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Guasconi D, Manzoni S, Hugelius G. Climate-dependent responses of root and shoot biomass to drought duration and intensity in grasslands-a meta-analysis. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 903:166209. [PMID: 37572920 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 08/14/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the effects of altered precipitation regimes on root biomass in grasslands is crucial for predicting grassland responses to climate change. Nonetheless, studies investigating the effects of drought on belowground vegetation have produced mixed results. In particular, root biomass under reduced precipitation may increase, decrease or show a delayed response compared to shoot biomass, highlighting a knowledge gap in the relationship between belowground net primary production and drought. To address this gap, we conducted a meta-analysis of nearly 100 field observations of grassland root and shoot biomass changes under experimental rainfall reduction to disentangle the main drivers behind grassland responses to drought. Using a response-ratio approach we tested the hypothesis that water scarcity would induce a decrease in total biomass, but an increase in belowground biomass allocation with increased drought length and intensity, and that climate (as defined by the aridity index of the study location) would be an additional predictor. As expected, meteorological drought decreased root and shoot biomass, but aboveground and belowground biomass exhibited contrasting responses to drought duration and intensity, and their interaction with climate. In particular, drought duration had negative effects on root biomass only in wet climates while more intense drought had negative effects on root biomass only in dry climates. Shoot biomass responded negatively to drought duration regardless of climate. These results show that long-term climate is an important modulator of belowground vegetation responses to drought, which might be a consequence of different drought tolerance and adaptation strategies. This variability in vegetation responses to drought suggests that physiological plasticity and community composition shifts may mediate how climate affects carbon allocation in grasslands, and thus ultimately carbon storage in soil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Guasconi
- Department of Physical Geography, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden; Bolin Centre for Climate Research, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Stefano Manzoni
- Department of Physical Geography, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden; Bolin Centre for Climate Research, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Gustaf Hugelius
- Department of Physical Geography, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden; Bolin Centre for Climate Research, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
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Chang Z, Hao L, Lu Y, Liu L, Chen C, Shi W, Li Y, Wang Y, Tian Y. Effects of elevated CO 2 concentration and experimental warming on morphological, physiological, and biochemical responses of winter wheat under soil water deficiency. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1227286. [PMID: 37600196 PMCID: PMC10436319 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1227286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
Global climate change and freshwater scarcity have become two major environmental issues that constrain the sustainable development of the world economy. Climate warming caused by increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration can change global/regional rainfall patterns, leading to uneven global seasonal precipitation distribution and frequent regional extreme drought events, resulting in a drastic reduction of available water resources during the critical crop reproduction period, thus causing many important food-producing regions to face severe water deficiency problems. Understanding the potential processes and mechanisms of crops in response to elevated CO2 concentration and temperature under soil water deficiency may further shed lights on the potential risks of climate change on the primary productivity and grain yield of agriculture. We examined the effects of elevated CO2 concentration (e[CO2]) and temperature (experimental warming) on plant biomass and leaf area, stomatal morphology and distribution, leaf gas exchange and mesophyll anatomy, rubisco activity and gene expression level of winter wheat grown at soil water deficiency with environmental growth chambers. We found that e[CO2] × water × warming sharply reduced plant biomass by 57% and leaf photosynthesis (P n) 50%, although elevated [CO2] could alleviated the stress from water × warming at the amount of gene expression in RbcL3 (128%) and RbcS2 (215%). At ambient [CO2], the combined stress of warming and water deficiency resulted in a significant decrease in biomass (52%), leaf area (50%), P n (71%), and G s (90%) of winter wheat. Furthermore, the total nonstructural carbohydrates were accumulated 10% and 27% and increased R d by 127% and 99% when subjected to water × warming and e[CO2] × water × warming. These results suggest that water × warming may cause irreversible damage in winter wheat and thus the effect of "CO2 fertilization effect" may be overestimated by the current process-based ecological model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijie Chang
- School of Water Conservancy and Hydropower, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, Hebei, China
| | - Lihua Hao
- School of Water Conservancy and Hydropower, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, Hebei, China
| | - Yunze Lu
- School of Landscape and Ecological Engineering, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, Hebei, China
| | - Liang Liu
- School of Water Conservancy and Hydropower, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, Hebei, China
| | - Changhua Chen
- School of Water Conservancy and Hydropower, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, Hebei, China
| | - Wei Shi
- School of Water Conservancy and Hydropower, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, Hebei, China
| | - Yue Li
- School of Earth Science and Engineering, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, Hebei, China
| | - Yanrui Wang
- School of Water Conservancy and Hydropower, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, Hebei, China
| | - Yinshuai Tian
- School of Landscape and Ecological Engineering, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, Hebei, China
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Bai T, Wang P, Qiu Y, Zhang Y, Hu S. Nitrogen availability mediates soil carbon cycling response to climate warming: A meta-analysis. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2023; 29:2608-2626. [PMID: 36744998 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.16627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Global climate warming may induce a positive feedback through increasing soil carbon (C) release to the atmosphere. Although warming can affect both C input to and output from soil, direct and convincing evidence illustrating that warming induces a net change in soil C is still lacking. We synthesized the results from field warming experiments at 165 sites across the globe and found that climate warming had no significant effect on soil C stock. On average, warming significantly increased root biomass and soil respiration, but warming effects on root biomass and soil respiration strongly depended on soil nitrogen (N) availability. Under high N availability (soil C:N ratio < 15), warming had no significant effect on root biomass, but promoted the coupling between effect sizes of root biomass and soil C stock. Under relative N limitation (soil C:N ratio > 15), warming significantly enhanced root biomass. However, the enhancement of root biomass did not induce a corresponding C accumulation in soil, possibly because warming promoted microbial CO2 release that offset the increased root C input. Also, reactive N input alleviated warming-induced C loss from soil, but elevated atmospheric CO2 or precipitation increase/reduction did not. Together, our findings indicate that the relative availability of soil C to N (i.e., soil C:N ratio) critically mediates warming effects on soil C dynamics, suggesting that its incorporation into C-climate models may improve the prediction of soil C cycling under future global warming scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tongshuo Bai
- Ecosystem Ecology Laboratory, College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Peng Wang
- Ecosystem Ecology Laboratory, College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yunpeng Qiu
- Ecosystem Ecology Laboratory, College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- Ecosystem Ecology Laboratory, College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Shuijin Hu
- Ecosystem Ecology Laboratory, College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
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Jayawardena DM, Heckathorn SA, Boldt JK. A meta-analysis of the combined effects of elevated carbon dioxide and chronic warming on plant %N, protein content and N-uptake rate. AOB PLANTS 2021; 13:plab031. [PMID: 34285792 PMCID: PMC8286714 DOI: 10.1093/aobpla/plab031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Elevated CO2 (eCO2) and high temperatures are known to affect plant nitrogen (N) metabolism. Though the combined effects of eCO2 and chronic warming on plant N relations have been studied in some detail, a comprehensive statistical review on this topic is lacking. This meta-analysis examined the effects of eCO2 plus warming on shoot and root %N, tissue protein concentration (root, shoot and grain) and N-uptake rate. In the analyses, the eCO2 treatment was categorized into two classes (<300 or ≥300 ppm above ambient or control), the temperature treatment was categorized into three classes (<1.5, 1.5-5 and >5 °C above ambient or control), plant species were categorized based on growth form and functional group and CO2 treatment technique was also investigated. Elevated CO2 alone or in combination with warming reduced shoot %N (more so at ≥300 vs. <300 ppm above ambient CO2), while root %N was significantly reduced only by eCO2; warming alone often increased shoot %N, but mostly did not affect root %N. Decreased shoot %N with eCO2 alone or eCO2 plus warming was greater for woody and non-woody dicots than for grasses, and for legumes than non-legumes. Though root N-uptake rate was unaffected by eCO2, eCO2 plus warming decreased N-uptake rate, while warming alone increased it. Similar to %N, protein concentration decreased with eCO2 in shoots and grain (but not roots), increased with warming in grain and decreased with eCO2 and warming in grain. In summary, any benefits of warming to plant N status and root N-uptake rate will generally be offset by negative effects of eCO2. Hence, concomitant increases in CO2 and temperature are likely to negate or decrease the nutritional quality of plant tissue consumed as food by decreasing shoot %N and shoot and/or grain protein concentration, caused, at least in part, by decreased root N-uptake rate.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Scott A Heckathorn
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
| | - Jennifer K Boldt
- Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Toledo, OH 43606, USA
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Jayawardena DM, Heckathorn SA, Rajanayake KK, Boldt JK, Isailovic D. Elevated Carbon Dioxide and Chronic Warming Together Decrease Nitrogen Uptake Rate, Net Translocation, and Assimilation in Tomato. PLANTS 2021; 10:plants10040722. [PMID: 33917687 PMCID: PMC8067974 DOI: 10.3390/plants10040722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The response of plant N relations to the combination of elevated CO2 (eCO2) and warming are poorly understood. To study this, tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plants were grown at 400 or 700 ppm CO2 and 33/28 or 38/33 °C (day/night), and their soil was labeled with 15NO3− or 15NH4+. Plant dry mass, root N-uptake rate, root-to-shoot net N translocation, whole-plant N assimilation, and root resource availability (%C, %N, total nonstructural carbohydrates) were measured. Relative to eCO2 or warming alone, eCO2 + warming decreased growth, NO3− and NH4+-uptake rates, root-to-shoot net N translocation, and whole-plant N assimilation. Decreased N assimilation with eCO2 + warming was driven mostly by inhibition of NO3− assimilation, and was not associated with root resource limitations or damage to N-assimilatory proteins. Previously, we showed in tomato that eCO2 + warming decreases the concentration of N-uptake and -assimilatory proteins in roots, and dramatically increases leaf angle, which decreases whole-plant light capture and, hence, photosynthesis and growth. Thus, decreases in N uptake and assimilation with eCO2 + warming in tomato are likely due to reduced plant N demand.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Scott A. Heckathorn
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA;
- Correspondence:
| | - Krishani K. Rajanayake
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA; (K.K.R.); (D.I.)
| | - Jennifer K. Boldt
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Toledo, OH 43606, USA;
| | - Dragan Isailovic
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606, USA; (K.K.R.); (D.I.)
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Effects of Elevated Carbon Dioxide and Chronic Warming on Nitrogen (N)-Uptake Rate, -Assimilation, and -Concentration of Wheat. PLANTS 2020; 9:plants9121689. [PMID: 33271885 PMCID: PMC7760685 DOI: 10.3390/plants9121689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Revised: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The concentration of nitrogen (N) in vegetative tissues is largely dependent on the balance among growth, root N uptake, and N assimilation. Elevated CO2 (eCO2) plus warming is likely to affect the vegetative-tissue N and protein concentration of wheat by altering N metabolism, but this is poorly understood. To investigate this, spring wheat (Triticum aestivum) was grown for three weeks at two levels of CO2 (400 or 700 ppm) and two temperature regimes (26/21 or 31/26 °C, day/night). Plant dry mass, plant %N, protein concentrations, NO3− and NH4+ root uptake rates (using 15NO3 or 15NH4), and whole-plant N- and NO3--assimilation were measured. Plant growth, %N, protein concentration, and root N-uptake rate were each significantly affected only by CO2, while N- and NO3−-assimilation were significantly affected only by temperature. However, plants grown at eCO2 plus warming had the lowest concentrations of N and protein. These results suggest that one strategy breeding programs can implement to minimize the negative effects of eCO2 and warming on wheat tissue N would be to target the maintenance of root N uptake rate at eCO2 and N assimilation at higher growth temperatures.
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Li T, Tiiva P, Rinnan Å, Julkunen-Tiitto R, Michelsen A, Rinnan R. Long-term effects of elevated CO2, nighttime warming and drought on plant secondary metabolites in a temperate heath ecosystem. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2020; 125:1065-1075. [PMID: 32157285 PMCID: PMC7262464 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcaa037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Plant secondary metabolites play critical roles in plant stress tolerance and adaptation, and are known to be influenced by the environment and climate changes, yet the impacts and interactions of multiple climate change components are poorly understood, particularly under natural conditions. METHODS Accumulation of phenolics and emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were assessed on heather, Calluna vulgaris, an abundant evergreen dwarf shrub in European heathlands, after 6 years of exposure to elevated CO2, summer drought and nighttime warming. KEY RESULTS Drought alone had the strongest effects on phenolic concentrations and compositions, with moderate effects of elevated CO2 and temperature. Elevated CO2 exerted the greatest impact on VOC emissions, mainly by increasing monoterpene emissions. The response magnitudes varied among plant tissue types and chemical constituents, and across time. With respect to interactive effects of the studied climate change components, the interaction between drought and elevated CO2 was most apparent. Drought mainly reduced phenolic accumulation and VOC emissions, while elevated CO2 mitigated such effects. CONCLUSIONS In natural ecosystems, co-occurring climate factors can exert complex impacts on plant secondary metabolite profiles, which may in turn alter ecosystem processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Li
- Terrestrial Ecology Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 15, Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
| | - Päivi Tiiva
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio Campus, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Åsmund Rinnan
- Chemometrics and Analytical Technology, Department of Food Science, University of Copenhagen, Rolighedsvej 26, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Riitta Julkunen-Tiitto
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu Campus, Joensuu, Finland
| | - Anders Michelsen
- Terrestrial Ecology Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 15, Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
| | - Riikka Rinnan
- Terrestrial Ecology Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 15, Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
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Wang P, Huang K, Hu S. Distinct fine-root responses to precipitation changes in herbaceous and woody plants: a meta-analysis. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2020; 225:1491-1499. [PMID: 31610024 DOI: 10.1111/nph.16266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Precipitation is one of the most important factors that determine productivity of terrestrial ecosystems. Precipitation across the globe is predicted to change more intensively under future climate change scenarios, but the resulting impact on plant roots remains unclear. Based on 154 observations from experiments in which precipitation was manipulated in the field and root biomass was measured, we investigated responses in fine-root biomass of herbaceous and woody plants to alterations in precipitation. We found that root biomass of herbaceous and woody plants responded differently to precipitation change. In particular, precipitation increase consistently enhanced fine-root biomass of woody plants but had variable effects on herb roots in arid and semi-arid ecosystems. In contrast, precipitation decrease reduced root biomass of herbaceous plants but not woody plants. In addition, with precipitation alteration, the magnitude of root responses was greater in dry areas than in wet areas. Together, these results indicate that herbaceous and woody plants have different rooting strategies to cope with altered precipitation regimes, particularly in water-limited ecosystems. These findings suggest that root responses to precipitation change may critically influence root productivity and soil carbon dynamics under future climate change scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Wang
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210095, China
| | - Kailing Huang
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210095, China
| | - Shuijin Hu
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210095, China
- Department of Entomology & Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA
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Dietzen CA, Larsen KS, Ambus PL, Michelsen A, Arndal MF, Beier C, Reinsch S, Schmidt IK. Accumulation of soil carbon under elevated CO 2 unaffected by warming and drought. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2019; 25:2970-2977. [PMID: 31095816 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.14699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Revised: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration and climate change may substantially alter soil carbon (C) dynamics, which in turn may impact future climate through feedback cycles. However, only very few field experiments worldwide have combined elevated CO2 (eCO2 ) with both warming and changes in precipitation in order to study the potential combined effects of changes in these fundamental drivers of C cycling in ecosystems. We exposed a temperate heath/grassland to eCO2 , warming, and drought, in all combinations for 8 years. At the end of the study, soil C stocks were on average 0.927 kg C/m2 higher across all treatment combinations with eCO2 compared to ambient CO2 treatments (equal to an increase of 0.120 ± 0.043 kg C m-2 year-1 ), and showed no sign of slowed accumulation over time. However, if observed pretreatment differences in soil C are taken into account, the annual rate of increase caused by eCO2 may be as high as 0.177 ± 0.070 kg C m-2 year-1 . Furthermore, the response to eCO2 was not affected by simultaneous exposure to warming and drought. The robust increase in soil C under eCO2 observed here, even when combined with other climate change factors, suggests that there is continued and strong potential for enhanced soil carbon sequestration in some ecosystems to mitigate increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations under future climate conditions. The feedback between land C and climate remains one of the largest sources of uncertainty in future climate projections, yet experimental data under simulated future climate, and especially including combined changes, are still scarce. Globally coordinated and distributed experiments with long-term measurements of changes in soil C in response to the three major climate change-related global changes, eCO2 , warming, and changes in precipitation patterns, are, therefore, urgently needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christiana A Dietzen
- Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
- School of Environmental and Forest Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Klaus Steenberg Larsen
- Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Per L Ambus
- Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen K, Denmark
| | - Anders Michelsen
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
| | - Marie Frost Arndal
- Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Claus Beier
- Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Sabine Reinsch
- Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Environment Centre Wales, Bangor, UK
| | - Inger Kappel Schmidt
- Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
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D’Imperio L, Arndal MF, Nielsen CS, Elberling B, Schmidt IK. Fast Responses of Root Dynamics to Increased Snow Deposition and Summer Air Temperature in an Arctic Wetland. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:1258. [PMID: 30214452 PMCID: PMC6125414 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 08/09/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
In wet tundra ecosystems, covering vast areas of the Arctic, the belowground plant biomass exceeds the aboveground, making root dynamics a crucial component of the nutrient cycling and the carbon (C) budget of the Arctic. In response to the projected climatic scenarios for the Arctic, namely increased temperature and changes in precipitation patterns, root dynamics may be altered leading to significant changes in the net ecosystem C budget. Here, we quantify the single and combined effects of 1 year of increased winter snow deposition by snow fences and summer warming by open-top chambers (OTCs) on root dynamics in a wetland at Disko Island (West Greenland). Based on ingrowth bags, snow accumulation decreased root productivity by 42% in the 0-15 cm soil depth compared to ambient conditions. Over the growing season 2014, minirhizotron observations showed that root growth continued until mid-September in all treatments, and it peaked between the end of July and mid-August. During the season, plots exposed to experimental warming showed a significant increase in root number during September (between 39 and 53%) and a 39% increase in root length by the beginning of September. In addition, a significant reduction of root diameter (14%) was observed in plots with increased snow accumulation. Along the soil profile (0-40 cm) summer warming by OTCs significantly increased the total root length (54%), root number (41%) and the root growth in the 20-30 cm soil depth (71%). These results indicate a fast response of this ecosystem to changes in air temperature and precipitation. Hence, on a short-term, summer warming may lead to increased root depth and belowground C allocation, whereas increased winter snow precipitation may reduce root production or favor specific plant species by means of reduced growing season length or increased nutrient cycling. Knowledge on belowground root dynamics is therefore critical to improve the estimation of the C balance of the Arctic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludovica D’Imperio
- Center for Permafrost (CENPERM), Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Section for Forest, Nature and Biomass, Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Marie F. Arndal
- Center for Permafrost (CENPERM), Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Section for Forest, Nature and Biomass, Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Cecilie S. Nielsen
- Center for Permafrost (CENPERM), Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Bo Elberling
- Center for Permafrost (CENPERM), Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Inger K. Schmidt
- Section for Forest, Nature and Biomass, Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
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Ma Q, Wang J, Sun Y, Yang X, Ma J, Li T, Wu L. Elevated CO 2 levels enhance the uptake and metabolism of organic nitrogen. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2018; 162:467-478. [PMID: 29080266 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.12663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2017] [Revised: 10/23/2017] [Accepted: 10/24/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The effects of elevated CO2 (eCO2 ) on the relative uptake of inorganic and organic nitrogen (N) are unclear. The uptake of different N sources by pak choi (Brassica chinensis L.) seedlings supplied with a mixture of nitrate, glycine and ammonium was studied using 15 N-labelling under ambient CO2 (aCO2 ) (350 ppm) or eCO2 (650 ppm) conditions. 15 N-labelled short-term uptake and 15 N-gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) were applied to measure the effects of eCO2 on glycine uptake and metabolism. Elevated CO2 increased the shoot biomass by 36% over 15 days, but had little effect on root growth. Over the same period, the N concentrations of shoots and roots were decreased by 30 and 2%, respectively. Elevated CO2 enhanced the uptake and N contribution of glycine, which accounted for 38-44% and 21-40% of total N uptake in roots and shoots, respectively, while the uptake of nitrate and ammonium was reduced. The increased glycine uptake resulted from the enhanced active uptake and enhanced metabolism in the roots. We conclude that eCO2 may increase the uptake and contribution of organic N forms to total plant N nutrition. Our findings provide new insights into plant N regulation under eCO2 conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingxu Ma
- Ministry of Education Key Lab of Environmental Remediation and Ecosystem Health, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Jun Wang
- Ministry of Education Key Lab of Environmental Remediation and Ecosystem Health, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Yan Sun
- Ministry of Education Key Lab of Environmental Remediation and Ecosystem Health, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Xin Yang
- Ministry of Education Key Lab of Environmental Remediation and Ecosystem Health, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Jinzhao Ma
- National Engineering Laboratory for Efficient Utilization of Soil and Fertilizer Resources, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, Shandong, 271018, China
| | - Tingqiang Li
- Ministry of Education Key Lab of Environmental Remediation and Ecosystem Health, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Lianghuan Wu
- Ministry of Education Key Lab of Environmental Remediation and Ecosystem Health, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
- State Key Laboratory of Nutrition Resources Integrated Utilization, Kingenta Ecological Engineering Group Co., Ltd., Linyi, Shandong, 276000, China
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Zheng Y, Li F, Hao L, Shedayi AA, Guo L, Ma C, Huang B, Xu M. The optimal CO 2 concentrations for the growth of three perennial grass species. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2018; 18:27. [PMID: 29402224 PMCID: PMC5799915 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-018-1243-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Grasslands are one of the most representative vegetation types accounting for about 20% of the global land area and thus the response of grasslands to climate change plays a pivotal role in terrestrial carbon balance. However, many current climate change models, based on earlier results of the doubling-CO2 experiments, may overestimate the CO2 fertilization effect, and as a result underestimate the potentially effects of future climate change on global grasslands when the atmospheric CO2 concentration goes beyond the optimal level. Here, we examined the optimal atmospheric CO2 concentration effect on CO2 fertilization and further on the growth of three perennial grasses in growth chambers with the CO2 concentration at 400, 600, 800, 1000, and 1200 ppm, respectively. RESULTS All three perennial grasses featured an apparent optimal CO2 concentration for growth. Initial increases in atmospheric CO2 concentration substantially enhanced the plant biomass of the three perennial grasses through the CO2 fertilization effect, but this CO2 fertilization effect was dramatically compromised with further rising atmospheric CO2 concentration beyond the optimum. The optimal CO2 concentration for the growth of tall fescue was lower than those of perennial ryegrass and Kentucky bluegrass, and thus the CO2 fertilization effect on tall fescue disappeared earlier than the other two species. By contrast, the weaker CO2 fertilization effect on the growth of perennial ryegrass and Kentucky bluegrass was sustained for a longer period due to their higher optimal CO2 concentrations than tall fescue. The limiting effects of excessively high CO2 concentrations may not only associate with changes in the biochemical and photochemical processes of photosynthesis, but also attribute to the declines in stomatal conductance and nitrogen availability. CONCLUSIONS In this study, we found apparent differences in the optimal CO2 concentrations for the growth of three grasses. These results suggest that the growth of different types of grasses may respond differently to future elevated CO2 concentrations through the CO2 fertilization effect, and thus potentially alter the community composition and structure of grasslands. Meanwhile, our results may also be helpful for improving current process-based ecological models to more accurately predict the structure and function of grassland ecosystems under future rising atmospheric CO2 concentration and climate change scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunpu Zheng
- School of Water Conservancy and Hydropower, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, 056038, China
- Key Laboratory of Ecosystem Network Observation and Modeling, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 11A Datun Road, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Fei Li
- School of Water Conservancy and Hydropower, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, 056038, China
| | - Lihua Hao
- School of Water Conservancy and Hydropower, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, 056038, China
| | - Arshad Ali Shedayi
- Key Laboratory of Ecosystem Network Observation and Modeling, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 11A Datun Road, Beijing, 100101, China
- Department of Biological Sciences, Karakoram International University Gilgit, Gilgit, Pakistan
| | - Lili Guo
- School of Water Conservancy and Hydropower, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, 056038, China
| | - Chao Ma
- School of Water Conservancy and Hydropower, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, 056038, China
| | - Bingru Huang
- Department of Plant Biology and Pathology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA.
| | - Ming Xu
- Center for Remote Sensing and Spatial Analysis, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Natural Resources, Rutgers University, 14 College Farm Road, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA.
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Piñeiro J, Ochoa-Hueso R, Delgado-Baquerizo M, Dobrick S, Reich PB, Pendall E, Power SA. Effects of elevated CO 2 on fine root biomass are reduced by aridity but enhanced by soil nitrogen: A global assessment. Sci Rep 2017; 7:15355. [PMID: 29127358 PMCID: PMC5681551 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-15728-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant roots play a crucial role in regulating key ecosystem processes such as carbon (C) sequestration and nutrient solubilisation. Elevated (e)CO2 is expected to alter the biomass of fine, coarse and total roots to meet increased demand for other resources such as water and nitrogen (N), however, the magnitude and direction of observed changes vary considerably between ecosystems. Here, we assessed how climate and soil properties mediate root responses to eCO2 by comparing 24 field-based CO2 experiments across the globe including a wide range of ecosystem types. We calculated response ratios (i.e. effect size) and used structural equation modelling (SEM) to achieve a system-level understanding of how aridity, mean annual temperature and total soil nitrogen simultaneously drive the response of total, coarse and fine root biomass to eCO2. Models indicated that increasing aridity limits the positive response of fine and total root biomass to eCO2, and that fine (but not coarse or total) root responses to eCO2 are positively related to soil total N. Our results provide evidence that consideration of factors such as aridity and soil N status is crucial for predicting plant and ecosystem-scale responses to future changes in atmospheric CO2 concentrations, and thus feedbacks to climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Piñeiro
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, New South Wales, 2751, Australia.
| | - Raúl Ochoa-Hueso
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, New South Wales, 2751, Australia
| | - Manuel Delgado-Baquerizo
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, New South Wales, 2751, Australia
| | - Silvan Dobrick
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, New South Wales, 2751, Australia
| | - Peter B Reich
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, New South Wales, 2751, Australia
- Department of Forest Resources, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Elise Pendall
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, New South Wales, 2751, Australia
| | - Sally A Power
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, New South Wales, 2751, Australia
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Rubio-Asensio JS, Bloom AJ. Inorganic nitrogen form: a major player in wheat and Arabidopsis responses to elevated CO2. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2017; 68:2611-2625. [PMID: 28011716 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erw465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Critical for predicting the future of primary productivity is a better understanding of plant responses to rising atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration. This review considers recent results on the role of the inorganic nitrogen (N) forms nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+) in determining the responses of wheat and Arabidopsis to elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration. Here, we identify four key issues: (i) the possibility that different plant species respond similarly to elevated CO2 if one accounts for the N form that they are using; (ii) the major influence that plant-soil N interactions have on plant responses to elevated CO2; (iii) the observation that elevated CO2 may favor the uptake of one N form over others; and (iv) the finding that plants receiving NH4+ nutrition respond more positively to elevated CO2 than those receiving NO3- nutrition because elevated CO2 inhibits the assimilation of NO3- in shoots of C3 plants. We conclude that the form and amount of N available to plants from the rhizosphere and plant preferences for the different N forms are essential for predicting plant responses to elevated CO2.
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Affiliation(s)
- José S Rubio-Asensio
- Department of Irrigation, Centro de Edafología y Biología Aplicada del Segura, Espinardo, Murcia, Spain
| | - Arnold J Bloom
- Department of Plant Sciences, Mailstop 3, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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Fine Root Growth and Vertical Distribution in Response to Elevated CO2, Warming and Drought in a Mixed Heathland–Grassland. Ecosystems 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s10021-017-0131-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Tiiva P, Tang J, Michelsen A, Rinnan R. Monoterpene emissions in response to long-term night-time warming, elevated CO 2 and extended summer drought in a temperate heath ecosystem. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 580:1056-1067. [PMID: 27989477 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.12.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Revised: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 12/09/2016] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Monoterpenes emitted from plants have an important role in atmospheric chemistry through changing atmospheric oxidative capacity, forming new particles and secondary organic aerosols. The emission rates and patterns can be affected by changing climate. In this study, emission responses to six years of climatic manipulations (elevated CO2, extended summer drought and night-time warming) were investigated in a temperate semi-natural heath ecosystem. Samples for monoterpene analysis were collected in seven campaigns during an entire growing season (April-November, 2011). The results showed that the temperate heath ecosystem was a considerable source of monoterpenes to the atmosphere, with the emission averaged over the 8month measurement period of 21.7±6.8μgm-2groundareah-1 for the untreated heath. Altogether, 16 monoterpenes were detected, of which the most abundant were α-pinene, δ-3-carene and limonene. The emissions of these three compounds were positively correlated with light, chamber temperature and litter abundance, but negatively correlated with soil temperature. Elevated CO2 tended to decrease the average monoterpene emissions by 40% over the whole growing season, and significantly reduced emissions in August. Extended summer drought significantly decreased the emission right after the drought treatment period, but also in the late growing season. Night-time warming significantly increased the total emissions (mainly α-pinene) in April, and tended to mitigate the decrease caused by drought. The inhibition effects of elevated CO2 on emissions were diminished when the treatment was combined with drought or warming. The emission responses to different treatments were not explained by vegetation changes, and the monoterpene emission profile was only moderately related to plant species coverage. The emission responses to these long-term climate manipulations varied over the growing season (with strong correlation with litter abundance) and the observed antagonistic effects in the combined treatments underlie the importance of long-term studies with multiple factors acting in concert.
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Affiliation(s)
- Päivi Tiiva
- Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio Campus, PO Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland.
| | - Jing Tang
- Terrestrial Ecology Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 15, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark; Center for Permafrost (CENPERM), University of Copenhagen, Øester Voldgade 10, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark.
| | - Anders Michelsen
- Terrestrial Ecology Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 15, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark; Center for Permafrost (CENPERM), University of Copenhagen, Øester Voldgade 10, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark.
| | - Riikka Rinnan
- Terrestrial Ecology Section, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 15, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark; Center for Permafrost (CENPERM), University of Copenhagen, Øester Voldgade 10, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark.
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Dam M, Christensen S. Defoliation reduces soil biota - and modifies stimulating effects of elevated CO2. Ecol Evol 2015; 5:4840-8. [PMID: 26640664 PMCID: PMC4662328 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.1739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2015] [Revised: 08/04/2015] [Accepted: 08/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand the responses to external disturbance such as defoliation and possible feedback mechanisms at global change in terrestrial ecosystems, it is necessary to examine the extent and nature of effects on aboveground-belowground interactions. We studied a temperate heathland system subjected to experimental climate and atmospheric factors based on prognoses for year 2075 and further exposed to defoliation. By defoliating plants, we were able to study how global change modifies the interactions of the plant-soil system. Shoot production, root biomass, microbial biomass, and nematode abundance were assessed in the rhizosphere of manually defoliated patches of Deschampsia flexuosa in June in a full-factorial FACE experiment with the treatments: increased atmospheric CO 2, increased nighttime temperatures, summer droughts, and all of their combinations. We found a negative effect of defoliation on microbial biomass that was not apparently affected by global change. The negative effect of defoliation cascades through to soil nematodes as dependent on CO 2 and drought. At ambient CO 2, drought and defoliation each reduced nematodes. In contrast, at elevated CO 2, a combination of drought and defoliation was needed to reduce nematodes. We found positive effects of CO 2 on root density and microbial biomass. Defoliation affected soil biota negatively, whereas elevated CO 2 stimulated the plant-soil system. This effect seen in June is contrasted by the effects seen in September at the same site. Late season defoliation increased activity and biomass of soil biota and more so at elevated CO 2. Based on soil biota responses, plants defoliated in active growth therefore conserve resources, whereas defoliation after termination of growth results in release of resources. This result challenges the idea that plants via exudation of organic carbon stimulate their rhizosphere biota when in apparent need of nutrients for growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Dam
- Terrestrial Ecology SectionDepartment of BiologyUniversity of CopenhagenCopenhagenDenmark
- Zealand Institute of Business and TechnologyBredahlsgade 1DK‐4200SlagelseDenmark
| | - Søren Christensen
- Terrestrial Ecology SectionDepartment of BiologyUniversity of CopenhagenCopenhagenDenmark
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Verheijen LM, Aerts R, Brovkin V, Cavender-Bares J, Cornelissen JHC, Kattge J, van Bodegom PM. Inclusion of ecologically based trait variation in plant functional types reduces the projected land carbon sink in an earth system model. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2015; 21:3074-3086. [PMID: 25611824 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.12871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2014] [Accepted: 01/06/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Earth system models demonstrate large uncertainty in projected changes in terrestrial carbon budgets. The lack of inclusion of adaptive responses of vegetation communities to the environment has been suggested to hamper the ability of modeled vegetation to adequately respond to environmental change. In this study, variation in functional responses of vegetation has been added to an earth system model (ESM) based on ecological principles. The restriction of viable mean trait values of vegetation communities by the environment, called 'habitat filtering', is an important ecological assembly rule and allows for determination of global scale trait-environment relationships. These relationships were applied to model trait variation for different plant functional types (PFTs). For three leaf traits (specific leaf area, maximum carboxylation rate at 25 °C, and maximum electron transport rate at 25 °C), relationships with multiple environmental drivers, such as precipitation, temperature, radiation, and CO2 , were determined for the PFTs within the Max Planck Institute ESM. With these relationships, spatiotemporal variation in these formerly fixed traits in PFTs was modeled in global change projections (IPCC RCP8.5 scenario). Inclusion of this environment-driven trait variation resulted in a strong reduction of the global carbon sink by at least 33% (2.1 Pg C yr(-1) ) from the 2nd quarter of the 21st century onward compared to the default model with fixed traits. In addition, the mid- and high latitudes became a stronger carbon sink and the tropics a stronger carbon source, caused by trait-induced differences in productivity and relative respirational costs. These results point toward a reduction of the global carbon sink when including a more realistic representation of functional vegetation responses, implying more carbon will stay airborne, which could fuel further climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lieneke M Verheijen
- Systems Ecology, Department of Ecological Science, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rien Aerts
- Systems Ecology, Department of Ecological Science, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Victor Brovkin
- Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Bundesstrasse 55, 20146, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jeannine Cavender-Bares
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Johannes H C Cornelissen
- Systems Ecology, Department of Ecological Science, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jens Kattge
- Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry, Hans Knoell Strasse 10, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Peter M van Bodegom
- Systems Ecology, Department of Ecological Science, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 2 2333 CC, Leiden, The Netherlands
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