial transmission analysis provided evidence for intra- and inter-city transmission predominantly through the Talomo district of Davao City. Around 84% of the cases were owned dogs, but the genetic similiarity of RABVs from stray and owned dogs further alluded to the role of the former as transmission vectors. The high rate of improper vaccination among the affected dogs (80%) was also a likely contributor to transmission. The RABV population under Investigation is generally under strong purifying selection with no evidence of vaccine evasion due to the genetic homogeneity of viruses from vaccinated and improperly vaccinated dogs. However, some homologous recombination (HR) events were identified along the G and L genes, also predominantly associated with viruses from Talomo. The complementary findings on epidemiology, transmission, and recombination for Talomo suggest that high incidence areas can be seeds for virus dispersal and evolution. We recommend further Investigations on the possibility of HR in future large-scale genome studies. Finally, districts associated with these phenomena can be targeted for evidence-based local strategies that can help break RABV transmission chains and prevent emergence of novel strains in Davao City.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael G Bacus
- Philippine Genome Center Mindanao, University of the Philippines Mindanao, Tugbok District, Mintal, Davao City, Philippines
| | - Sheryl Grace C Buenaventura
- Department of Biological Sciences and Environmental Studies, University of the Philippines Mindanao, Tugbok District, Mintal, Davao City, Philippines
| | - Allan Michael C Mamites
- Department of Biological Sciences and Environmental Studies, University of the Philippines Mindanao, Tugbok District, Mintal, Davao City, Philippines
| | - Hannah G Elizagaque
- Department of Biological Sciences and Environmental Studies, University of the Philippines Mindanao, Tugbok District, Mintal, Davao City, Philippines
| | - Christian C Labrador
- Philippine Genome Center Mindanao, University of the Philippines Mindanao, Tugbok District, Mintal, Davao City, Philippines
| | - Frederick C Delfin
- DNA Analysis Laboratory, Natural Sciences Research Institute, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Ma Noreen J Eng
- Davao City Veterinary Office, Pichon St., Davao City, Philippines
| | - Arlene P Lagare
- Davao City Veterinary Office, Pichon St., Davao City, Philippines
| | - Gloria N Marquez
- Davao City Veterinary Office, Pichon St., Davao City, Philippines
| | - Lyre Anni E Murao
- Department of Biological Sciences and Environmental Studies, University of the Philippines Mindanao, Tugbok District, Mintal, Davao City, Philippines; Philippine Genome Center Mindanao, University of the Philippines Mindanao, Tugbok District, Mintal, Davao City, Philippines.
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4
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Takahashi T, Inukai M, Sasaki M, Potratz M, Jarusombuti S, Fujii Y, Nishiyama S, Finke S, Yamada K, Sakai H, Sawa H, Nishizono A, Sugiyama M, Ito N. Genetic and Phenotypic Characterization of a Rabies Virus Strain Isolated from a Dog in Tokyo, Japan in the 1940s. Viruses 2020; 12:v12090914. [PMID: 32825306 PMCID: PMC7552007 DOI: 10.3390/v12090914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The rabies virus strain Komatsugawa (Koma), which was isolated from a dog in Tokyo in the 1940s before eradication of rabies in Japan in 1957, is known as the only existent Japanese field strain (street strain). Although this strain potentially provides a useful model to study rabies pathogenesis, little is known about its genetic and phenotypic properties. Notably, this strain underwent serial passages in rodents after isolation, indicating the possibility that it may have lost biological characteristics as a street strain. In this study, to evaluate the utility of the Koma strain for studying rabies pathogenesis, we examined the genetic properties and in vitro and in vivo phenotypes. Genome-wide genetic analyses showed that, consistent with previous findings from partial sequence analyses, the Koma strain is closely related to a Russian street strain within the Arctic-related phylogenetic clade. Phenotypic examinations in vitro revealed that the Koma strain and the representative street strains are less neurotropic than the laboratory strains. Examination by using a mouse model demonstrated that the Koma strain and the street strains are more neuroinvasive than the laboratory strains. These findings indicate that the Koma strain retains phenotypes similar to those of street strains, and is therefore useful for studying rabies pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuki Takahashi
- The United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan; (T.T.); (H.S.); (M.S.)
| | - Maho Inukai
- Laboratory of Zoonotic Disease, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan; (M.I.); (S.N.)
| | - Michihito Sasaki
- Division of Molecular Pathobiology, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan; (M.S.); (H.S.)
| | - Madlin Potratz
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald, Germany; (M.P.); (S.F.)
| | - Supasiri Jarusombuti
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Science, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan;
| | - Yuji Fujii
- Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan;
| | - Shoko Nishiyama
- Laboratory of Zoonotic Disease, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan; (M.I.); (S.N.)
| | - Stefan Finke
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald, Germany; (M.P.); (S.F.)
| | - Kentaro Yamada
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Oita University, Oita 879-5593, Japan; (K.Y.); (A.N.)
| | - Hiroki Sakai
- The United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan; (T.T.); (H.S.); (M.S.)
- Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan;
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
- Gifu Center for Highly Advanced Integration of Nanosciences and Life Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
| | - Hirofumi Sawa
- Division of Molecular Pathobiology, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan; (M.S.); (H.S.)
| | - Akira Nishizono
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Oita University, Oita 879-5593, Japan; (K.Y.); (A.N.)
| | - Makoto Sugiyama
- The United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan; (T.T.); (H.S.); (M.S.)
- Laboratory of Zoonotic Disease, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan; (M.I.); (S.N.)
- Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan;
| | - Naoto Ito
- The United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan; (T.T.); (H.S.); (M.S.)
- Laboratory of Zoonotic Disease, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan; (M.I.); (S.N.)
- Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan;
- Gifu Center for Highly Advanced Integration of Nanosciences and Life Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-58-293-2949
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5
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Gold S, Donnelly CA, Nouvellet P, Woodroffe R. Rabies virus-neutralising antibodies in healthy, unvaccinated individuals: What do they mean for rabies epidemiology? PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0007933. [PMID: 32053628 PMCID: PMC7017994 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies has been a widely feared disease for thousands of years, with records of rabid dogs as early as ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian texts. The reputation of rabies as being inevitably fatal, together with its ability to affect all mammalian species, contributes to the fear surrounding this disease. However, the widely held view that exposure to the rabies virus is always fatal has been repeatedly challenged. Although survival following clinical infection in humans has only been recorded on a handful of occasions, a number of studies have reported detection of rabies-specific antibodies in the sera of humans, domestic animals, and wildlife that are apparently healthy and unvaccinated. These 'seropositive' individuals provide possible evidence of exposure to the rabies virus that has not led to fatal disease. However, the variability in methods of detecting these antibodies and the difficulties of interpreting serology tests have contributed to an unclear picture of their importance. In this review, we consider the evidence for rabies-specific antibodies in healthy, unvaccinated individuals as indicators of nonlethal rabies exposure and the potential implications of this for rabies epidemiology. Our findings indicate that whilst there is substantial evidence that nonlethal rabies exposure does occur, serology studies that do not use appropriate controls and cutoffs are unlikely to provide an accurate estimate of the true prevalence of nonlethal rabies exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susannah Gold
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London, United Kingdom
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Christl A. Donnelly
- MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Statistics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Pierre Nouvellet
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, United Kingdom
| | - Rosie Woodroffe
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, London, United Kingdom
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6
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Fisher CR, Streicker DG, Schnell MJ. The spread and evolution of rabies virus: conquering new frontiers. Nat Rev Microbiol 2018; 16:241-255. [PMID: 29479072 PMCID: PMC6899062 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro.2018.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Rabies is a lethal zoonotic disease that is caused by lyssaviruses, most often rabies virus. Despite control efforts, sporadic outbreaks in wildlife populations are largely unpredictable, underscoring our incomplete knowledge of what governs viral transmission and spread in reservoir hosts. Furthermore, the evolutionary history of rabies virus and related lyssaviruses remains largely unclear. Robust surveillance efforts combined with diagnostics and disease modelling are now providing insights into the epidemiology and evolution of rabies virus. The immune status of the host, the nature of exposure and strain differences all clearly influence infection and transmission dynamics. In this Review, we focus on rabies virus infections in the wildlife and synthesize current knowledge in the rapidly advancing fields of rabies virus epidemiology and evolution, and advocate for multidisciplinary approaches to advance our understanding of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine R. Fisher
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Daniel G. Streicker
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
| | - Matthias J. Schnell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Vaccine Center at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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7
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Mahadevan A, Suja MS, Mani RS, Shankar SK. Perspectives in Diagnosis and Treatment of Rabies Viral Encephalitis: Insights from Pathogenesis. Neurotherapeutics 2016; 13:477-92. [PMID: 27324391 PMCID: PMC4965414 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-016-0452-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies viral encephalitis, though one of the oldest recognized infectious disease of humans, remains an incurable, fatal encephalomyelitis, despite advances in understanding of its pathobiology. Advances in science have led us on the trail of the virus in the host, but the sanctuaries in which the virus remains hidden for its survival are unknown. Insights into host-pathogen interactions have facilitated evolving immunologic therapeutic strategies, though we are far from a cure. Most of the present-day knowledge has evolved from in vitro studies using fixed (attenuated) laboratory strains that may not be applicable in the clinical setting. Much remains to be unraveled about this elusive virus. This review attempts to re-examine the current advances in understanding of the pathobiology of the rabies virus that modulate the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of this fatal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Mahadevan
- Department of Neuropathology, National Institute of Mental Health & Neurosciences, Bangalore, 560 029, India.
| | - M S Suja
- Department of Neuropathology, National Institute of Mental Health & Neurosciences, Bangalore, 560 029, India
| | - Reeta S Mani
- Department of Neurovirology, National Institute of Mental Health & Neurosciences, Bangalore, 560 029, India
| | - Susarala K Shankar
- Department of Neuropathology, National Institute of Mental Health & Neurosciences, Bangalore, 560 029, India
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8
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Abstract
Rabies is an acute, rapidly progressive encephalitis that is almost always fatal. Prophylaxis is highly effective but economics limits disease control. The mechanism of death from rabies is unclear. It is poorly cytopathic and poorly inflammatory. Rabies behaves like an acquired metabolic disorder. There may be a continuum of disease severity. History of animal bite is rare. The diagnosis is often missed. Intermittent encephalopathy, dysphagia, hydrophobia and aerophobia, and focal paresthesias or myoclonic jerks suggest rabies. Laboratory diagnosis is cumbersome but sensitive. Treatment is controversial but survivors are increasingly reported, with good outcomes in 4 of 8 survivors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodney E Willoughby
- Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Children's Hospital of Wisconsin, C450, PO Box 1997, Milwaukee, WI 53201-1997, USA.
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9
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Giesen A, Gniel D, Malerczyk C. 30 years of rabies vaccination with Rabipur: a summary of clinical data and global experience. Expert Rev Vaccines 2015; 14:351-67. [DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2015.1011134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Giesen
- 1 Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics GmbH, Global Medical Affairs, Emil-von-Behring-Strasse 76, 35041 Marburg, Germany
| | - Dieter Gniel
- 2 Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics GmbH, Global Medical Affairs, Marburg, Germany
| | - Claudius Malerczyk
- 3 Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics GmbH, Medical Affairs Region Europe & International, Marburg, Germany
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10
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Gautret P, Carrara P, Parola P. Long incubation in imported human rabies. Ann Neurol 2014; 75:324-5. [DOI: 10.1002/ana.24092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2013] [Revised: 12/01/2013] [Accepted: 12/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Gautret
- Mediterranean Hospital-University Infection Institute, North University Hospital Center, Public Assistance Hospitals of Marseille
- Emerging Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Unit, Faculty of Medicine; Aix-Marseille University; Marseille France
| | - Philippe Carrara
- Mediterranean Hospital-University Infection Institute, North University Hospital Center, Public Assistance Hospitals of Marseille
| | - Phillipe Parola
- Mediterranean Hospital-University Infection Institute, North University Hospital Center, Public Assistance Hospitals of Marseille
- Emerging Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Unit, Faculty of Medicine; Aix-Marseille University; Marseille France
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11
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Cho TA, Mckendall RR. Clinical approach to the syndromes of viral encephalitis, myelitis, and meningitis. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2014; 123:89-121. [PMID: 25015482 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-53488-0.00004-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Tracey A Cho
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School and Neuro-ID Program, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Robert R Mckendall
- Departments of Neurology and Microbiology & Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA.
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12
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan C Jackson
- Departments of Internal Medicine (Neurology) and of Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
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Boland TA, McGuone D, Jindal J, Rocha M, Cumming M, Rupprecht CE, Barbosa TFS, de Novaes Oliveira R, Chu CJ, Cole AJ, Kotait I, Kuzmina NA, Yager PA, Kuzmin IV, Hedley-Whyte ET, Brown CM, Rosenthal ES. Phylogenetic and epidemiologic evidence of multiyear incubation in human rabies. Ann Neurol 2014; 75:155-60. [PMID: 24038455 PMCID: PMC4118733 DOI: 10.1002/ana.24016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2013] [Revised: 08/01/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Eight years after emigrating from Brazil, an otherwise healthy man developed rabies. An exposure prior to immigration was reported. Genetic analysis revealed a canine rabies virus variant found only in the patient's home country, and the patient had not traveled internationally since immigrating to the United States. We describe how epidemiological, phylogenetic, and viral sequencing data provided confirmation that rabies encephalomyelitis may present after a long, multiyear incubation period, a consideration that previously has been hypothesized without the ability to exclude a more recent exposure. Accordingly, rabies should be considered in the diagnosis of any acute encephalitis, myelitis, or encephalomyelitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torrey A Boland
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL
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Abstract
Invasion of the central nervous system (CNS) by viral agents typically produces a meningoencephalitis in which either meningitis or encephalitis may predominate. Viruses may also infect cranial or spinal blood vessels to produce ischemic injury. Viral and other infections may also elicit a host immune response which is cross-reactive with components of the neural tissue, resulting in encephalomyelitis, transverse myelitis, injury to peripheral nerves, or optic neuritis. This chapter discusses the pathogenesis of CNS viral infections and reviews clinical features of these disorders, major agents responsible in immunocompromised and immunocompetent individuals, and treatment. Prion diseases and postinfectious viral CNS syndromes including postinfectious encephalomyelitis, acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis, cerebellar ataxia, and transverse myelitis are also discussed.
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Kasempimolporn S, Saengseesom W, Tirawatnapong T, Puempumpanich S, Sitprija V. Genetic Typing of Feline Rabies Virus Isolated in Greater Bangkok, Thailand. Microbiol Immunol 2013; 48:307-11. [PMID: 15107541 DOI: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.2004.tb03511.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
To study the molecular epidemiology of rabies virus that is prevalent among cats in greater Bangkok, Thailand, a total of 17 rabies virus isolates from cats were characterized and compared with 120 rabies virus isolates from dogs. Analyses were performed on the genetic polymorphism in the rabies virus nucleoprotein (N) gene. Rabies virus N gene of isolates was amplified by reverse transcriptionpolymerase chain reaction. The diversity of N gene was revealed by the restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) method. The rabies virus isolates from cats could be classified into 5 types, designated as Dd I-Hf I, Dd II-Hf II, Dd III-Hf I, Dd IV-Hf I, and Dd IV-Hf III. Type Dd I-Hf I was encountered more frequently than the others. It was apparent that no less than five rabies virus types presented in the areas of Bangkok. Moreover, all five RFLP patterns were typical of those which had been observed in dogs. Our findings suggest that there had been viral transmission between the dogs and the cats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Songsri Kasempimolporn
- The Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute (WHO Collaborating Center for Research on Rabies), Thai Red Cross Society, Bangkok, Thailand.
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Senba K, Matsumoto T, Yamada K, Shiota S, Iha H, Date Y, Ohtsubo M, Nishizono A. Passive carriage of rabies virus by dendritic cells. SPRINGERPLUS 2013; 2:419. [PMID: 24024103 PMCID: PMC3765594 DOI: 10.1186/2193-1801-2-419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2013] [Accepted: 08/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The rabies virus (RABV) is highly neurotropic and it uses evasive strategies to successfully evade the host immune system. Because rabies is often fatal, understanding the basic processes of the virus-host interactions, particularly in the initial events of infection, is critical for the design of new therapeutic approaches to target RABV. Here, we examined the possible role of dendritic cells (DCs) in the transmission of RABV to neural cells at peripheral site of exposure. Viral replication only occurred at a low level in the DC cell line, JAWS II, after its infection with either pathogenic RABV (CVS strain) or low-pathogenic RABV (ERA strain), and no progeny viruses were produced in the culture supernatants. However, both viral genomic RNAs were retained in the long term after infection and maintained their infectivity. The biggest difference between CVS and ERA was in their ability to induce type I interferons. Although the ERA-infected JAWS II cells exhibited cytopathic effect and were apparently killed by normal spleen cells in vitro, the CVS-infected JAWS II cells showed milder cytopathic effect and less lysis when cocultured with spleen cells. Strongly increased expression of major histocompatibility complex classes I, costimulatory molecules (CD80 and CD86), type I interferons and Toll- like receptor 3, and was observed only in the ERA-inoculated JAWS II cells and not in those inoculated with CVS. During the silencing of the cellular immune response in the DCs, the pathogenic CVS strain cryptically maintained an infectious viral genome and was capable of transmitting infectious RABV to permissive neural cells. These findings demonstrate that DCs may play a role in the passive carriage of RABV during natural rabies infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuyo Senba
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Oita University, 1-1 Idaigaoka, Hasama-machi, Yufu-City, Oita, 879-5593 Japan ; Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition, Beppu University, Beppu, Oita, Japan
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Hu X, Liu R, Zhu N. Enhancement of humoral and cellular immune responses by monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA) as an adjuvant to the rabies vaccine in BALB/c mice. Immunobiology 2013; 218:1524-8. [PMID: 23816301 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2013.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2013] [Revised: 05/16/2013] [Accepted: 05/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The development of effective vaccines against the rabies virus could prevent infection with this fatal virus. However, the current rabies vaccine fails to provide a full range of protection because of its limited ability to elicit a cellular immune response and the requirement for repeat vaccination. Monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA) is well known as a potent adjuvant to enhance immune responses against virus infection. Here we investigated the efficacy of MPLA as an adjuvant to improve the humoral and cellular immune responses to the rabies vaccine in BALB/c mice. Supplementation of the rabies vaccine with MPLA significantly accelerated the production of specific antibodies by 10 days compared to the original vaccines. Furthermore, MPLA promoted the induction of stronger cellular immune responses by the rabies vaccine, including the production of IL-4, IFN-γ and the activation of CD4⁺/CD8⁺ T cells, than those elicited without MPLA. Collectively, our findings indicated that MPLA enhances humoral and cellular immunity and is a promising adjuvant for the development of more effective rabies vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaobo Hu
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
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18
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Encephalitis and postinfectious encephalitis represent two important conditions for the neurologist, both in terms of their presentations as neurologic emergencies and their potential to cause death or serious neurologic impairment. This article reviews the major infectious and noninfectious causes of encephalitis and discusses postinfectious encephalitis as an indirect effect of systemic illness. RECENT FINDINGS Encephalitis caused by herpes simplex virus type 1 and West Nile virus are of major importance. In addition, within the past few years we have gained improved understanding of the neurologic syndromes caused by varicella-zoster virus, the recognition of enterovirus 71 as a significant human pathogen, and the realization that encephalitis may also occur by autoimmune mechanisms requiring immunosuppressive therapy. We have also learned that postinfectious encephalitis may be recurrent rather than monophasic, and that children and adults initially diagnosed with postinfectious encephalitis may later develop classic multiple sclerosis. SUMMARY Encephalitis and postinfectious encephalitis present as neurologic emergencies requiring prompt diagnosis and initiation of treatment. Important concerns are to identify infectious conditions requiring antibiotic or antiviral therapy and postinfectious or other autoimmune encephalitides requiring immunosuppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- John E Greenlee
- University of Utah, Clinical Neuroscience Center, 175 North Medical Dr E, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, USA.
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Abstract
Rabies is a devastating encephalitis caused by RNA viruses that use mammals as reservoirs. In the United States, most naturally acquired human cases have come from bats. The use of appropriate preexposure and postexposure prophylaxis can be nearly 100% effective. If prophylaxis is not used, or is implemented incorrectly, the patient may develop clinical rabies, which is almost universally fatal. All health care practitioners should be familiar with the appropriate evaluation of patients presenting with a possible rabies exposure and ensure that expeditious and appropriate prophylaxis is provided to help prevent the development of this lethal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle A Weant
- North Carolina Public Health Preparedness and Response, North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services, Raleigh, NC 27699-1900, USA.
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Shankar SK, Mahadevan A, Sapico SD, Ghodkirekar MSG, Pinto RGW, Madhusudana SN. Rabies viral encephalitis with proable 25 year incubation period! Ann Indian Acad Neurol 2012; 15:221-3. [PMID: 22919200 PMCID: PMC3424805 DOI: 10.4103/0972-2327.99728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2011] [Revised: 08/25/2011] [Accepted: 11/29/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We report a case of rabies viral encephalitis in a 48-year-old male with an unusually long incubation period, historically suspected to be more than 20 years. The case was referred for histological diagnosis following alleged medical negligence to the forensic department. The histology and immunocytochemical demonstration of rabies viral antigen established the diagnosis unequivocally. The case manifested initially with hydrophobia and aggressive behavior, although he suddenly went to the bathroom and drank a small amount of water. History of dog bite 25 years back was elicited retrospectively following clinical suspicion. There was no subsequent history to suggest nonbite exposure to a rabid dog to consider recent event causing the disease, although this cannot be totally excluded.
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Affiliation(s)
- S K Shankar
- Department of Neuropathology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
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Both L, Banyard AC, van Dolleweerd C, Horton DL, Ma JKC, Fooks AR. Passive immunity in the prevention of rabies. THE LANCET. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2012; 12:397-407. [PMID: 22541629 DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(11)70340-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Prevention of clinical disease in those exposed to viral infection is an important goal of human medicine. Using rabies virus infection as an example, we discuss the advances in passive immunoprophylaxis, most notably the shift from the recommended polyclonal human or equine immunoglobulins to monoclonal antibody therapies. The first rabies-specific monoclonal antibodies are undergoing clinical trials, so passive immunisation might finally become an accessible, affordable, and routinely used part of global health practices for rabies. Coupled with an adequate supply of modern tissue-culture vaccines, replacing the less efficient and unsafe nerve-tissue-derived rabies vaccines, the burden of this disease could be substantially reduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonard Both
- Hotung Molecular Immunology Unit, Division of Clinical Sciences, St George's University of London, London, UK
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Rabies is prevented by post-exposure vaccination with several doses of vaccine given over 4 - 14 weeks. In case of severe exposure, the first dose of vaccine is combined with passive transfer of a rabies virus-specific immunoglobulin preparation. Preventative vaccination for rabies, also referred as pre-exposure vaccination, is reserved for humans at high risk. Although available vaccines are efficacious in preventing disease, rabies still claims the lives of an estimated 55,000 humans residing in Africa and Asia each year. Half of the death occurs in children under the age of 15. AREAS COVERED This paper discusses whether preventative vaccination of all children in Africa and Asia, which was deemed non-cost-effective compared to post-exposure vaccination using currently licensed vaccines in Thailand, could be cost-effective using more immunogenic novel vaccines. EXPERT OPINION At least in theory, novel one-dose rabies vaccines may be cost-effective for preventative childhood immunization, which in turn should reduce the incidence of this disease. Further clinical testing of such vaccines with the goal to develop a low-cost vaccine that can be incorporated into childhood immunization programs for areas with a high incidence of rabies-related death should be strongly encouraged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin Liu
- The Wistar Institute, 3601 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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Rabies epidemiology, risk assessment, and pre- and post exposure vaccination. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 2012; 14:507-18, vii. [PMID: 21872785 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2011.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Rabies should always be considered in the differential diagnosis of a neurologic disease in a mammal with an unknown vaccination status. Public health veterinarians are available to assist in risk assessment as well as coordination of animal testing. This article discusses the pathogenesis of rabies and clinical presentation in several domestic species. Prevention, North American prevalence and distribution, exposure considerations, and post-exposure prophylaxis are also discussed. Veterinarians in private practice have an integral role in protection of people and domestic animals against rabies.
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Wilde H, Hemachudha T, Wacharapluesadee S, Lumlertdacha B, Tepsumethanon V. Rabies in Asia: the classical zoonosis. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2012; 365:185-203. [PMID: 22678037 DOI: 10.1007/82_2012_228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Rabies remains a constant threat to humans throughout much of Asia. The dog is the main reservoir and vector with wildlife playing a very minor role. No Asian country or region has been declared rabies free by WHO in over two decades and there is evidence of canine rabies spread to new regions during the past 10 years. We now have the knowledge and technology to control canine rabies. The main barrier in managing this costly endemic is lack of motivation by authorities to address this issue along with regional inability of public health and livestock (agriculture) officials to tackle this issue in cooperation and coordination. Rabies is one of the first recognized zoonoses and a model for a true "One Health" management goal where human; veterinary, and government officials must work together in harmony to defeat this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Wilde
- Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand,
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Dimaano EM, Scholand SJ, Alera MTP, Belandres DB. Clinical and epidemiological features of human rabies cases in the Philippines: a review from 1987 to 2006. Int J Infect Dis 2011; 15:e495-9. [PMID: 21600825 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2011.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2011] [Revised: 02/11/2011] [Accepted: 03/24/2011] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rabies viral infection causes a fatal encephalomyelitis. In humans, classic features include hydrophobia, aerophobia, hypersalivation, agitation, and neurological symptoms. In the Philippines, canine rabies contributes to a significant burden of human disease. METHODS We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of 1839 patients admitted to San Lazaro Hospital, Manila, Philippines between 1987 and 2006, with a clinical diagnosis of rabies. We used the World Health Organization case definition for clinical rabies, which is defined by the presence of hydrophobia. RESULTS Male patients outnumbered females by 2.2 to 1 and twice the number of adults were affected compared with children. Most patients were indigent. Dog bites occurred more than cat bites (97.1% vs. 2.9%) and most cases were caused by a single bite (86.2%), compared to multiple bites (8.7%). Bites to the face, head, and neck led to shorter incubation times, yet the incubation period varied, with most cases (42.7%) occurring in the bracket of 91-365 days post-exposure. Clinical symptoms included hydrophobia in all cases, as per our case definition, and aerophobia in 95.5%; only 9.4% had fever, 9.2% exhibited restlessness, and 6.7% exhibited hypersalivation. Localized neurological symptoms included pain (4.1%), numbness (2.6%), and itching (2.3%). None of the patients received appropriate post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). CONCLUSIONS This study examines the largest cohort of rabies patients reported to-date. Better understanding of clinical disease manifestations may help in salvage efforts to save patients with rabies. Knowledge of epidemiological factors will improve preventative efforts to reduce suffering from rabies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Efren M Dimaano
- San Lazaro Hospital, San Lazaro Compound, Sta. Cruz, Manila, Philippines
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Fernandes ER, de Andrade HF, Lancellotti CLP, Quaresma JAS, Demachki S, da Costa Vasconcelos PF, Duarte MIS. In situ apoptosis of adaptive immune cells and the cellular escape of rabies virus in CNS from patients with human rabies transmitted by Desmodus rotundus. Virus Res 2011; 156:121-6. [PMID: 21255623 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2011.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2010] [Revised: 01/12/2011] [Accepted: 01/13/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elaine Raniero Fernandes
- Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, Laboratório da Disciplina de Patologia de Moléstias Transmissíveis, Departamento de Patologia, São Paulo, Brazil.
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Matsumoto T, Yamada K, Noguchi K, Nakajima K, Takada K, Khawplod P, Nishizono A. Isolation and characterization of novel human monoclonal antibodies possessing neutralizing ability against rabies virus. Microbiol Immunol 2011; 54:673-83. [PMID: 21044141 DOI: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.2010.00262.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Rabies is a fatal viral encephalitis which is transmitted by exposure to the bite of rabid animals. Human and equine rabies immunoglobulins are indispensable pharmacological agents for severe bite exposure, as is vaccine. However, several disadvantages, including limited supply, adverse reactions, and high cost, hamper their wide application in developing countries. In the present study, two novel huMabs which neutralize rabies virus were established from vaccinated hyperimmune volunteers using the Epstein-Barr virus transformation method. One MAb (No. 254), which was subclass IgG3, effectively neutralized fixed rabies viruses of CVS, ERA, HEP-Flury, and Nishigahara strains and recognized a well-conserved epitope located in antigenic site II of the rabies virus glycoprotein. No. 254 possessed 68 ng/ml of FRNT₅₀ activity against CVS, 3.7 × 10⁻⁷ M of the Kd value, and the enhancing effect of complement-dependent virolysis. In addition, No. 254 showed effective neutralization potency in vivo in the mouse challenge test. The other MAb, 4D4, was subclass IgM and showed neutralizing activity against CVS and Nishigahara strains. 4D4 recognized a novel antigenic site which is associated with the neurovirulence of rabies, a glycoprotein located between antigenic site I and VI. Both human MAbs against rabies are expected to be utilized as a tool for future post-exposure prophylaxis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Matsumoto
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Oita University, Yufu-City, Japan
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Nadin-Davis SA, Sheen M, Wandeler AI. Development of real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction methods for human rabies diagnosis. J Med Virol 2009; 81:1484-97. [PMID: 19551825 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.21547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
To improve timely ante-mortem human rabies diagnosis, methods to detect viral RNA by TaqMan-based quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reactions (qRT-PCRs) have been developed. Three sets of two primers and one internal dual-labeled probe for each primer set that target distinct conserved regions of the rabies virus N gene were designed and evaluated. Using a collection of 203 isolates representative of the world-wide diversity of rabies virus, all three primers/probe sets were shown to detect a wide range of rabies virus strains with very few detection failures; the RABVD1 set in particular was the most broadly reactive. These qRT-PCR assays were shown to be quantitative over a wide range of viral titer and were 100-1,000 times more sensitive than nested RT-PCR; however, both the standard and real-time PCR methods yielded concordant results when used to test a collection of archived human suspect samples. The qRT-PCR assay was employed to monitor virus load in the saliva of a rabies virus-infected patient undergoing the Milwaukee treatment protocol. However in this case it would appear that reduction of the viral load in the patient's saliva over time did not appear to correlate well with clearance of viral components from the brain.
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Preuss MAR, Faber ML, Tan GS, Bette M, Dietzschold B, Weihe E, Schnell MJ. Intravenous inoculation of a bat-associated rabies virus causes lethal encephalopathy in mice through invasion of the brain via neurosecretory hypothalamic fibers. PLoS Pathog 2009; 5:e1000485. [PMID: 19543379 PMCID: PMC2691950 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2009] [Accepted: 05/22/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The majority of rabies virus (RV) infections are caused by bites or scratches from rabid carnivores or bats. Usually, RV utilizes the retrograde transport within the neuronal network to spread from the infection site to the central nervous system (CNS) where it replicates in neuronal somata and infects other neurons via trans-synaptic spread. We speculate that in addition to the neuronal transport of the virus, hematogenous spread from the site of infection directly to the brain after accidental spill over into the vascular system might represent an alternative way for RV to invade the CNS. So far, it is unknown whether hematogenous spread has any relevance in RV pathogenesis. To determine whether certain RV variants might have the capacity to invade the CNS from the periphery via hematogenous spread, we infected mice either intramuscularly (i.m.) or intravenously (i.v.) with the dog-associated RV DOG4 or the silver-haired bat-associated RV SB. In addition to monitoring the progression of clinical signs of rabies we used immunohistochemistry and quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) to follow the spread of the virus from the infection site to the brain. In contrast to i.m. infection where both variants caused a lethal encephalopathy, only i.v. infection with SB resulted in the development of a lethal infection. While qRT-PCR did not reveal major differences in virus loads in spinal cord or brain at different times after i.m. or i.v. infection of SB, immunohistochemical analysis showed that only i.v. administered SB directly infected the forebrain. The earliest affected regions were those hypothalamic nuclei, which are connected by neurosecretory fibers to the circumventricular organs neurohypophysis and median eminence. Our data suggest that hematogenous spread of SB can lead to a fatal encephalopathy through direct retrograde invasion of the CNS at the neurovascular interface of the hypothalamus-hypophysis system. This alternative mode of virus spread has implications for the post exposure prophylaxis of rabies, particularly with silver-haired bat-associated RV. Rabies virus (RV) infects mammalian neurons and cycles in regionally distinct animal populations such as the red fox in Europe, domestic canines in Asia, or raccoons, skunks and bats in Northern America. Although human rabies can be prevented by pre- and post-exposure prophylaxis, more than 50,000 people die annually from the severe encephalopathy caused by RV. Recently, two cases of RV transmission by organ transplantation were reported. In our study, using intravenous inoculation of mice, we evaluated the pathogenetic relevance of virions that reach the bloodstream. Mice inoculated intravenously with a canine-derived RV survived the infection in contrast to intramuscularly injected mice, while mice infected with a silver-haired bat-related RV succumbed to the disease regardless of the route of inoculation. We found that the silver-haired bat-related RV was able to transit from the blood to the brain by invading neurosecretory fibers of the hypothalamus, which form neurohemal synapses lacking a blood-brain-barrier. This newly described route of brain invasion might reflect how RV reached the central nervous system from transplanted organs, since it takes longer to establish the neural connections between host and grafted tissue necessary for classical RV migration than the time until the infection became symptomatic in the two reported cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirjam A. R. Preuss
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Philipps University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
- Jefferson Vaccine Center, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Marie-Luise Faber
- Jefferson Vaccine Center, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Gene S. Tan
- Jefferson Vaccine Center, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Michael Bette
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Philipps University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Bernhard Dietzschold
- Jefferson Vaccine Center, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Eberhard Weihe
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Philipps University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Matthias J. Schnell
- Jefferson Vaccine Center, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Shiota S, Mannen K, Matsumoto T, Yamada K, Yasui T, Takayama K, Kobayashi Y, Khawplod P, Gotoh K, Ahmed K, Iha H, Nishizono A. Development and evaluation of a rapid neutralizing antibody test for rabies. J Virol Methods 2009; 161:58-62. [PMID: 19481115 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2009.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2008] [Revised: 05/15/2009] [Accepted: 05/20/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The level of virus-neutralizing antibody, which plays a crucial role in the prevention of rabies, is determined by rabies virus (RABV) neutralizing test, which are time- and cost-consuming. In order to determine the level of neutralizing antibody in vaccinees, an easy and reliable method is needed. Based on the principle of immunochromatography, we developed a RAPINA (RAPId Neutralizing Antibody) test to determine the presence of neutralizing antibody in serum. In the RAPINA test, if neutralizing antibody equivalent to 0.5IU/ml of serum sample are mixed with an optimal amount of inactivated RABV (iRABV) and are completely absorbed by the virus, none of the iRABV can bind with monoclonal antibody that recognizes the iRABV glycoprotein (G) on the test strip. A total of 115 human sera samples were tested. The sensitivity, specificity and accuracy of the RAPINA test compared with rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT) as a standard test, were 88.7, 91.9 and 90.4%, respectively. The RAPINA test is a simple, safe and rapid method, which can be a substitute for neutralizing tests that use live viruses, cultured cells and fluorescence microscopy. This test might be useful for screening a large number of sera.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seiji Shiota
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Oita University, 1-1 Idaigaoka, Hasama-machi, Yufu-City, Oita, Japan
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Woodroffe R. Assessing the risks of intervention: immobilization, radio-collaring and vaccination of African wild dogs. ORYX 2009. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-3008.2001.00186.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractControversy has surrounded the role of intervention in studies of African wild dogs Lycaon pictus. Following the death or disappearance of all wild dogs under study in the Serengeti ecosystem, it was suggested that immobilization, radio-collaring or administration of rabies vaccines might have caused high mortality by compromising wild dogs′ immune response to rabies virus. Planning future management and research on wild dogs and other species demands an assessment of the risks associated with such intervention. This paper critically reviews the available evidence and concludes that it is extremely unlikely that intervention contributed to the extinction of wild dogs in the Serengeti ecosystem. A more likely scenario is that vaccination failed to protect wild dogs exposed to rabies virus. Radio-collaring is an important component of wild dog research; hence, the benefits of immobilization appear to outweigh the risks, as long as (i) research is orientated towards wild dog conservation, (ii) radiocollaring is followed up by efficient monitoring, (iii) the number of animals immobilized is kept to the minimum necessary to maintain scientific rigour, and (iv) full data on disease and genetics are collected from all immobilized animals. By contrast, rabies vaccination currently seems to confer few benefits, at least when a single dose of vaccine is given. Further research, on captive animals, is in progress to establish more effective protocols, and to assess the role that vaccination might play in future management of wild dog populations.
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Assessing the risks of intervention: immobilization, radio-collaring and vaccination of African wild dogs. ORYX 2009. [DOI: 10.1017/s0030605300031902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
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Johnson N, Vos A, Neubert L, Freuling C, Mansfield KL, Kaipf I, Denzinger A, Hicks D, Núñez A, Franka R, Rupprecht CE, Müller T, Fooks AR. Experimental study of European bat lyssavirus type-2 infection in Daubenton's bats (Myotis daubentonii). J Gen Virol 2009; 89:2662-2672. [PMID: 18931061 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.2008/003889-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
European bat lyssavirus type 2 (EBLV-2) can be transmitted from Daubenton's bats to humans and cause rabies. EBLV-2 has been repeatedly isolated from Daubenton's bats in the UK but appears to be present at a low level within the native bat population. This has prompted us to investigate the disease in its natural host under experimental conditions, to assess its virulence, dissemination and likely means of transmission between insectivorous bats. With the exception of direct intracranial inoculation, only one of seven Daubenton's bats inoculated by subdermal inoculation became infected with EBLV-2. Both intramuscular and intranasal inoculation failed to infect the bats. No animal inoculated with EBLV-2 seroconverted during the study period. During infection, virus excretion in saliva (both viral RNA and live virus) was confirmed up to 3 days before the development of rabies. Disease was manifested as a gradual loss of weight prior to the development of paralysis and then death. The highest levels of virus were measured in the brain, with much lower levels of viral genomic RNA detected in the tongue, salivary glands, kidney, lung and heart. These observations are similar to those made in naturally infected Daubenton's bats and this is the first documented report of isolation of EBLV-2 in bat saliva. We conclude that EBLV-2 is most likely transmitted in saliva by a shallow bite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Johnson
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Ad Vos
- IDT Biologika GmbH, Am Pharmapark, D-06861 Dessau-Roßlau, Germany
| | - Larissa Neubert
- IDT Biologika GmbH, Am Pharmapark, D-06861 Dessau-Roßlau, Germany
| | - Conrad Freuling
- Institute for Epidemiology, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Seestrasse 55, D-16868 Wusterhausen, Germany
| | - Karen L Mansfield
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Ingrid Kaipf
- Zoologisches Institut, Eberhard Karls University, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Annette Denzinger
- Zoologisches Institut, Eberhard Karls University, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Dan Hicks
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Alex Núñez
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Richard Franka
- Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta GA30333, USA
| | - Charles E Rupprecht
- Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta GA30333, USA
| | - Thomas Müller
- Institute for Epidemiology, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Seestrasse 55, D-16868 Wusterhausen, Germany
| | - Anthony R Fooks
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
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38
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Sun Park
- Division of Arboviruses, National Institute of Health, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Seoul, Korea
| | - Myung-Guk Han
- Division of Arboviruses, National Institute of Health, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Seoul, Korea
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Abstract
Rabies remains an important public health problem in developing countries, and the indigenous threat of rabies continues in developed countries because of wildlife reservoirs. A diagnosis of rabies is often not considered by physicians until late in the clinical course or after death in North America and Europe, even with typical clinical presentations. Transmission of rabies virus has occurred in association with transplantation of tissues and also recently with organs. In 2004 a young patient survived rabies in Wisconsin, but the reasons for this favorable outcome remain elusive. This article reviews current information and developments on a variety of neurologic aspects of rabies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan C Jackson
- Department of Internal Medicine (Neurology), University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
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40
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Abstract
Rabies is a typical zoonotic disease which has been known for more than 4300 years. To date, no effective medical therapy has been established for overt rabies. The rabies post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), which is a serial vaccination against rabies starting as soon as possible after the patient was bitten by a suspected rabid animal, is the only way to prevent death. In Japan, no rabies case has been reported for about 50 years. However, rabies is epizootic in many Asian countries, where more than 50% of the rabies deaths in the world occur. The Japanese travelers who visit these countries every year may not be aware of this fact since no rabies occurs in their own country. Therefore, the risk of being bitten by a rabid animal abroad and developing rabies after returning to Japan seems to be high. All medical staff should keep in mind that imported rabies cases can occur at any time. In addition, pre-exposure vaccination against rabies should be recommended to international travelers in order to ensure the preventative effect of PEP.
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41
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Rabies vaccines. Vaccines (Basel) 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-1-4160-3611-1.50031-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
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42
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Madhusudana SN, Sukumaran SM. Antemortem diagnosis and prevention of human rabies. Ann Indian Acad Neurol 2008; 11:3-12. [PMID: 19966972 PMCID: PMC2781142 DOI: 10.4103/0972-2327.40219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2008] [Revised: 02/17/2008] [Accepted: 02/24/2008] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Human rabies still continues to be a significant health problem in India and other developing countries where dogs are the major vectors of transmission. Rabies in humans can present in two clinical forms, i.e., furious and paralytic. While diagnosis of furious rabies can be made based on the typical symptoms and signs, paralytic rabies poses a diagnostic dilemma to the neurologists who may encounter these cases in their practice. Although there are certain clinical features that distinguish this disease from other forms of Guillain-Barre syndromes, confirmation of diagnosis may require laboratory assistance. Conventional techniques such as antigen detection, antibody assays and virus isolation have limited success. The recently introduced molecular techniques show more promise in confirming the cases of paralytic rabies. There has not been much success in the treatment of confirmed rabies cases and recovery from rabies is extremely rare. Therefore, preventive measures of this dreaded disease after an exposure become extremely important. The present article reviews the current status of human rabies with regard to antemortem diagnosis, disease management and post-exposure prophylaxis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shampur Narayana Madhusudana
- Department of Neurovirology, Human Brain Tissue Repository, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), Bangalore - 560 029, India
| | - Suja Moorlyath Sukumaran
- Department of Neuropathology, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), Bangalore - 560 029, India
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43
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Ito N, Sugiyama M. [Progression in studies on pathogenesis of rabies virus]. Uirusu 2007; 57:191-198. [PMID: 18357757 DOI: 10.2222/jsv.57.191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Rabies virus causes lethal neurological symptoms in humans and animals. Rabies epidemics have continued to occur throughout the world, despite the fact that rabies can be effectively prevented by vaccination. The development of inexpensive and safe attenuated live vaccines and the establishment of cures are the keys to control rabies. To achieve these objectives, it is important to elucidate mechanism by which rabies virus causes disease. Here, previous studies on the pathogenesis of rabies virus are reviewed and ways to apply previous findings to rabies control are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoto Ito
- Laboratory of Zoonotic Diseases, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu, 501-1193, Japan.
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44
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Nagarajan T, Rupprecht CE, Dessain SK, Rangarajan PN, Thiagarajan D, Srinivasan VA. Human monoclonal antibody and vaccine approaches to prevent human rabies. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2007; 317:67-101. [PMID: 17990790 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-72146-8_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Rabies, being a major zoonotic disease, significantly impacts global public health. It is invariably fatal once clinical signs are apparent. The majority of human rabies deaths occur in developing countries. India alone reports more than 50% of the global rabies deaths. Although it is a vaccine-preventable disease, effective rabies prevention in humans with category III bites requires the combined administration of rabies immunoglobulin (RIG) and vaccine. Cell culture rabies vaccines have become widely available in developing countries, virtually replacing the inferior and unsafe nerve tissue vaccines. Limitations inherent to the conventional RIG of either equine or human origin have prompted scientists to look for monoclonal antibody-based human RIG as an alternative. Fully human monoclonal antibodies have been found to be safer and equally efficacious than conventional RIG when tested in mice and hamsters. In this chapter, rabies epidemiology, reservoir control measures, post-exposure prophylaxis of human rabies, and combination therapy for rabies are discussed. Novel human monoclonal antibodies, their production, and the significance of plants as expression platforms are emphasized.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Nagarajan
- Indian Immunologicals Limited Gachibowli Post, Hyderabad, India.
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45
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Sugiyama M, Ito N. Control of rabies: Epidemiology of rabies in Asia and development of new-generation vaccines for rabies. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2007; 30:273-86. [PMID: 17619057 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2007.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2006] [Accepted: 05/30/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Rabies is an enzootic viral disease widespread throughout the world. Although it is a vaccine-preventable disease, the annual number of human deaths caused by rabies is estimated to be 32,000 in Asia. Phylogenetic analysis based on sequence data of the partial N gene of rabies viruses in Asia has shown that the viruses are divided into five genogroups, distributed in Middle East, South Asia, South East Asia, Malay, and Arctic regions. The genetic relationships among these rabies viruses agree basically with the results of previous studies. Meanwhile, new types of vaccines are being developed by applying gene manipulation techniques to rabies virus in order to overcome the disadvantages of current vaccines. This article reviews the molecular epidemiology of rabies in Asia and progress made in the development of new-generation rabies vaccines with the goal of elimination or control of rabies in Asia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Sugiyama
- United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan.
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46
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Liu Q, Xiong Y, Luo TR, Wei YC, Nan SJ, Liu F, Pan Y, Feng L, Zhu W, Liu K, Guo JG, Li HM. Molecular epidemiology of rabies in Guangxi Province, south of China. J Clin Virol 2007; 39:295-303. [PMID: 17588806 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2007.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2006] [Revised: 04/19/2007] [Accepted: 04/19/2007] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Surveillance data for rabies in Guangxi Province in China showed that human rabies cases have gradually increased since 1996. OBJECTIVE To evaluate the epidemiology of rabies at the molecular level and provide suggestions for effective prevention of rabies in Guangxi. STUDY DESIGN Since 2000, 1569 brains from suspected rabid animals were collected from different areas of Guangxi. Rabies virus was isolated from 42 samples. RT-PCR was used to amplify a 455 nucleotide segment of the 3'-terminal of the N gene. The sequencing data from that segment was used for phylogenetic analysis. RESULTS Nucleotide homology comparisons and phylogenetic tree analysis based on this sequence indicated that all the rabies virus isolates from Guangxi belonged to genotype 1 and could be divided into four groups. Groups I, II and IV included 23, 10 and 8 isolates, respectively. These had nucleotide homologies of 97.1-100%, 98.2-100% and 99.1-99.6%, respectively. Only the GXN119 strain belonged to group III. Group I had two group-specific mutations: T90N and E110D. Group II had one group-specific mutation of T42S. CONCLUSIONS This study showed that rabies virus isolates from Guangxi have a close genetic relationship and topographical distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, 100 Daxue Road, Nanning 530004, Guangxi, China
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47
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Lewis RL. A 10-Year-Old Boy Evacuated From the Mississippi Gulf Coast After Hurricane Katrina Presents With Agitation, Hallucinations, and Fever. J Emerg Nurs 2007; 33:42-4; quiz 92. [PMID: 17258051 DOI: 10.1016/j.jen.2006.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2006] [Revised: 07/28/2006] [Accepted: 07/28/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ricky L Lewis
- Mississippi Baptist Medical Center, 1225 North State St, Jackson MS 39204, USA.
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48
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Nagarajan T, Mohanasubramanian B, Seshagiri EV, Nagendrakumar SB, Saseendranath MR, Satyanarayana ML, Thiagarajan D, Rangarajan PN, Srinivasan VA. Molecular epidemiology of rabies virus isolates in India. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 44:3218-24. [PMID: 16954251 PMCID: PMC1594703 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00801-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In India, rabies is enzootic and is a serious public health and economic problem. India has a large population of stray dogs which, together with a lack of effective control strategies, might have led to the persistence of rabies virus (RV) in the canine population. Our objective was to study the molecular epidemiology of RV isolates in India based on nucleotide sequence analysis of 29 RV isolates originating from different species of animals in four states. Here we have analyzed two sets of sequence data based upon a 132-nucleotide region of the cytoplasmic domain (CD) of the G gene (G-CD) and a 549-nucleotide region (Psi-L) that combines the noncoding G-L intergenic region (Psi) and a fragment of the polymerase gene (L). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the RV isolates belong to genotype 1 and that they were related geographically but were not related according to host species. Five different genetic clusters distributed among three geographical regions were identified. Comparison of the deduced amino acid sequences of G-CD between RV isolates revealed three amino acid changes (amino acid 462G [aa462G], aa465H, and aa468K) that distinguished the Indian RVs from RV isolates in other parts of the world. Analysis of the data indicated that the dog rabies virus variants are the major circulating viruses in India that transmit the disease to other domestic animals and humans as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Nagarajan
- Indian Immunologicals Limited, Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500 032, India
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Tepsumethanon S, Tepsumethanon V, Tantawichien T, Suwansrinon K, Wilde H. Problems in human rabies post-exposure prophylaxis management. Travel Med Infect Dis 2006; 5:189-93. [PMID: 17448947 DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2006.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2006] [Revised: 06/25/2006] [Accepted: 07/03/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This is a prospective study of problems encountered with rabies-exposed patients in an animal bite clinic in a rabies endemic region. Five hundred successive patients were analyzed. The study focused mainly on issues that are not well covered in current WHO and US-CDC rabies manuals. Those dealing with immunoglobulin administration, managing severe and unusual injuries, logistic and financial issues headed the list. Animal bite patients often present challenging problems, which are not or inadequately addressed in official publications. Experience and good clinical judgment are essential in preventing human rabies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saowaluck Tepsumethanon
- Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute, Thai Red Cross Society, (WHO Collaborating Centre for Research on Rabies Pathogenesis and Prevention), King Chulalongkorn University Hospital, Bangkok 10330, Thailand.
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50
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Abstract
BACKGROUND In 2004, four recipients of kidneys, a liver, and an arterial segment from a common organ donor died of encephalitis of an unknown cause. METHODS We reviewed the medical records of the organ donor and the recipients. Blood, cerebrospinal fluid, and tissues from the recipients were tested with a variety of assays and pathological stains for numerous causes of encephalitis. Samples from the recipients were also inoculated into mice. RESULTS The organ donor had been healthy before having a subarachnoid hemorrhage that led to his death. Encephalitis developed in all four recipients within 30 days after transplantation and was accompanied by rapid neurologic deterioration characterized by agitated delirium, seizures, respiratory failure, and coma. They died an average of 13 days after the onset of neurologic symptoms. Mice inoculated with samples from the affected patients became ill seven to eight days later, and electron microscopy of central nervous system (CNS) tissue demonstrated rhabdovirus particles. Rabies-specific immunohistochemical and direct fluorescence antibody staining demonstrated rabies virus in multiple tissues from all recipients. Cytoplasmic inclusions consistent with Negri bodies were seen in CNS tissue from all recipients. Antibodies against rabies virus were present in three of the four recipients and the donor. The donor had told others of being bitten by a bat. CONCLUSIONS This report documenting the transmission of rabies virus from an organ donor to multiple recipients underscores the challenges of preventing and detecting transmission of unusual pathogens through transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shimon Kusne
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Mayo Clinic Scottsdale, Scottsdale, AZ, USA
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