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Abu Obaid A, Ivandic I, Korsching SI. Deciphering the function of the fifth class of Gα proteins: regulation of ionic homeostasis as unifying hypothesis. Cell Mol Life Sci 2024; 81:213. [PMID: 38727814 PMCID: PMC11087313 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-024-05228-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
Trimeric G proteins transduce signals from a superfamily of receptors and each G protein controls a wide range of cellular and systemic functions. Their highly conserved alpha subunits fall in five classes, four of which have been well investigated (Gs, Gi, G12, Gq). In contrast, the function of the fifth class, Gv is completely unknown, despite its broad occurrence and evolutionary ancient origin (older than metazoans). Here we show a dynamic presence of Gv mRNA in several organs during early development of zebrafish, including the hatching gland, the pronephros and several cartilage anlagen, employing in situ hybridisation. Next, we generated a Gv frameshift mutation in zebrafish and observed distinct phenotypes such as reduced oviposition, premature hatching and craniofacial abnormalities in bone and cartilage of larval zebrafish. These phenotypes could suggest a disturbance in ionic homeostasis as a common denominator. Indeed, we find reduced levels of calcium, magnesium and potassium in the larvae and changes in expression levels of the sodium potassium pump atp1a1a.5 and the sodium/calcium exchanger ncx1b in larvae and in the adult kidney, a major osmoregulatory organ. Additionally, expression of sodium chloride cotransporter slc12a3 and the anion exchanger slc26a4 is altered in complementary ways in adult kidney. It appears that Gv may modulate ionic homeostasis in zebrafish during development and in adults. Our results constitute the first insight into the function of the fifth class of G alpha proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asmaa Abu Obaid
- Institute of Genetics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences of the University at Cologne, Zülpicher Str. 47A, 50674, Cologne, Germany
- Department of Optometry, Faculty of Modern Sciences, The Arab American University, Yousef Asfour Street, Ramallah, Palestine
| | - Ivan Ivandic
- Institute of Genetics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences of the University at Cologne, Zülpicher Str. 47A, 50674, Cologne, Germany
| | - Sigrun I Korsching
- Institute of Genetics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences of the University at Cologne, Zülpicher Str. 47A, 50674, Cologne, Germany.
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Yang Y, Tao Y, Yang R, Yi X, Zhong G, Gu Y, Zhang Y. Ca 2+ homeostasis imbalance induced by Pparg: A key factor in di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP)-induced cardiac dysfunction in zebrafish larvae. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 918:170436. [PMID: 38281650 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2023] [Revised: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
Widespread application of the typical phthalate plasticizers, di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), poses a serious potential threat to the health of animals and even humans. Previous studies have confirmed the mechanism of DEHP-induced cardiac developmental defects in zebrafish larvae. However, the mechanism of cardiac dysfunction is still unclear. Thus, this work aimed to comprehensively investigate the mechanisms involved in DEHP-induced cardiac dysfunction through computational simulations, in vivo assays in zebrafish, and in vitro assays in cardiomyocytes. Firstly, molecular docking and western blot initially investigated the activating effect of DEHP on Pparg in zebrafish. Although GW9662 (PPARG antagonist) effectively alleviated DEHP-induced cardiac dysfunction and lipid metabolism disorders, it did not restore significant decreases in mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP levels. In vitro assays in cardiomyocytes, DEHP caused overexpression of PPARG and proteins involved in the regulation of Ca2+ homeostasis, and the above abnormalities were effectively alleviated by GW9662, suggesting that the Ca2+ homeostatic imbalance caused by activation of PPARG by DEHP seems to be the main cause of DEHP-induced cardiac dysfunction. To sum up, this work not only refines the mechanism of toxic effects of cardiotoxicity induced by DEHP, but provides an important theoretical basis for enriching the toxicological effects of DEHP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Yang
- School of Resources and Environment, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Yue Tao
- School of Resources and Environment, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Rongyi Yang
- School of Resources and Environment, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Xiaodong Yi
- School of Resources and Environment, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Guanyu Zhong
- School of Resources and Environment, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Yanyan Gu
- School of Resources and Environment, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Ying Zhang
- School of Resources and Environment, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, PR China.
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Jia BZ, Qi Y, Wong-Campos JD, Megason SG, Cohen AE. A bioelectrical phase transition patterns the first vertebrate heartbeats. Nature 2023; 622:149-155. [PMID: 37758945 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06561-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
A regular heartbeat is essential to vertebrate life. In the mature heart, this function is driven by an anatomically localized pacemaker. By contrast, pacemaking capability is broadly distributed in the early embryonic heart1-3, raising the question of how tissue-scale activity is first established and then maintained during embryonic development. The initial transition of the heart from silent to beating has never been characterized at the timescale of individual electrical events, and the structure in space and time of the early heartbeats remains poorly understood. Using all-optical electrophysiology, we captured the very first heartbeat of a zebrafish and analysed the development of cardiac excitability and conduction around this singular event. The first few beats appeared suddenly, had irregular interbeat intervals, propagated coherently across the primordial heart and emanated from loci that varied between animals and over time. The bioelectrical dynamics were well described by a noisy saddle-node on invariant circle bifurcation with action potential upstroke driven by CaV1.2. Our work shows how gradual and largely asynchronous development of single-cell bioelectrical properties produces a stereotyped and robust tissue-scale transition from quiescence to coordinated beating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bill Z Jia
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Systems Biology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Systems, Synthetic and Quantitative Biology PhD Program, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Yitong Qi
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - J David Wong-Campos
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Sean G Megason
- Department of Systems Biology, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Adam E Cohen
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Department of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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4
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MacRae CA, Peterson RT. Zebrafish as a Mainstream Model for In Vivo Systems Pharmacology and Toxicology. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2023; 63:43-64. [PMID: 36151053 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-051421-105617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Pharmacology and toxicology are part of a much broader effort to understand the relationship between chemistry and biology. While biomedicine has necessarily focused on specific cases, typically of direct human relevance, there are real advantages in pursuing more systematic approaches to characterizing how health and disease are influenced by small molecules and other interventions. In this context, the zebrafish is now established as the representative screenable vertebrate and, through ongoing advances in the available scale of genome editing and automated phenotyping, is beginning to address systems-level solutions to some biomedical problems. The addition of broader efforts to integrate information content across preclinical model organisms and the incorporation of rigorous analytics, including closed-loop deep learning, will facilitate efforts to create systems pharmacology and toxicology with the ability to continuously optimize chemical biological interactions around societal needs. In this review, we outline progress toward this goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Calum A MacRae
- Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA;
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Akerberg AA, Trembley M, Butty V, Schwertner A, Zhao L, Beerens M, Liu X, Mahamdeh M, Yuan S, Boyer L, MacRae C, Nguyen C, Pu WT, Burns CE, Burns CG. RBPMS2 Is a Myocardial-Enriched Splicing Regulator Required for Cardiac Function. Circ Res 2022; 131:980-1000. [PMID: 36367103 PMCID: PMC9770155 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.122.321728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND RBPs (RNA-binding proteins) perform indispensable functions in the post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression. Numerous RBPs have been implicated in cardiac development or physiology based on gene knockout studies and the identification of pathogenic RBP gene mutations in monogenic heart disorders. The discovery and characterization of additional RBPs performing indispensable functions in the heart will advance basic and translational cardiovascular research. METHODS We performed a differential expression screen in zebrafish embryos to identify genes enriched in nkx2.5-positive cardiomyocytes or cardiopharyngeal progenitors compared to nkx2.5-negative cells from the same embryos. We investigated the myocardial-enriched gene RNA-binding protein with multiple splicing (variants) 2 [RBPMS2)] by generating and characterizing rbpms2 knockout zebrafish and human cardiomyocytes derived from RBPMS2-deficient induced pluripotent stem cells. RESULTS We identified 1848 genes enriched in the nkx2.5-positive population. Among the most highly enriched genes, most with well-established functions in the heart, we discovered the ohnologs rbpms2a and rbpms2b, which encode an evolutionarily conserved RBP. Rbpms2 localizes selectively to cardiomyocytes during zebrafish heart development and strong cardiomyocyte expression persists into adulthood. Rbpms2-deficient embryos suffer from early cardiac dysfunction characterized by reduced ejection fraction. The functional deficit is accompanied by myofibril disarray, altered calcium handling, and differential alternative splicing events in mutant cardiomyocytes. These phenotypes are also observed in RBPMS2-deficient human cardiomyocytes, indicative of conserved molecular and cellular function. RNA-sequencing and comparative analysis of genes mis-spliced in RBPMS2-deficient zebrafish and human cardiomyocytes uncovered a conserved network of 29 ortholog pairs that require RBPMS2 for alternative splicing regulation, including RBFOX2, SLC8A1, and MYBPC3. CONCLUSIONS Our study identifies RBPMS2 as a conserved regulator of alternative splicing, myofibrillar organization, and calcium handling in zebrafish and human cardiomyocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander A. Akerberg
- Division of Basic and Translational Cardiovascular Research, Department of Cardiology, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston‚ MA (A.A.A., M.T., X.L., W.T.P., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown‚ MA (A.A.A., A.S., L.Z., M.M., S.Y., C.N., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (A.A.A., M.T., A.S., L.Z., M.B., X.L., M.M., S.Y., C.M., C.N., W.T.P., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
| | - Michael Trembley
- Division of Basic and Translational Cardiovascular Research, Department of Cardiology, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston‚ MA (A.A.A., M.T., X.L., W.T.P., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (A.A.A., M.T., A.S., L.Z., M.B., X.L., M.M., S.Y., C.M., C.N., W.T.P., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
| | - Vincent Butty
- BioMicroCenter, Department of Biology (V.B.), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge‚ MA
- Department of Biology (V.B., L.B.), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge‚ MA
| | - Asya Schwertner
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown‚ MA (A.A.A., A.S., L.Z., M.M., S.Y., C.N., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (A.A.A., M.T., A.S., L.Z., M.B., X.L., M.M., S.Y., C.M., C.N., W.T.P., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
| | - Long Zhao
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (A.A.A., M.T., A.S., L.Z., M.B., X.L., M.M., S.Y., C.M., C.N., W.T.P., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
| | - Manu Beerens
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (A.A.A., M.T., A.S., L.Z., M.B., X.L., M.M., S.Y., C.M., C.N., W.T.P., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA (M.B., C.M.)
| | - Xujie Liu
- Division of Basic and Translational Cardiovascular Research, Department of Cardiology, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston‚ MA (A.A.A., M.T., X.L., W.T.P., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (A.A.A., M.T., A.S., L.Z., M.B., X.L., M.M., S.Y., C.M., C.N., W.T.P., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
| | - Mohammed Mahamdeh
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown‚ MA (A.A.A., A.S., L.Z., M.M., S.Y., C.N., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (A.A.A., M.T., A.S., L.Z., M.B., X.L., M.M., S.Y., C.M., C.N., W.T.P., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
| | - Shiaulou Yuan
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown‚ MA (A.A.A., A.S., L.Z., M.M., S.Y., C.N., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (A.A.A., M.T., A.S., L.Z., M.B., X.L., M.M., S.Y., C.M., C.N., W.T.P., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
| | - Laurie Boyer
- Department of Biology (V.B., L.B.), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge‚ MA
- Department of Biological Engineering (L.B.), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge‚ MA
| | - Calum MacRae
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (A.A.A., M.T., A.S., L.Z., M.B., X.L., M.M., S.Y., C.M., C.N., W.T.P., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA (M.B., C.M.)
| | - Christopher Nguyen
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown‚ MA (A.A.A., A.S., L.Z., M.M., S.Y., C.N., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (A.A.A., M.T., A.S., L.Z., M.B., X.L., M.M., S.Y., C.M., C.N., W.T.P., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
- Cardiovascular Innovation Research Center, Heart Vascular & Thoracic Institute, Cleveland Clinic‚ Cleveland‚ OH (C.N.)
| | - William T. Pu
- Division of Basic and Translational Cardiovascular Research, Department of Cardiology, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston‚ MA (A.A.A., M.T., X.L., W.T.P., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (A.A.A., M.T., A.S., L.Z., M.B., X.L., M.M., S.Y., C.M., C.N., W.T.P., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
- Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Cambridge, MA (W.T.P., C.E.B.)
| | - Caroline E. Burns
- Division of Basic and Translational Cardiovascular Research, Department of Cardiology, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston‚ MA (A.A.A., M.T., X.L., W.T.P., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown‚ MA (A.A.A., A.S., L.Z., M.M., S.Y., C.N., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (A.A.A., M.T., A.S., L.Z., M.B., X.L., M.M., S.Y., C.M., C.N., W.T.P., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
- Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Cambridge, MA (W.T.P., C.E.B.)
| | - C. Geoffrey Burns
- Division of Basic and Translational Cardiovascular Research, Department of Cardiology, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston‚ MA (A.A.A., M.T., X.L., W.T.P., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown‚ MA (A.A.A., A.S., L.Z., M.M., S.Y., C.N., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (A.A.A., M.T., A.S., L.Z., M.B., X.L., M.M., S.Y., C.M., C.N., W.T.P., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
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McAndry C, Collins M, Tills O, Spicer JI, Truebano M. Regulation of gene expression during ontogeny of physiological function in the brackishwater amphipod Gammarus chevreuxi. Mar Genomics 2022; 63:100948. [PMID: 35427917 DOI: 10.1016/j.margen.2022.100948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Embryonic development is a complex process involving the co-ordinated onset and integration of multiple morphological features and physiological functions. While the molecular basis of morphological development in embryos is relatively well known for traditional model species, the molecular underpinning of the development of physiological functions is not. Here, we used global gene expression profiling to investigate the transcriptional changes associated with the development of morphological and physiological function in the amphipod crustacean Gammarus chevreuxi. We compared the transcriptomes at three timepoints during the latter half of development, characterised by different stages of the development of heart form and function: 10 days post fertilisation (dpf, Early: no heart structure visible), 15 dpf (Middle: heart present but not fully functional), and 18 dpf (Late: regular heartbeat). Gene expression profiles differed markedly between developmental stages, likely representing a change in the activity of different processes throughout the latter period of G. chevreuxi embryonic development. Differentially expressed genes belonged to one of three distinct clusters based on their expression patterns across development. One of these clusters, which included key genes relating to cardiac contractile machinery and calcium handling, displayed a pattern of sequential up-regulation throughout the developmental period studied. Further analyses of these transcripts could reveal genes that may influence the onset of a regular heartbeat. We also identified morphological and physiological processes that may occur alongside heart development, such as development of digestive caeca and the cuticle. Elucidating the mechanisms underpinning morphological and physiological development of non-model organisms will support improved understanding of conserved mechanisms, addressing the current phylogenetic gap between relatively well known model species.
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Affiliation(s)
- C McAndry
- Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
| | - M Collins
- Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
| | - O Tills
- Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
| | - J I Spicer
- Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
| | - M Truebano
- Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK.
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Minhas R, Loeffler-Wirth H, Siddiqui YH, Obrębski T, Vashisht S, Abu Nahia K, Paterek A, Brzozowska A, Bugajski L, Piwocka K, Korzh V, Binder H, Winata CL. Transcriptome profile of the sinoatrial ring reveals conserved and novel genetic programs of the zebrafish pacemaker. BMC Genomics 2021; 22:715. [PMID: 34600492 PMCID: PMC8487553 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-021-08016-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sinoatrial Node (SAN) is part of the cardiac conduction system, which controls the rhythmic contraction of the vertebrate heart. The SAN consists of a specialized pacemaker cell population that has the potential to generate electrical impulses. Although the SAN pacemaker has been extensively studied in mammalian and teleost models, including the zebrafish, their molecular nature remains inadequately comprehended. RESULTS To characterize the molecular profile of the zebrafish sinoatrial ring (SAR) and elucidate the mechanism of pacemaker function, we utilized the transgenic line sqet33mi59BEt to isolate cells of the SAR of developing zebrafish embryos and profiled their transcriptome. Our analyses identified novel candidate genes and well-known conserved signaling pathways involved in pacemaker development. We show that, compared to the rest of the heart, the zebrafish SAR overexpresses several mammalian SAN pacemaker signature genes, which include hcn4 as well as those encoding calcium- and potassium-gated channels. Moreover, genes encoding components of the BMP and Wnt signaling pathways, as well as members of the Tbx family, which have previously been implicated in pacemaker development, were also overexpressed in the SAR. Among SAR-overexpressed genes, 24 had human homologues implicated in 104 different ClinVar phenotype entries related to various forms of congenital heart diseases, which suggest the relevance of our transcriptomics resource to studying human heart conditions. Finally, functional analyses of three SAR-overexpressed genes, pard6a, prom2, and atp1a1a.2, uncovered their novel role in heart development and physiology. CONCLUSION Our results established conserved aspects between zebrafish and mammalian pacemaker function and revealed novel factors implicated in maintaining cardiac rhythm. The transcriptome data generated in this study represents a unique and valuable resource for the study of pacemaker function and associated heart diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rashid Minhas
- International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
- Randall Centre of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Henry Loeffler-Wirth
- Interdisciplinary Centre for Bioinformatics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Yusra H Siddiqui
- International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
- School of Human Sciences, College of Science and Engineering, University of Derby, Derby, UK
| | - Tomasz Obrębski
- International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Shikha Vashisht
- International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Karim Abu Nahia
- International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Alexandra Paterek
- International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Angelika Brzozowska
- International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Lukasz Bugajski
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Laboratory of Cytometry, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Piwocka
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Laboratory of Cytometry, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Vladimir Korzh
- International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Hans Binder
- Interdisciplinary Centre for Bioinformatics, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Cecilia Lanny Winata
- International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
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8
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Shimizu H, Huber S, Langenbacher AD, Crisman L, Huang J, Wang K, Wilting F, Gudermann T, Schredelseker J, Chen JN. Glutamate 73 Promotes Anti-arrhythmic Effects of Voltage-Dependent Anion Channel Through Regulation of Mitochondrial Ca 2+ Uptake. Front Physiol 2021; 12:724828. [PMID: 34483974 PMCID: PMC8416314 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.724828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria critically regulate a range of cellular processes including bioenergetics, cellular metabolism, apoptosis, and cellular Ca2+ signaling. The voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC) functions as a passageway for the exchange of ions, including Ca2+, across the outer mitochondrial membrane. In cardiomyocytes, genetic or pharmacological activation of isoform 2 of VDAC (VDAC2) effectively potentiates mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake and suppresses Ca2+ overload-induced arrhythmogenic events. However, molecular mechanisms by which VDAC2 controls mitochondrial Ca2+ transport and thereby influences cardiac rhythmicity remain elusive. Vertebrates express three highly homologous VDAC isoforms. Here, we used the zebrafish tremblor/ncx1h mutant to dissect the isoform-specific roles of VDAC proteins in Ca2+ handling. We found that overexpression of VDAC1 or VDAC2, but not VDAC3, suppresses the fibrillation-like phenotype in zebrafish tremblor/ncx1h mutants. A chimeric approach showed that moieties in the N-terminal half of VDAC are responsible for their divergent functions in cardiac biology. Phylogenetic analysis further revealed that a glutamate at position 73, which was previously described to be an important regulator of VDAC function, is sevolutionarily conserved in VDAC1 and VDAC2, whereas a glutamine occupies position 73 (Q73) of VDAC3. To investigate whether E73/Q73 determines VDAC isoform-specific anti-arrhythmic effect, we mutated E73 to Q in VDAC2 (VDAC2E73Q) and Q73 to E in VDAC3 (VDAC3Q73E). Interestingly, VDAC2E73Q failed to restore rhythmic cardiac contractions in ncx1 deficient hearts, while the Q73E conversion induced a gain of function in VDAC3. In HL-1 cardiomyocytes, VDAC2 knockdown diminished the transfer of Ca2+ from the SR into mitochondria and overexpression of VDAC2 or VDAC3Q73E restored SR-mitochondrial Ca2+ transfer in VDAC2 deficient HL-1 cells, whereas this rescue effect was absent for VDAC3 and drastically compromised for VDAC2E73Q. Collectively, our findings demonstrate a critical role for the evolutionary conserved E73 in determining the anti-arrhythmic effect of VDAC isoforms through modulating Ca2+ cross-talk between the SR and mitochondria in cardiomyocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirohito Shimizu
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Simon Huber
- Walther Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Adam D Langenbacher
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Lauren Crisman
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Jie Huang
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Kevin Wang
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Fabiola Wilting
- Walther Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Thomas Gudermann
- Walther Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany.,German Centre for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Munich Heart Alliance, Munich, Germany
| | - Johann Schredelseker
- Walther Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany.,German Centre for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Munich Heart Alliance, Munich, Germany
| | - Jau-Nian Chen
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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9
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Sander P, Feng M, Schweitzer MK, Wilting F, Gutenthaler SM, Arduino DM, Fischbach S, Dreizehnter L, Moretti A, Gudermann T, Perocchi F, Schredelseker J. Approved drugs ezetimibe and disulfiram enhance mitochondrial Ca 2+ uptake and suppress cardiac arrhythmogenesis. Br J Pharmacol 2021; 178:4518-4532. [PMID: 34287836 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Treatment of cardiac arrhythmia remains challenging due to severe side effects of common anti-arrhythmic drugs. We previously demonstrated that mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake in cardiomyocytes represents a promising new candidate structure for safer drug therapy. However, druggable agonists of mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake suitable for preclinical and clinical studies are still missing. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Herewe screened 727 compounds with a history of use in human clinical trials in a three-step screening approach. As a primary screening platform we used a permeabilized HeLa cell-based mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake assay. Hits were validated in cultured HL-1 cardiomyocytes and finally tested for anti-arrhythmic efficacy in three translational models: a Ca2+ overload zebrafish model and cardiomyocytes of both a mouse model for catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT) and induced pluripotent stem cell derived cardiomyocytes from a CPVT patient. KEY RESULTS We identifiedtwo candidate compounds, the clinically approved drugs ezetimibe and disulfiram, which stimulate SR-mitochondria Ca2+ transfer at nanomolar concentrations. This is significantly lower compared to the previously described mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake enhancers (MiCUps) efsevin, a gating modifier of the voltage-dependent anion channel 2, and kaempferol, an agonist of the mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter. Both substances restored rhythmic cardiac contractions in a zebrafish cardiac arrhythmia model and significantly suppressed arrhythmogenesis in freshly isolated ventricular cardiomyocytes from a CPVT mouse model as well as induced pluripotent stem cell derived cardiomyocytes from a CPVT patient. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS Taken together we identified ezetimibe and disulfiram as novel MiCUps and efficient suppressors of arrhythmogenesis and as such as, promising candidates for future preclinical and clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulina Sander
- Walther Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Michael Feng
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Diabetes Center (HDC), Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Maria K Schweitzer
- Walther Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Fabiola Wilting
- Walther Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Sophie M Gutenthaler
- Walther Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Daniela M Arduino
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Diabetes Center (HDC), Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Sandra Fischbach
- Walther Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Lisa Dreizehnter
- I. Department of Medicine, Cardiology, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Alessandra Moretti
- I. Department of Medicine, Cardiology, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany.,Partner Site Munich Heart Alliance (MHA), Deutsches Zentrum für Herz-Kreislauf-Forschung (DZHK), Munich, Germany
| | - Thomas Gudermann
- Walther Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany.,Partner Site Munich Heart Alliance (MHA), Deutsches Zentrum für Herz-Kreislauf-Forschung (DZHK), Munich, Germany
| | - Fabiana Perocchi
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Diabetes Center (HDC), Helmholtz Zentrum München, Neuherberg, Germany.,Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology, Munich, Germany
| | - Johann Schredelseker
- Walther Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany.,Partner Site Munich Heart Alliance (MHA), Deutsches Zentrum für Herz-Kreislauf-Forschung (DZHK), Munich, Germany
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10
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Santiago CF, Huttner IG, Fatkin D. Mechanisms of TTNtv-Related Dilated Cardiomyopathy: Insights from Zebrafish Models. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis 2021; 8:jcdd8020010. [PMID: 33504111 PMCID: PMC7912658 DOI: 10.3390/jcdd8020010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a common heart muscle disorder characterized by ventricular dilation and contractile dysfunction that is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. New insights into disease mechanisms and strategies for treatment and prevention are urgently needed. Truncating variants in the TTN gene, which encodes the giant sarcomeric protein titin (TTNtv), are the most common genetic cause of DCM, but exactly how TTNtv promote cardiomyocyte dysfunction is not known. Although rodent models have been widely used to investigate titin biology, they have had limited utility for TTNtv-related DCM. In recent years, zebrafish (Danio rerio) have emerged as a powerful alternative model system for studying titin function in the healthy and diseased heart. Optically transparent embryonic zebrafish models have demonstrated key roles of titin in sarcomere assembly and cardiac development. The increasing availability of sophisticated imaging tools for assessment of heart function in adult zebrafish has revolutionized the field and opened new opportunities for modelling human genetic disorders. Genetically modified zebrafish that carry a human A-band TTNtv have now been generated and shown to spontaneously develop DCM with age. This zebrafish model will be a valuable resource for elucidating the phenotype modifying effects of genetic and environmental factors, and for exploring new drug therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celine F. Santiago
- Molecular Cardiology and Biophysics Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia; (C.F.S.); (I.G.H.)
- St. Vincent’s Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Inken G. Huttner
- Molecular Cardiology and Biophysics Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia; (C.F.S.); (I.G.H.)
- St. Vincent’s Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Diane Fatkin
- Molecular Cardiology and Biophysics Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia; (C.F.S.); (I.G.H.)
- St. Vincent’s Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, NSW 2052, Australia
- Cardiology Department, St. Vincent’s Hospital, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia
- Correspondence:
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11
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Sieliwonczyk E, Matchkov VV, Vandendriessche B, Alaerts M, Bakkers J, Loeys B, Schepers D. Inherited Ventricular Arrhythmia in Zebrafish: Genetic Models and Phenotyping Tools. Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol 2021; 184:33-68. [PMID: 34533615 DOI: 10.1007/112_2021_65] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
In the last years, the field of inheritable ventricular arrhythmia disease modelling has changed significantly with a push towards the use of novel cellular cardiomyocyte based models. However, there is a growing need for new in vivo models to study the disease pathology at the tissue and organ level. Zebrafish provide an excellent opportunity for in vivo modelling of inheritable ventricular arrhythmia syndromes due to the remarkable similarity between their cardiac electrophysiology and that of humans. Additionally, many state-of-the-art methods in gene editing and electrophysiological phenotyping are available for zebrafish research. In this review, we give a comprehensive overview of the published zebrafish genetic models for primary electrical disorders and arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy. We summarise and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the different technical approaches for the generation of genetically modified zebrafish disease models, as well as the electrophysiological approaches in zebrafish phenotyping. By providing this detailed overview, we aim to draw attention to the potential of the zebrafish model for studying arrhythmia syndromes at the organ level and as a platform for personalised medicine and drug testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewa Sieliwonczyk
- Center of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp and Antwerp University Hospital, Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - Vladimir V Matchkov
- Department of Biomedicine, Pulmonary and Cardiovascular Pharmacology, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Bert Vandendriessche
- Center of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp and Antwerp University Hospital, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Maaike Alaerts
- Center of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp and Antwerp University Hospital, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Jeroen Bakkers
- Hubrecht Institute for Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Bart Loeys
- Center of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp and Antwerp University Hospital, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Dorien Schepers
- Center of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Antwerp and Antwerp University Hospital, Antwerp, Belgium.,Laboratory for Molecular, Cellular and Network Excitability, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
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12
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Langenbacher AD, Shimizu H, Hsu W, Zhao Y, Borges A, Koehler C, Chen JN. Mitochondrial Calcium Uniporter Deficiency in Zebrafish Causes Cardiomyopathy With Arrhythmia. Front Physiol 2020; 11:617492. [PMID: 33424641 PMCID: PMC7785991 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.617492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial Ca2 + uptake influences energy production, cell survival, and Ca2 + signaling. The mitochondrial calcium uniporter, MCU, is the primary route for uptake of Ca2 + into the mitochondrial matrix. We have generated a zebrafish MCU mutant that survives to adulthood and exhibits dramatic cardiac phenotypes resembling cardiomyopathy and sinus arrest. MCU hearts contract weakly and have a smaller ventricle with a thin compact layer and reduced trabecular density. Damaged myofibrils and swollen mitochondria were present in the ventricles of MCU mutants, along with gene expression changes indicative of cell stress and altered cardiac structure and function. Using electrocardiography, we found that MCU hearts display conduction system defects and abnormal rhythm, with extended pauses resembling episodes of sinus arrest. Together, our findings suggest that proper mitochondrial Ca2 + homeostasis is crucial for maintaining a healthy adult heart, and establish the MCU mutant as a useful model for understanding the role of mitochondrial Ca2 + handling in adult cardiac biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam D Langenbacher
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Hirohito Shimizu
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Welkin Hsu
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Yali Zhao
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Alexandria Borges
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Carla Koehler
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Jau-Nian Chen
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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13
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Varró A, Tomek J, Nagy N, Virág L, Passini E, Rodriguez B, Baczkó I. Cardiac transmembrane ion channels and action potentials: cellular physiology and arrhythmogenic behavior. Physiol Rev 2020; 101:1083-1176. [PMID: 33118864 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00024.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cardiac arrhythmias are among the leading causes of mortality. They often arise from alterations in the electrophysiological properties of cardiac cells and their underlying ionic mechanisms. It is therefore critical to further unravel the pathophysiology of the ionic basis of human cardiac electrophysiology in health and disease. In the first part of this review, current knowledge on the differences in ion channel expression and properties of the ionic processes that determine the morphology and properties of cardiac action potentials and calcium dynamics from cardiomyocytes in different regions of the heart are described. Then the cellular mechanisms promoting arrhythmias in congenital or acquired conditions of ion channel function (electrical remodeling) are discussed. The focus is on human-relevant findings obtained with clinical, experimental, and computational studies, given that interspecies differences make the extrapolation from animal experiments to human clinical settings difficult. Deepening the understanding of the diverse pathophysiology of human cellular electrophysiology will help in developing novel and effective antiarrhythmic strategies for specific subpopulations and disease conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- András Varró
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary.,MTA-SZTE Cardiovascular Pharmacology Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Jakub Tomek
- Department of Computer Science, British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Norbert Nagy
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary.,MTA-SZTE Cardiovascular Pharmacology Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szeged, Hungary
| | - László Virág
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Elisa Passini
- Department of Computer Science, British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Blanca Rodriguez
- Department of Computer Science, British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - István Baczkó
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
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14
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Chu L, Yin H, Gao L, Gao L, Xia Y, Zhang C, Chen Y, Liu T, Huang J, Boheler KR, Zhou Y, Yang HT. Cardiac Na +-Ca 2+ exchanger 1 (ncx1h) is critical for the ventricular cardiomyocyte formation via regulating the expression levels of gata4 and hand2 in zebrafish. SCIENCE CHINA-LIFE SCIENCES 2020; 64:255-268. [PMID: 32648190 DOI: 10.1007/s11427-019-1706-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Ca2+ signaling is critical for heart development; however, the precise roles and regulatory pathways of Ca2+ transport proteins in cardiogenesis remain largely unknown. Sodium-calcium exchanger 1 (Ncx1) is responsible for Ca2+ efflux in cardiomyocytes. It is involved in cardiogenesis, while the mechanism is unclear. Here, using the forward genetic screening in zebrafish, we identified a novel mutation at a highly-conserved leucine residue in ncx1 gene (mutantLDD353/ncx1hL154P) that led to smaller hearts with reduced heart rate and weak contraction. Mechanistically, the number of ventricular but not atrial cardiomyocytes was reduced in ncx1hL154P zebrafish. These defects were mimicked by knockdown or knockout of ncx1h. Moreover, ncx1hL154P had cytosolic and mitochondrial Ca2+ overloading and Ca2+ transient suppression in cardiomyocytes. Furthermore, ncx1hL154P and ncx1h morphants downregulated cardiac transcription factors hand2 and gata4 in the cardiac regions, while overexpression of hand2 and gata4 partially rescued cardiac defects including the number of ventricular myocytes. These findings demonstrate an essential role of the novel 154th leucine residue in the maintenance of Ncx1 function in zebrafish, and reveal previous unrecognized critical roles of the 154th leucine residue and Ncx1 in the formation of ventricular cardiomyocytes by at least partially regulating the expression levels of gata4 and hand2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liming Chu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tissue Microenvironment and Tumor, Laboratory of Molecular Cardiology and Laboratory of Development and Diseases, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), CAS, Shanghai, 200031, China.,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, CAS, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Huimin Yin
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tissue Microenvironment and Tumor, Laboratory of Molecular Cardiology and Laboratory of Development and Diseases, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), CAS, Shanghai, 200031, China.,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, CAS, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Lei Gao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tissue Microenvironment and Tumor, Laboratory of Molecular Cardiology and Laboratory of Development and Diseases, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), CAS, Shanghai, 200031, China.,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, CAS, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Li Gao
- State Key Laboratory for Medical Genomics, Shanghai Institute of Hematology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Yu Xia
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tissue Microenvironment and Tumor, Laboratory of Molecular Cardiology and Laboratory of Development and Diseases, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), CAS, Shanghai, 200031, China.,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, CAS, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Chiyuan Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tissue Microenvironment and Tumor, Laboratory of Molecular Cardiology and Laboratory of Development and Diseases, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), CAS, Shanghai, 200031, China.,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, CAS, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Yi Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Medical Genomics, Shanghai Institute of Hematology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200025, China
| | - Tingxi Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tissue Microenvironment and Tumor, Laboratory of Molecular Cardiology and Laboratory of Development and Diseases, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), CAS, Shanghai, 200031, China.,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, CAS, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Jijun Huang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tissue Microenvironment and Tumor, Laboratory of Molecular Cardiology and Laboratory of Development and Diseases, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), CAS, Shanghai, 200031, China.,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, CAS, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Kenneth R Boheler
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Yong Zhou
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tissue Microenvironment and Tumor, Laboratory of Molecular Cardiology and Laboratory of Development and Diseases, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), CAS, Shanghai, 200031, China. .,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, CAS, Beijing, 100101, China.
| | - Huang-Tian Yang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tissue Microenvironment and Tumor, Laboratory of Molecular Cardiology and Laboratory of Development and Diseases, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), CAS, Shanghai, 200031, China. .,Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, CAS, Beijing, 100101, China.
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15
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Wilting F, Kopp R, Gurnev PA, Schedel A, Dupper NJ, Kwon O, Nicke A, Gudermann T, Schredelseker J. The antiarrhythmic compound efsevin directly modulates voltage-dependent anion channel 2 by binding to its inner wall and enhancing mitochondrial Ca 2+ uptake. Br J Pharmacol 2020; 177:2947-2958. [PMID: 32059260 PMCID: PMC7279994 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Revised: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The synthetic compound efsevin was recently identified to suppress arrhythmogenesis in models of cardiac arrhythmia, making it a promising candidate for antiarrhythmic therapy. Its activity was shown to be dependent on the voltage-dependent anion channel 2 (VDAC2) in the outer mitochondrial membrane. Here, we investigated the molecular mechanism of the efsevin-VDAC2 interaction. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH To evaluate the functional interaction of efsevin and VDAC2, we measured currents through recombinant VDAC2 in planar lipid bilayers. Using molecular ligand-protein docking and mutational analysis, we identified the efsevin binding site on VDAC2. Finally, physiological consequences of the efsevin-induced modulation of VDAC2 were analysed in HL-1 cardiomyocytes. KEY RESULTS In lipid bilayers, efsevin reduced VDAC2 conductance and shifted the channel's open probability towards less anion-selective closed states. Efsevin binds to a binding pocket formed by the inner channel wall and the pore-lining N-terminal α-helix. Exchange of amino acids N207, K236 and N238 within this pocket for alanines abolished the channel's efsevin-responsiveness. Upon heterologous expression in HL-1 cardiomyocytes, both channels, wild-type VDAC2 and the efsevin-insensitive VDAC2AAA restored mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake, but only wild-type VDAC2 was sensitive to efsevin. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS In summary, our data indicate a direct interaction of efsevin with VDAC2 inside the channel pore that leads to modified gating and results in enhanced SR-mitochondria Ca2+ transfer. This study sheds new light on the function of VDAC2 and provides a basis for structure-aided chemical optimization of efsevin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiola Wilting
- Walther Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of MedicineLMU MunichMunichGermany
| | - Robin Kopp
- Walther Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of MedicineLMU MunichMunichGermany
| | - Philip A. Gurnev
- Section on Molecular Transport, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human DevelopmentNational Institutes of HealthBethesdaMaryland
| | - Anna Schedel
- Walther Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of MedicineLMU MunichMunichGermany
| | - Nathan J. Dupper
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryUniversity of California Los AngelesLos AngelesCalifornia
| | - Ohyun Kwon
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryUniversity of California Los AngelesLos AngelesCalifornia
| | - Annette Nicke
- Walther Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of MedicineLMU MunichMunichGermany
| | - Thomas Gudermann
- Walther Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of MedicineLMU MunichMunichGermany
- Deutsches Zentrum für Herz‐Kreislauf‐Forschung (DZHK)Partner Site Munich Heart Alliance (MHA)MunichGermany
| | - Johann Schredelseker
- Walther Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of MedicineLMU MunichMunichGermany
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16
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Shrestha R, Lieberth J, Tillman S, Natalizio J, Bloomekatz J. Using Zebrafish to Analyze the Genetic and Environmental Etiologies of Congenital Heart Defects. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020; 1236:189-223. [PMID: 32304074 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-15-2389-2_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Congenital heart defects (CHDs) are among the most common human birth defects. However, the etiology of a large proportion of CHDs remains undefined. Studies identifying the molecular and cellular mechanisms that underlie cardiac development have been critical to elucidating the origin of CHDs. Building upon this knowledge to understand the pathogenesis of CHDs requires examining how genetic or environmental stress changes normal cardiac development. Due to strong molecular conservation to humans and unique technical advantages, studies using zebrafish have elucidated both fundamental principles of cardiac development and have been used to create cardiac disease models. In this chapter we examine the unique toolset available to zebrafish researchers and how those tools are used to interrogate the genetic and environmental contributions to CHDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rabina Shrestha
- Department of Biology, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA
| | - Jaret Lieberth
- Department of Biology, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA
| | - Savanna Tillman
- Department of Biology, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA
| | - Joseph Natalizio
- Department of Biology, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS, USA
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17
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Sammani A, Kayvanpour E, Bosman LP, Sedaghat-Hamedani F, Proctor T, Gi WT, Broezel A, Jensen K, Katus HA, Te Riele ASJM, Meder B, Asselbergs FW. Predicting sustained ventricular arrhythmias in dilated cardiomyopathy: a meta-analysis and systematic review. ESC Heart Fail 2020; 7:1430-1441. [PMID: 32285648 PMCID: PMC7373946 DOI: 10.1002/ehf2.12689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Revised: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Aims Patients with non‐ischaemic dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) are at increased risk of sudden cardiac death. Identification of patients that may benefit from implantable cardioverter‐defibrillator implantation remains challenging. In this study, we aimed to determine predictors of sustained ventricular arrhythmias in patients with DCM. Methods and results We searched MEDLINE/Embase for studies describing predictors of sustained ventricular arrhythmias in patients with DCM. Quality and bias were assessed using the Quality in Prognostic Studies tool, articles with high risk of bias in ≥2 areas were excluded. Unadjusted hazard ratios (HRs) of uniformly defined predictors were pooled, while all other predictors were evaluated in a systematic review. We included 55 studies (11 451 patients and 3.7 ± 2.3 years follow‐up). Crude annual event rate was 4.5%. Younger age [HR 0.82; 95% CI (0.74–1.00)], hypertension [HR 1.95; 95% CI (1.26–3.00)], prior sustained ventricular arrhythmia [HR 4.15; 95% CI (1.32–13.02)], left ventricular ejection fraction on ultrasound [HR 1.45; 95% CI (1.19–1.78)], left ventricular dilatation (HR 1.10), and presence of late gadolinium enhancement [HR 5.55; 95% CI (4.02–7.67)] were associated with arrhythmic outcome in pooled analyses. Prior non‐sustained ventricular arrhythmia and several genotypes [mutations in Phospholamban (PLN), Lamin A/C (LMNA), and Filamin‐C (FLNC)] were associated with arrhythmic outcome in non‐pooled analyses. Quality of evidence was moderate, and heterogeneity among studies was moderate to high. Conclusions In patients with DCM, the annual event rate of sustained ventricular arrhythmias is approximately 4.5%. This risk is considerably higher in younger patients with hypertension, prior (non‐)sustained ventricular arrhythmia, decreased left ventricular ejection fraction, left ventricular dilatation, late gadolinium enhancement, and genetic mutations (PLN, LMNA, and FLNC). These results may help determine appropriate candidates for implantable cardioverter‐defibrillator implantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjan Sammani
- Department of Cardiology, Division Heart & Lungs, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Elham Kayvanpour
- Department of Cardiology, University Hospital of Heidelberg, INF 410, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.,DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Berlin, Germany
| | - Laurens P Bosman
- Department of Cardiology, Division Heart & Lungs, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Farbod Sedaghat-Hamedani
- Department of Cardiology, University Hospital of Heidelberg, INF 410, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.,DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Berlin, Germany
| | - Tanja Proctor
- Institute of Medical Biometry and Informatics, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Weng-Tein Gi
- Department of Cardiology, University Hospital of Heidelberg, INF 410, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.,DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Berlin, Germany
| | - Alicia Broezel
- Department of Cardiology, University Hospital of Heidelberg, INF 410, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.,DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Berlin, Germany
| | - Katrin Jensen
- Institute of Medical Biometry and Informatics, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Hugo A Katus
- Department of Cardiology, University Hospital of Heidelberg, INF 410, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.,DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Berlin, Germany
| | - Anneline S J M Te Riele
- Department of Cardiology, Division Heart & Lungs, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Benjamin Meder
- Department of Cardiology, University Hospital of Heidelberg, INF 410, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.,DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Berlin, Germany.,Department of Genetics, Stanford Genome Technology Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Folkert W Asselbergs
- Department of Cardiology, Division Heart & Lungs, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Institute of Cardiovascular Science, Faculty of Population Health Sciences, University College London, London, UK.,Health Data Research UK and Institute of Health Informatics, University College London, London, UK
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18
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Wagoner JA, Dill KA. Opposing Pressures of Speed and Efficiency Guide the Evolution of Molecular Machines. Mol Biol Evol 2020; 36:2813-2822. [PMID: 31432071 PMCID: PMC6878954 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msz190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Many biomolecular machines need to be both fast and efficient. How has evolution optimized these machines along the tradeoff between speed and efficiency? We explore this question using optimizable dynamical models along coordinates that are plausible evolutionary degrees of freedom. Data on 11 motors and ion pumps are consistent with the hypothesis that evolution seeks an optimal balance of speed and efficiency, where any further small increase in one of these quantities would come at great expense to the other. For FoF1-ATPases in different species, we also find apparent optimization of the number of subunits in the c-ring, which determines the number of protons pumped per ATP synthesized. Interestingly, these ATPases appear to more optimized for efficiency than for speed, which can be rationalized through their key role as energy transducers in biology. The present modeling shows how the dynamical performance properties of biomolecular motors and pumps may have evolved to suit their corresponding biological actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason A Wagoner
- Laufer Center for Physical and Quantitative Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY
| | - Ken A Dill
- Laufer Center for Physical and Quantitative Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY.,Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY.,Department of Physics and Astronomy, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY
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19
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Li S, Chopra A, Keung W, Chan CWY, Costa KD, Kong CW, Hajjar RJ, Chen CS, Li RA. Sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase is a more effective calcium remover than sodium-calcium exchanger in human embryonic stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2019; 317:H1105-H1115. [DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00540.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Human pluripotent stem cell (hPSCs)-derived ventricular (V) cardiomyocytes (CMs) display immature Ca2+–handing properties with smaller transient amplitudes and slower kinetics due to such differences in crucial Ca2+-handling proteins as the poor sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) pump but robust Na+-Ca2+ exchanger (NCX) activities in human embryonic stem cell (ESC)-derived VCMs compared with adult. Despite their fundamental importance in excitation-contraction coupling, the relative contribution of SERCA and NCX to Ca2+-handling of hPSC-VCMs remains unexplored. We systematically altered the activities of SERCA and NCX in human embryonic stem cell-derived ventricular cardiomyocytes (hESC-VCMs) and their engineered microtissues, followed by examining the resultant phenotypic consequences. SERCA overexpression in hESC-VCMs shortened the decay of Ca2+ transient at low frequencies (0.5 Hz) without affecting the amplitude, SR Ca2+ content and Ca2+ baseline. Interestingly, short hairpin RNA-based NCX suppression did not prolong the transient decay, indicating a compensatory response for Ca2+ removal. Although hESC-VCMs and their derived microtissues exhibited negative frequency-transient/force responses, SERCA overexpression rendered them less negative at high frequencies (>2 Hz) by accelerating Ca2+ sequestration. We conclude that for hESC-VCMs and their microtissues, SERCA, rather than NCX, is the main Ca2+ remover during diastole; poor SERCA expression is the leading cause for immature negative-frequency/force responses, which can be partially reverted by forced expression. Combinatorial approach to mature calcium handling in hESC-VCMs may help shed further mechanistic insights. NEW & NOTEWORTHY In this study of human pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes, we studied the role of sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) and Na+-Ca2+ exchanger (NCX) in Ca2+ handling. Our data support the notion that SERCA is more effective in cytosolic calcium removal than the NCX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sen Li
- Dr. Li Dak-Sum Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Consortium, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Anant Chopra
- Department of Bioengineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
- Harvard Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Wendy Keung
- Dr. Li Dak-Sum Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Consortium, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Camie W. Y. Chan
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Consortium, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Kevin D. Costa
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Manhattan, New York
| | - Chi-Wing Kong
- Dr. Li Dak-Sum Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Consortium, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Roger J. Hajjar
- Cardiovascular Research Center, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Manhattan, New York
| | - Christopher S. Chen
- Department of Bioengineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
- Harvard Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Ronald A. Li
- Dr. Li Dak-Sum Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong
- Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Consortium, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
- Ming-Wai Lau Centre for Reparative Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Hong Kong
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20
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Hull CM, Genge CE, Hobbs Y, Rayani K, Lin E, Gunawan M, Shafaattalab S, Tibbits GF, Claydon TW. Investigating the utility of adult zebrafish ex vivo whole hearts to pharmacologically screen hERG channel activator compounds. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2019; 317:R921-R931. [PMID: 31664867 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00190.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
There is significant interest in the potential utility of small-molecule activator compounds to mitigate cardiac arrhythmia caused by loss of function of hERG1a voltage-gated potassium channels. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) have been proposed as a cost-effective, high-throughput drug-screening model to identify compounds that cause hERG1a dysfunction. However, there are no reports on the effects of hERG1a activator compounds in zebrafish and consequently on the utility of the model to screen for potential gain-of-function therapeutics. Here, we examined the effects of hERG1a blocker and types 1 and 2 activator compounds on isolated zkcnh6a (zERG3) channels in the Xenopus oocyte expression system as well as action potentials recorded from ex vivo adult zebrafish whole hearts using optical mapping. Our functional data from isolated zkcnh6a channels show that under the conditions tested, these channels are blocked by hERG1a channel blockers (dofetilide and terfenadine), and activated by type 1 (RPR260243) and type 2 (NS1643, PD-118057) hERG1a activators with higher affinity than hKCNH2a channels (except NS1643), with differences accounted for by different biophysical properties in the two channels. In ex vivo zebrafish whole hearts, two of the three hERG1a activators examined caused abbreviation of the action potential duration (APD), whereas hERG1a blockers caused APD prolongation. These data represent, to our knowledge, the first pharmacological characterization of isolated zkcnh6a channels and the first assessment of hERG enhancing therapeutics in zebrafish. Our findings lead us to suggest that the zebrafish ex vivo whole heart model serves as a valuable tool in the screening of hKCNH2a blocker and activator compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina M Hull
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Christine E Genge
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Yuki Hobbs
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Kaveh Rayani
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Eric Lin
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Marvin Gunawan
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Sanam Shafaattalab
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Glen F Tibbits
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Tom W Claydon
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
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21
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Zhao Y, Zhang K, Sips P, MacRae CA. Screening drugs for myocardial disease in vivo with zebrafish: an expert update. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2019; 14:343-353. [PMID: 30836799 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2019.1577815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Our understanding of the complexity of cardiovascular disease pathophysiology remains very incomplete and has hampered cardiovascular drug development over recent decades. The prevalence of cardiovascular diseases and their increasing global burden call for novel strategies to address disease biology and drug discovery. Areas covered: This review describes the recent history of cardiovascular drug discovery using in vivo phenotype-based screening in zebrafish. The rationale for the use of this model is highlighted and the initial efforts in the fields of disease modeling and high-throughput screening are illustrated. Finally, the advantages and limitations of in vivo zebrafish screening are discussed, highlighting newer approaches, such as genome editing technologies, to accelerate our understanding of disease biology and the development of precise disease models. Expert opinion: Full understanding and faithful modeling of specific cardiovascular disease is a rate-limiting step for cardiovascular drug discovery. The resurgence of in vivo phenotype screening together with the advancement of systems biology approaches allows for the identification of lead compounds which show efficacy on integrative disease biology in the absence of validated targets. This strategy bypasses current gaps in knowledge of disease biology and paves the way for successful drug discovery and downstream molecular target identification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanbin Zhao
- a School of Environmental Science and Engineering , Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai , China.,b Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Tongji University , Shanghai , China.,c Cardiovascular Medicine , Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School , Boston , MA , USA
| | - Kun Zhang
- a School of Environmental Science and Engineering , Shanghai Jiao Tong University , Shanghai , China.,b Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Tongji University , Shanghai , China.,c Cardiovascular Medicine , Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School , Boston , MA , USA
| | - Patrick Sips
- d Center for Medical Genetics, Department of Biomolecular Medicine , Ghent University , Ghent , Belgium
| | - Calum A MacRae
- c Cardiovascular Medicine , Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School , Boston , MA , USA
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22
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Liu H, Chen X, Zhao X, Zhao B, Qian K, Shi Y, Baruscotti M, Wang Y. Screening and Identification of Cardioprotective Compounds From Wenxin Keli by Activity Index Approach and in vivo Zebrafish Model. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:1288. [PMID: 30483130 PMCID: PMC6243390 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.01288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Accepted: 10/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Wenxin Keli (WXKL) is a widely used Chinese botanical drug for the treatment of arrhythmia, which is consisted of four herbs and amber. In the present study, we analyzed the chemical composition of WXKL using liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) to tentatively identify 71 compounds. Through typical separate procession, the total extract of WXKL was divided into fractions for further bioassays. Cardiomyocytes and zebrafish larvae were applied for assessment. In vivo arrhythmia model in Cmlc2-GFP transgenic zebrafish was induced by terfenadine, which exhibited obvious reduction of heart rate and occurrence of atrioventricular block. Dynamic beating of heart was recorded by fluorescent microscope and sensitive camera to automatically recognize the rhythm of heartbeat in zebrafish larvae. By integrating the chemical information of WXKL and corresponding bioactivities of these fractions, activity index (AI) of each identified compound was calculated to screen potential active compounds. The results showed that dozens of compounds including ginsenoside Rg1, ginsenoside Re, notoginsenoside R1, lobetyolin, and lobetyolinin were contributed to cardioprotective effects of WXKL. The anti-arrhythmic activities of five compounds were further validated in larvae model and mature zebrafish by measuring electrocardiogram (ECG). Our findings provide a successful example for rapid discovery of bioactive compounds from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) by activity index based approach coupled with in vivo zebrafish model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Liu
- Pharmaceutical Informatics Institute, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xuechun Chen
- Pharmaceutical Informatics Institute, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoping Zhao
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Buchang Zhao
- Shandong Danhong Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Heze, China
| | - Ke Qian
- Shandong Danhong Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Heze, China
| | - Yang Shi
- Shandong Danhong Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Heze, China
| | - Mirko Baruscotti
- Department of Bioscienze, The PaceLab, University of Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Yi Wang
- Pharmaceutical Informatics Institute, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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23
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Rayani K, Lin E, Craig C, Lamothe M, Shafaattalab S, Gunawan M, Li AY, Hove-Madsen L, Tibbits GF. Zebrafish as a model of mammalian cardiac function: Optically mapping the interplay of temperature and rate on voltage and calcium dynamics. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 138:69-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2018.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2018] [Revised: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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24
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van Opbergen CJ, van der Voorn SM, Vos MA, de Boer TP, van Veen TA. Cardiac Ca2+ signalling in zebrafish: Translation of findings to man. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 138:45-58. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2018.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Revised: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/04/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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25
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Silbernagel N, Walecki M, Schäfer MKH, Kessler M, Zobeiri M, Rinné S, Kiper AK, Komadowski MA, Vowinkel KS, Wemhöner K, Fortmüller L, Schewe M, Dolga AM, Scekic-Zahirovic J, Matschke LA, Culmsee C, Baukrowitz T, Monassier L, Ullrich ND, Dupuis L, Just S, Budde T, Fabritz L, Decher N. The VAMP-associated protein VAPB is required for cardiac and neuronal pacemaker channel function. FASEB J 2018; 32:6159-6173. [PMID: 29879376 PMCID: PMC6629115 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201800246r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels encode neuronal and cardiac pacemaker currents. The composition of pacemaker channel complexes in different tissues is poorly understood, and the presence of additional HCN modulating subunits was speculated. Here we show that vesicle-associated membrane protein-associated protein B (VAPB), previously associated with a familial form of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis 8, is an essential HCN1 and HCN2 modulator. VAPB significantly increases HCN2 currents and surface expression and has a major influence on the dendritic neuronal distribution of HCN2. Severe cardiac bradycardias in VAPB-deficient zebrafish and VAPB-/- mice highlight that VAPB physiologically serves to increase cardiac pacemaker currents. An altered T-wave morphology observed in the ECGs of VAPB-/- mice supports the recently proposed role of HCN channels for ventricular repolarization. The critical function of VAPB in native pacemaker channel complexes will be relevant for our understanding of cardiac arrhythmias and epilepsies, and provides an unexpected link between these diseases and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.-Silbernagel, N., Walecki, M., Schäfer, M.-K. H., Kessler, M., Zobeiri, M., Rinné, S., Kiper, A. K., Komadowski, M. A., Vowinkel, K. S., Wemhöner, K., Fortmüller, L., Schewe, M., Dolga, A. M., Scekic-Zahirovic, J., Matschke, L. A., Culmsee, C., Baukrowitz, T., Monassier, L., Ullrich, N. D., Dupuis, L., Just, S., Budde, T., Fabritz, L., Decher, N. The VAMP-associated protein VAPB is required for cardiac and neuronal pacemaker channel function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Silbernagel
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Vegetative Physiology, Phillips University, Marburg, Germany
| | - Magdalena Walecki
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Vegetative Physiology, Phillips University, Marburg, Germany
| | - Martin K-H Schäfer
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Philipps University, Marburg, Germany
| | - Mirjam Kessler
- Molecular Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine II, University Hospital Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | | | - Susanne Rinné
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Vegetative Physiology, Phillips University, Marburg, Germany
| | - Aytug K Kiper
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Vegetative Physiology, Phillips University, Marburg, Germany
| | - Marlene A Komadowski
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Vegetative Physiology, Phillips University, Marburg, Germany.,Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Philipps University, Marburg, Germany
| | - Kirsty S Vowinkel
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Vegetative Physiology, Phillips University, Marburg, Germany
| | - Konstantin Wemhöner
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Vegetative Physiology, Phillips University, Marburg, Germany
| | - Lisa Fortmüller
- Department of Cardiology II - Electrophysiology, University Hospital Münster, University of Münster, Munster, Germany
| | - Marcus Schewe
- Institute of Physiology, Christian-Albrechts University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Amalia M Dolga
- Institute of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Phillips University, Marburg, Germany
| | - Jelena Scekic-Zahirovic
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie et Toxicologie NeuroCardiovasculaire, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Lina A Matschke
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Vegetative Physiology, Phillips University, Marburg, Germany
| | - Carsten Culmsee
- Institute of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Phillips University, Marburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Baukrowitz
- Institute of Physiology, Christian-Albrechts University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Laurent Monassier
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie et Toxicologie NeuroCardiovasculaire, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Nina D Ullrich
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Luc Dupuis
- Laboratoire de Neurobiologie et Pharmacologie Cardiovasculaire, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.,INSERM, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Steffen Just
- Molecular Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine II, University Hospital Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Thomas Budde
- Institute for Physiology I, University of Münster, Munster, Germany
| | - Larissa Fabritz
- Department of Cardiology II - Electrophysiology, University Hospital Münster, University of Münster, Munster, Germany.,Institute of Cardiovascular Sciences, University Hospital Birmingham, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom.,Department of Cardiology, University Hospital Birmingham, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom.,Division of Rhythmology, Department of Genetic Epidemiology, University Hospital Münster, University of Münster, Munster, Germany.,Institute of Human Genetics, Department of Genetic Epidemiology, University Hospital Münster, University of Münster, Munster, Germany
| | - Niels Decher
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Vegetative Physiology, Phillips University, Marburg, Germany
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26
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Zebrafish heart failure models: opportunities and challenges. Amino Acids 2018; 50:787-798. [DOI: 10.1007/s00726-018-2578-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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27
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Hodgson P, Ireland J, Grunow B. Fish, the better model in human heart research? Zebrafish Heart aggregates as a 3D spontaneously cardiomyogenic in vitro model system. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 138:132-141. [PMID: 29729327 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2018.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 04/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The zebrafish (ZF) has become an essential model for biomedical, pharmacological and eco-toxicological heart research. Despite the anatomical differences between fish and human hearts, similarities in cellular structure and conservation of genes as well as pathways across vertebrates have led to an increase in the popularity of ZF as a model for human cardiac research. ZF research benefits from an entirely sequenced genome, which allows us to establish and study cardiovascular mutants to better understand cardiovascular diseases. In this review, we will discuss the importance of in vitro model systems for cardiac research and summarise results of in vitro 3D heart-like cell aggregates, consisting of myocardial tissue formed spontaneously from enzymatically digested whole embryonic ZF larvae (Zebrafish Heart Aggregate - ZFHA). We will give an overview of the similarities and differences of ZF versus human hearts and highlight why ZF complement established mammalian models (i.e. murine and large animal models) for cardiac research. At this stage, the ZFHA model system is being refined into a high-throughput (more ZFHA generated than larvae prepared) and stable in vitro test system to accomplish the same longevity of previously successful salmonid models. ZFHA have potential for the use of high-throughput-screenings of different factors like small molecules, nucleic acids, proteins and lipids which is difficult to achieve in the zebrafish in vivo screening models with lethal mutations as well as to explore ion channel disorders and to find appropriate drugs for safety screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Hodgson
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9NT, UK; Salford Royal NHS Foundation Trust, Stott Lane, Salford M6 8HD, UK
| | - Jake Ireland
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9NT, UK; School of Chemistry, Materials Science, and Engineering, Hilmer Building, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Bianka Grunow
- University Medicine Greifswald, Institute of Physiology, Greifswalder Str. 11C, 17495 Karlsburg, Germany; Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9NT, UK.
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28
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Shimizu H, Langenbacher AD, Huang J, Wang K, Otto G, Geisler R, Wang Y, Chen JN. The Calcineurin-FoxO-MuRF1 signaling pathway regulates myofibril integrity in cardiomyocytes. eLife 2017; 6:27955. [PMID: 28826496 PMCID: PMC5576919 DOI: 10.7554/elife.27955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 08/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Altered Ca2+ handling is often present in diseased hearts undergoing structural remodeling and functional deterioration. However, whether Ca2+ directly regulates sarcomere structure has remained elusive. Using a zebrafish ncx1 mutant, we explored the impacts of impaired Ca2+ homeostasis on myofibril integrity. We found that the E3 ubiquitin ligase murf1 is upregulated in ncx1-deficient hearts. Intriguingly, knocking down murf1 activity or inhibiting proteasome activity preserved myofibril integrity, revealing a MuRF1-mediated proteasome degradation mechanism that is activated in response to abnormal Ca2+ homeostasis. Furthermore, we detected an accumulation of the murf1 regulator FoxO in the nuclei of ncx1-deficient cardiomyocytes. Overexpression of FoxO in wild type cardiomyocytes induced murf1 expression and caused myofibril disarray, whereas inhibiting Calcineurin activity attenuated FoxO-mediated murf1 expression and protected sarcomeres from degradation in ncx1-deficient hearts. Together, our findings reveal a novel mechanism by which Ca2+ overload disrupts myofibril integrity by activating a Calcineurin-FoxO-MuRF1-proteosome signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirohito Shimizu
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Adam D Langenbacher
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Jie Huang
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Kevin Wang
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Georg Otto
- Genetics and Genomic Medicine, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Robert Geisler
- Institute of Toxicology and Genetics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Yibin Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States.,Department of Medicine and Physiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Jau-Nian Chen
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
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29
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Gut P, Reischauer S, Stainier DYR, Arnaout R. LITTLE FISH, BIG DATA: ZEBRAFISH AS A MODEL FOR CARDIOVASCULAR AND METABOLIC DISEASE. Physiol Rev 2017; 97:889-938. [PMID: 28468832 PMCID: PMC5817164 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00038.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Revised: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The burden of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases worldwide is staggering. The emergence of systems approaches in biology promises new therapies, faster and cheaper diagnostics, and personalized medicine. However, a profound understanding of pathogenic mechanisms at the cellular and molecular levels remains a fundamental requirement for discovery and therapeutics. Animal models of human disease are cornerstones of drug discovery as they allow identification of novel pharmacological targets by linking gene function with pathogenesis. The zebrafish model has been used for decades to study development and pathophysiology. More than ever, the specific strengths of the zebrafish model make it a prime partner in an age of discovery transformed by big-data approaches to genomics and disease. Zebrafish share a largely conserved physiology and anatomy with mammals. They allow a wide range of genetic manipulations, including the latest genome engineering approaches. They can be bred and studied with remarkable speed, enabling a range of large-scale phenotypic screens. Finally, zebrafish demonstrate an impressive regenerative capacity scientists hope to unlock in humans. Here, we provide a comprehensive guide on applications of zebrafish to investigate cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. We delineate advantages and limitations of zebrafish models of human disease and summarize their most significant contributions to understanding disease progression to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Gut
- Nestlé Institute of Health Sciences, EPFL Innovation Park, Lausanne, Switzerland; Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim, Germany; and Cardiovascular Research Institute and Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Sven Reischauer
- Nestlé Institute of Health Sciences, EPFL Innovation Park, Lausanne, Switzerland; Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim, Germany; and Cardiovascular Research Institute and Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Didier Y R Stainier
- Nestlé Institute of Health Sciences, EPFL Innovation Park, Lausanne, Switzerland; Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim, Germany; and Cardiovascular Research Institute and Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Rima Arnaout
- Nestlé Institute of Health Sciences, EPFL Innovation Park, Lausanne, Switzerland; Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim, Germany; and Cardiovascular Research Institute and Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California
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30
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The Control of Calcium Metabolism in Zebrafish (Danio rerio). Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:ijms17111783. [PMID: 27792163 PMCID: PMC5133784 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17111783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2016] [Revised: 10/18/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Zebrafish is an emerging model for the research of body fluid ionic homeostasis. In this review, we focus on current progress on the regulation of Ca2+ uptake in the context of Ca2+ sensing and hormonal regulation in zebrafish. Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase-rich cells (NaRCs), the specialized ionocytes in the embryonic skin and adult gills, play a dominant role in Ca2+ uptake in zebrafish. Transepithelial Ca2+ transport in NaRC, through apical epithelial Ca2+ channels (ECaC), basolateral plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase (PMCA), and Na⁺/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX), is analogous to mammalian renal and intestinal Ca2+-absorption cells. Several hormones were demonstrated to differentially regulate Ca2+ uptake through modulating the expression of Ca2+ transporters and/or the proliferation/differentiation of NaRC in zebrafish. In addition, the counterbalance among these hormones is associated with the maintenance of body fluid Ca2+ homeostasis. Calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) is expressed in several hormone-secreting tissues in zebrafish, and activated CaSR differentially controls calciotropic hormones. The major principles of Ca2+ transport and the hormonal control appear to be conserved from zebrafish to other vertebrates including mammals. The new knowledge gained from zebrafish studies provides new insights into the related issues in vertebrates.
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Tyser RC, Miranda AM, Chen CM, Davidson SM, Srinivas S, Riley PR. Calcium handling precedes cardiac differentiation to initiate the first heartbeat. eLife 2016; 5. [PMID: 27725084 PMCID: PMC5059139 DOI: 10.7554/elife.17113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 09/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammalian heartbeat is thought to begin just prior to the linear heart tube stage of development. How the initial contractions are established and the downstream consequences of the earliest contractile function on cardiac differentiation and morphogenesis have not been described. Using high-resolution live imaging of mouse embryos, we observed randomly distributed spontaneous asynchronous Ca2+-oscillations (SACOs) in the forming cardiac crescent (stage E7.75) prior to overt beating. Nascent contraction initiated at around E8.0 and was associated with sarcomeric assembly and rapid Ca2+ transients, underpinned by sequential expression of the Na+-Ca2+ exchanger (NCX1) and L-type Ca2+ channel (LTCC). Pharmacological inhibition of NCX1 and LTCC revealed rapid development of Ca2+ handling in the early heart and an essential early role for NCX1 in establishing SACOs through to the initiation of beating. NCX1 blockade impacted on CaMKII signalling to down-regulate cardiac gene expression, leading to impaired differentiation and failed crescent maturation. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.17113.001 The heart is the first organ to form and to begin working in an embryo during pregnancy. It must begin pumping early to supply oxygen and nutrients to the developing embryo. Coordinated contractions of specialised muscle cells in the heart, called cardiomyocytes, generate the force needed to pump blood. The flow of calcium ions into and out of the cardiomyocytes triggers these heartbeats. In addition to triggering heart contractions, calcium ions also act as a messenger that drives changes in which genes are active in the cardiomyocytes and how these cells behave. Scientists commonly think of the first heartbeat as occurring after a tube-like structure forms in the embryo that will eventually develop into the heart. However, it is not yet clear how the first heartbeat starts or how the initial heartbeats affect further heart development. Tyser, Miranda et al. now show that the first heartbeat actually occurs much earlier in embryonic development than widely appreciated. In the experiments, videos of live mouse embryos showed that prior to the first heartbeat the flow of calcium ions between different cardiomyocytes is not synchronised. However, as the heart grows these calcium flows become coordinated leading to the first heartbeat. The heartbeats also become faster as the heart grows. Using drugs to block the movement of calcium ions, Tyser, Miranda et al. also show that a protein called NCX1 is required to trigger the calcium flows prior to the first heartbeat. Moreover, the experiments revealed that these early heartbeats help drive the growth of cardiomyocytes and shape the developing heart. Together, the experiments show that the first heartbeats are essential for normal heart development. Future studies are needed to determine what controls the speed of the first heartbeats, and what organises the calcium flows that trigger the first heartbeat. Such studies may help scientists better understand birth defects of the heart, and may suggest strategies to rebuild hearts that have been damaged by a heart attack or other injury. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.17113.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Cv Tyser
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,The Hatter Cardiovascular Institute, University College London and Medical School, London, United Kingdom
| | - Antonio Ma Miranda
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | | | - Sean M Davidson
- The Hatter Cardiovascular Institute, University College London and Medical School, London, United Kingdom
| | - Shankar Srinivas
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Paul R Riley
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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32
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Abstract
The molecular mechanisms underlying cardiogenesis are of critical biomedical importance due to the high prevalence of cardiac birth defects. Over the past two decades, the zebrafish has served as a powerful model organism for investigating heart development, facilitated by its powerful combination of optical access to the embryonic heart and plentiful opportunities for genetic analysis. Work in zebrafish has identified numerous factors that are required for various aspects of heart formation, including the specification and differentiation of cardiac progenitor cells, the morphogenesis of the heart tube, cardiac chambers, and atrioventricular canal, and the establishment of proper cardiac function. However, our current roster of regulators of cardiogenesis is by no means complete. It is therefore valuable for ongoing studies to continue pursuit of additional genes and pathways that control the size, shape, and function of the zebrafish heart. An extensive arsenal of techniques is available to distinguish whether particular mutations, morpholinos, or small molecules disrupt specific processes during heart development. In this chapter, we provide a guide to the experimental strategies that are especially effective for the characterization of cardiac phenotypes in the zebrafish embryo.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R Houk
- University of California, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - D Yelon
- University of California, San Diego, CA, United States
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33
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Genge CE, Lin E, Lee L, Sheng X, Rayani K, Gunawan M, Stevens CM, Li AY, Talab SS, Claydon TW, Hove-Madsen L, Tibbits GF. The Zebrafish Heart as a Model of Mammalian Cardiac Function. Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol 2016; 171:99-136. [PMID: 27538987 DOI: 10.1007/112_2016_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Zebrafish (Danio rerio) are widely used as vertebrate model in developmental genetics and functional genomics as well as in cardiac structure-function studies. The zebrafish heart has been increasingly used as a model of human cardiac function, in part, due to the similarities in heart rate and action potential duration and morphology with respect to humans. The teleostian zebrafish is in many ways a compelling model of human cardiac function due to the clarity afforded by its ease of genetic manipulation, the wealth of developmental biological information, and inherent suitability to a variety of experimental techniques. However, in addition to the numerous advantages of the zebrafish system are also caveats related to gene duplication (resulting in paralogs not present in human or other mammals) and fundamental differences in how zebrafish hearts function. In this review, we discuss the use of zebrafish as a cardiac function model through the use of techniques such as echocardiography, optical mapping, electrocardiography, molecular investigations of excitation-contraction coupling, and their physiological implications relative to that of the human heart. While some of these techniques (e.g., echocardiography) are particularly challenging in the zebrafish because of diminutive size of the heart (~1.5 mm in diameter) critical information can be derived from these approaches and are discussed in detail in this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine E Genge
- Molecular Cardiac Physiology Group, Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada, V5A 1S6
| | - Eric Lin
- Molecular Cardiac Physiology Group, Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada, V5A 1S6
| | - Ling Lee
- BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V5Z 4H4
| | - XiaoYe Sheng
- BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V5Z 4H4
| | - Kaveh Rayani
- Molecular Cardiac Physiology Group, Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada, V5A 1S6
| | - Marvin Gunawan
- Molecular Cardiac Physiology Group, Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada, V5A 1S6
| | - Charles M Stevens
- Molecular Cardiac Physiology Group, Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada, V5A 1S6.,BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V5Z 4H4
| | - Alison Yueh Li
- Molecular Cardiac Physiology Group, Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada, V5A 1S6
| | - Sanam Shafaat Talab
- Molecular Cardiac Physiology Group, Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada, V5A 1S6
| | - Thomas W Claydon
- Molecular Cardiac Physiology Group, Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada, V5A 1S6
| | - Leif Hove-Madsen
- Molecular Cardiac Physiology Group, Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada, V5A 1S6.,Cardiovascular Research Centre CSIC-ICCC, Hospital de Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Glen F Tibbits
- Molecular Cardiac Physiology Group, Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada, V5A 1S6. .,BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V5Z 4H4.
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Suzuki H, Nikaido M, Hagino-Yamagishi K, Okada N. Distinct functions of two olfactory marker protein genes derived from teleost-specific whole genome duplication. BMC Evol Biol 2015; 15:245. [PMID: 26555542 PMCID: PMC4640105 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-015-0530-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Accepted: 11/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Whole genome duplications (WGDs) have been proposed to have made a significant impact on vertebrate evolution. Two rounds of WGD (1R and 2R) occurred in the common ancestor of Gnathostomata and Cyclostomata, followed by the third-round WGD (3R) in a common ancestor of all modern teleosts. The 3R-derived paralogs are good models for understanding the evolution of genes after WGD, which have the potential to facilitate phenotypic diversification. However, the recent studies of 3R-derived paralogs tend to be based on in silico analyses. Here we analyzed the paralogs encoding teleost olfactory marker protein (OMP), which was shown to be specifically expressed in mature olfactory sensory neurons and is expected to be involved in olfactory transduction. RESULTS Our genome database search identified two OMPs (OMP1 and OMP2) in teleosts, whereas only one was present in other vertebrates. Phylogenetic and synteny analyses suggested that OMP1 and 2 were derived from 3R. Both OMPs showed distinct expression patterns in zebrafish; OMP1 was expressed in the deep layer of the olfactory epithelium (OE), which is consistent with previous studies of mice and zebrafish, whereas OMP2 was sporadically expressed in the superficial layer. Interestingly, OMP2 was expressed in a very restricted region of the retina as well as in the OE. In addition, the analysis of transcriptome data of spotted gar, a non-teleost fish, revealed that single OMP gene was expressed in the eyes. CONCLUSION We found distinct expression patterns of zebrafish OMP1 and 2 at the tissue and cellular level. These differences in expression patterns may be explained by subfunctionalization as the model of molecular evolution. Namely, single OMP gene was speculated to be originally expressed in the OE and the eyes in the common ancestor of all Osteichthyes (bony fish including tetrapods). Then, two OMP gene paralogs derived from 3R-WGD reduced and specialized the expression patterns. This study provides a good example for analyzing a functional subdivision of the teleost OE and eyes as revealed by 3R-derived paralogs of OMPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hikoyu Suzuki
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, 226-8501, Japan.
| | - Masato Nikaido
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, 226-8501, Japan.
| | - Kimiko Hagino-Yamagishi
- Department of Dementia and Higher Brain Function, Integrated Neuroscience Research Project, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo, 156-8506, Japan.
| | - Norihiro Okada
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, 226-8501, Japan.
- Foundation for Advancement of International Science, Tsukuba, 305-0821, Japan.
- Department of Life Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 701, Taiwan.
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35
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Lin E, Craig C, Lamothe M, Sarunic MV, Beg MF, Tibbits GF. Construction and use of a zebrafish heart voltage and calcium optical mapping system, with integrated electrocardiogram and programmable electrical stimulation. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2015; 308:R755-68. [PMID: 25740339 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00001.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Zebrafish are increasingly being used as a model of vertebrate cardiology due to mammalian-like cardiac properties in many respects. The size and fecundity of zebrafish make them suitable for large-scale genetic and pharmacological screening. In larger mammalian hearts, optical mapping is often used to investigate the interplay between voltage and calcium dynamics and to investigate their respective roles in arrhythmogenesis. This report outlines the construction of an optical mapping system for use with zebrafish hearts, using the voltage-sensitive dye RH 237 and the calcium indicator dye Rhod-2 using two industrial-level CCD cameras. With the use of economical cameras and a common 532-nm diode laser for excitation, the rate dependence of voltage and calcium dynamics within the atrial and ventricular compartments can be simultaneously determined. At 140 beats/min, the atrial action potential duration was 36 ms and the transient duration was 53 ms. With the use of a programmable electrical stimulator, a shallow rate dependence of 3 and 4 ms per 100 beats/min was observed, respectively. In the ventricle the action potential duration was 109 ms and the transient duration was 124 ms, with a steeper rate dependence of 12 and 16 ms per 100 beats/min. Synchronous electrocardiograms and optical mapping recordings were recorded, in which the P-wave aligns with the atrial voltage peak and R-wave aligns with the ventricular peak. A simple optical pathway and imaging chamber are detailed along with schematics for the in-house construction of the electrocardiogram amplifier and electrical stimulator. Laboratory procedures necessary for zebrafish heart isolation, cannulation, and loading are also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Lin
- Molecular Cardiac Physiology Group, Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada
| | - Calvin Craig
- Molecular Cardiac Physiology Group, Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada
| | - Marcel Lamothe
- Molecular Cardiac Physiology Group, Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada
| | - Marinko V Sarunic
- Biomedical Optics Research Group, School of Engineering Science, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby
| | - Mirza Faisal Beg
- Medical Image Analysis Lab, School of Engineering Science, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada; and
| | - Glen F Tibbits
- Molecular Cardiac Physiology Group, Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada; Cardiovascular Sciences, Child and Family Research Institute, Vancouver, Canada
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36
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Loss of dihydrolipoyl succinyltransferase (DLST) leads to reduced resting heart rate in the zebrafish. Basic Res Cardiol 2015; 110:14. [PMID: 25697682 PMCID: PMC4335124 DOI: 10.1007/s00395-015-0468-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Revised: 01/14/2015] [Accepted: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The genetic underpinnings of heart rate regulation are only poorly understood. In search for genetic regulators of cardiac pacemaker activity, we isolated in a large-scale mutagenesis screen the embryonic lethal, recessive zebrafish mutant schneckentempo (ste). Homozygous ste mutants exhibit a severely reduced resting heart rate with normal atrio-ventricular conduction and contractile function. External electrical pacing reveals that defective excitation generation in cardiac pacemaker cells underlies bradycardia in ste−/− mutants. By positional cloning and gene knock-down analysis we find that loss of dihydrolipoyl succinyltransferase (DLST) function causes the ste phenotype. The mitochondrial enzyme DLST is an essential player in the citric acid cycle that warrants proper adenosine-tri-phosphate (ATP) production. Accordingly, ATP levels are significantly diminished in ste−/− mutant embryos, suggesting that limited energy supply accounts for reduced cardiac pacemaker activity in ste−/− mutants. We demonstrate here for the first time that the mitochondrial enzyme DLST plays an essential role in the modulation of the vertebrate heart rate by controlling ATP production in the heart.
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37
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Shimizu H, Schredelseker J, Huang J, Lu K, Naghdi S, Lu F, Franklin S, Fiji HD, Wang K, Zhu H, Tian C, Lin B, Nakano H, Ehrlich A, Nakai J, Stieg AZ, Gimzewski JK, Nakano A, Goldhaber JI, Vondriska TM, Hajnóczky G, Kwon O, Chen JN. Mitochondrial Ca(2+) uptake by the voltage-dependent anion channel 2 regulates cardiac rhythmicity. eLife 2015; 4. [PMID: 25588501 PMCID: PMC4293673 DOI: 10.7554/elife.04801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2014] [Accepted: 12/23/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Tightly regulated Ca2+ homeostasis is a prerequisite for proper cardiac function. To dissect the regulatory network of cardiac Ca2+ handling, we performed a chemical suppressor screen on zebrafish tremblor embryos, which suffer from Ca2+ extrusion defects. Efsevin was identified based on its potent activity to restore coordinated contractions in tremblor. We show that efsevin binds to VDAC2, potentiates mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake and accelerates the transfer of Ca2+ from intracellular stores into mitochondria. In cardiomyocytes, efsevin restricts the temporal and spatial boundaries of Ca2+ sparks and thereby inhibits Ca2+ overload-induced erratic Ca2+ waves and irregular contractions. We further show that overexpression of VDAC2 recapitulates the suppressive effect of efsevin on tremblor embryos whereas VDAC2 deficiency attenuates efsevin's rescue effect and that VDAC2 functions synergistically with MCU to suppress cardiac fibrillation in tremblor. Together, these findings demonstrate a critical modulatory role for VDAC2-dependent mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake in the regulation of cardiac rhythmicity. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.04801.001 The heart is a large muscle that pumps blood around the body by maintaining a regular rhythm of contraction and relaxation. If the heart loses this regular rhythm it works less efficiently, which can lead to life-threatening conditions. Regular heart rhythms are maintained by changes in the concentration of calcium ions in the cytoplasm of the heart muscle cells. These changes are synchronised so that the heart cells contract in a controlled manner. In each cell, a contraction begins when calcium ions from outside the cell enter the cytoplasm by passing through a channel protein in the membrane that surrounds the cell. This triggers the release of even more calcium ions into the cytoplasm from stores within the cell. For the cells to relax, the calcium ions must then be pumped out of the cytoplasm to lower the calcium ion concentration back to the original level. Shimizu et al. studied a zebrafish mutant—called tremblor—that has irregular heart rhythms because its heart muscle cells are unable to efficiently remove calcium ions from the cytoplasm. Embryos of the tremblor mutant were treated with a wide variety of chemical compounds with the aim of finding some that could correct the heart defect. A compound called efsevin restores regular heart rhythms in tremblor mutants. Efsevin binds to a pump protein called VDAC2, which is found in compartments called mitochondria within the cell. Although mitochondria are best known for their role in supplying energy for the cell, they also act as internal stores for calcium. By binding to VDAC2, efsevin increases the rate at which calcium ions are pumped from the cytoplasm into the mitochondria. This restores rhythmic calcium ion cycling in the cytoplasm and enables the heart muscle cells to develop regular rhythms of contraction and relaxation. Increasing the levels of VDAC2 or another similar calcium ion pump protein in the heart cells can also restore a regular heart rhythm. Efsevin can also correct irregular heart rhythms in human and mouse heart muscle cells, therefore the new role for mitochondria in controlling heart rhythms found by Shimizu et al. appears to be shared in other animals. The experiments have also identified the VDAC family of proteins as potential new targets for drug therapies to treat people with irregular heart rhythms. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.04801.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirohito Shimizu
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Johann Schredelseker
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Jie Huang
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Kui Lu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Shamim Naghdi
- MitoCare Center, Department of Pathology, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, United States
| | - Fei Lu
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Sarah Franklin
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Hannah Dg Fiji
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Kevin Wang
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Huanqi Zhu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Cheng Tian
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Billy Lin
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Haruko Nakano
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Amy Ehrlich
- MitoCare Center, Department of Pathology, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, United States
| | - Junichi Nakai
- Brain Science Institute, Saitama University, Saitama, Japan
| | - Adam Z Stieg
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - James K Gimzewski
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Atsushi Nakano
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | | | - Thomas M Vondriska
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - György Hajnóczky
- MitoCare Center, Department of Pathology, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, United States
| | - Ohyun Kwon
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
| | - Jau-Nian Chen
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, United States
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A new cell-penetrating peptide that blocks the autoinhibitory XIP domain of NCX1 and enhances antiporter activity. Mol Ther 2014; 23:465-76. [PMID: 25582710 DOI: 10.1038/mt.2014.231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2014] [Accepted: 11/26/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The plasma membrane Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger (NCX) is a high-capacity ionic transporter that exchanges 3Na(+) ions for 1Ca(2+) ion. The first 20 amino acids of the f-loop, named exchanger inhibitory peptide (XIP(NCX1)), represent an autoinhibitory region involved in the Na(+)-dependent inactivation of the exchanger. Previous research has shown that an exogenous peptide having the same amino acid sequence as the XIP(NCX1) region exerts an inhibitory effect on NCX activity. In this study, we identified another regulatory peptide, named P1, which corresponds to the 562-688aa region of the exchanger. Patch-clamp analysis revealed that P1 increased the activity of the exchanger, whereas the XIP inhibited it. Furthermore, P1 colocalized with NCX1 thus suggesting a direct binding interaction. In addition, site-directed mutagenesis experiments revealed that the binding and the stimulatory effect of P1 requires a functional XIP(NCX1) domain on NCX1 thereby suggesting that P1 increases the exchanger activity by counteracting the action of this autoinhibitory sequence. Taken together, these results open a new strategy for developing peptidomimetic compounds that, by mimicking the functional pharmacophore of P1, might increase NCX1 activity and thus exert a therapeutic action in those diseases in which an increase in NCX1 activity might be helpful.
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39
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Zhang Y, Shimizu H, Siu KL, Mahajan A, Chen JN, Cai H. NADPH oxidase 4 induces cardiac arrhythmic phenotype in zebrafish. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:23200-23208. [PMID: 24962575 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.587196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress has been implicated in cardiac arrhythmia, although a causal relationship remains undefined. We have recently demonstrated a marked up-regulation of NADPH oxidase isoform 4 (NOX4) in patients with atrial fibrillation, which is accompanied by overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In this study, we investigated the impact on the cardiac phenotype of NOX4 overexpression in zebrafish. One-cell stage embryos were injected with NOX4 RNA prior to video recording of a GFP-labeled (myl7:GFP zebrafish line) beating heart in real time at 24-31 h post-fertilization. Intriguingly, NOX4 embryos developed cardiac arrhythmia that is characterized by irregular heartbeats. When quantitatively analyzed by an established LQ-1 program, the NOX4 embryos displayed much more variable beat-to-beat intervals (mean S.D. of beat-to-beat intervals was 0.027 s/beat in control embryos versus 0.038 s/beat in NOX4 embryos). Both the phenotype and the increased ROS in NOX4 embryos were attenuated by NOX4 morpholino co-injection, treatments of the embryos with polyethylene glycol-conjugated superoxide dismutase, or NOX4 inhibitors fulvene-5, 6-dimethylamino-fulvene, and proton sponge blue. Injection of NOX4-P437H mutant RNA had no effect on the cardiac phenotype or ROS production. In addition, phosphorylation of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II was increased in NOX4 embryos but diminished by polyethylene glycol-conjugated superoxide dismutase, whereas its inhibitor KN93 or AIP abolished the arrhythmic phenotype. Taken together, our data for the first time uncover a novel pathway that underlies the development of cardiac arrhythmia, namely NOX4 activation, subsequent NOX4-specific NADPH-driven ROS production, and redox-sensitive CaMKII activation. These findings may ultimately lead to novel therapeutics targeting cardiac arrhythmia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixuan Zhang
- Divisions of Molecular Medicine and Cardiology, Departments of Anesthesiology and Medicine, Cardiovascular Research Laboratories, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA and Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Hirohito Shimizu
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, UCLA, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Kin Lung Siu
- Divisions of Molecular Medicine and Cardiology, Departments of Anesthesiology and Medicine, Cardiovascular Research Laboratories, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA and Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Aman Mahajan
- Divisions of Molecular Medicine and Cardiology, Departments of Anesthesiology and Medicine, Cardiovascular Research Laboratories, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA and Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Jau-Nian Chen
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, UCLA, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Hua Cai
- Divisions of Molecular Medicine and Cardiology, Departments of Anesthesiology and Medicine, Cardiovascular Research Laboratories, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA and Los Angeles, California 90095.
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40
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Musso G, Tasan M, Mosimann C, Beaver JE, Plovie E, Carr LA, Chua HN, Dunham J, Zuberi K, Rodriguez H, Morris Q, Zon L, Roth FP, MacRae CA. Novel cardiovascular gene functions revealed via systematic phenotype prediction in zebrafish. Development 2014; 141:224-35. [PMID: 24346703 DOI: 10.1242/dev.099796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Comprehensive functional annotation of vertebrate genomes is fundamental to biological discovery. Reverse genetic screening has been highly useful for determination of gene function, but is untenable as a systematic approach in vertebrate model organisms given the number of surveyable genes and observable phenotypes. Unbiased prediction of gene-phenotype relationships offers a strategy to direct finite experimental resources towards likely phenotypes, thus maximizing de novo discovery of gene functions. Here we prioritized genes for phenotypic assay in zebrafish through machine learning, predicting the effect of loss of function of each of 15,106 zebrafish genes on 338 distinct embryonic anatomical processes. Focusing on cardiovascular phenotypes, the learning procedure predicted known knockdown and mutant phenotypes with high precision. In proof-of-concept studies we validated 16 high-confidence cardiac predictions using targeted morpholino knockdown and initial blinded phenotyping in embryonic zebrafish, confirming a significant enrichment for cardiac phenotypes as compared with morpholino controls. Subsequent detailed analyses of cardiac function confirmed these results, identifying novel physiological defects for 11 tested genes. Among these we identified tmem88a, a recently described attenuator of Wnt signaling, as a discrete regulator of the patterning of intercellular coupling in the zebrafish cardiac epithelium. Thus, we show that systematic prioritization in zebrafish can accelerate the pace of developmental gene function discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Musso
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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41
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Wilkinson RN, Jopling C, van Eeden FJM. Zebrafish as a model of cardiac disease. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2014; 124:65-91. [PMID: 24751427 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-386930-2.00004-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The zebrafish has been rapidly adopted as a model for cardiac development and disease. The transparency of the embryo, its limited requirement for active oxygen delivery, and ease of use in genetic manipulations and chemical exposure have made it a powerful alternative to rodents. Novel technologies like TALEN/CRISPR-mediated genome engineering and advanced imaging methods will only accelerate its use. Here, we give an overview of heart development and function in the fish and highlight a number of areas where it is most actively contributing to the understanding of cardiac development and disease. We also review the current state of research on a feature that we only could wish to be conserved between fish and human; cardiac regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert N Wilkinson
- Department of Cardiovascular Science, Medical School, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Chris Jopling
- CNRS, UMR-5203, Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, Département de Physiologie, Labex Ion Channel Science and Therapeutics, Montpellier, France; INSERM, U661, Montpellier, France; Universités de Montpellier 1&2, UMR-5203, Montpellier, France
| | - Fredericus J M van Eeden
- MRC Centre for Biomedical Genetics, Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
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42
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Poon KL, Brand T. The zebrafish model system in cardiovascular research: A tiny fish with mighty prospects. Glob Cardiol Sci Pract 2013; 2013:9-28. [PMID: 24688998 PMCID: PMC3963735 DOI: 10.5339/gcsp.2013.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2012] [Accepted: 01/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kar Lai Poon
- Harefield Heart Science Centre, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, Hill End Road, Harefield, Middlesex, UB9 6JH, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Brand
- Harefield Heart Science Centre, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, Hill End Road, Harefield, Middlesex, UB9 6JH, United Kingdom
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43
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Huttner IG, Trivedi G, Jacoby A, Mann SA, Vandenberg JI, Fatkin D. A transgenic zebrafish model of a human cardiac sodium channel mutation exhibits bradycardia, conduction-system abnormalities and early death. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2013; 61:123-32. [PMID: 23791817 DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2013.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2013] [Revised: 06/05/2013] [Accepted: 06/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The recent exponential increase in human genetic studies due to the advances of next generation sequencing has generated unprecedented numbers of new gene variants. Determining which of these are causative of human disease is a major challenge. In-vitro studies and murine models have been used to study inherited cardiac arrhythmias but have several limitations. Zebrafish models provide an attractive alternative for modeling human heart disease due to similarities in cardiac electrophysiology and contraction, together with ease of genetic manipulation, external development and optical transparency. Although zebrafish cardiac mutants and morphants have been widely used to study loss and knockdown of zebrafish gene function, the phenotypic effects of human dominant-negative gene mutations expressed in transgenic zebrafish have not been evaluated. The aim of this study was to generate and characterize a transgenic zebrafish arrhythmia model harboring the pathogenic human cardiac sodium channel mutation SCN5A-D1275N, that has been robustly associated with a range of cardiac phenotypes, including conduction disease, sinus node dysfunction, atrial and ventricular arrhythmias, and dilated cardiomyopathy in humans and in mice. Stable transgenic fish with cardiac expression of human SCN5A were generated using Tol2-mediated transgenesis and cardiac phenotypes were analyzed using video microscopy and ECG. Here we show that transgenic zebrafish expressing the SCN5A-D1275N mutation, but not wild-type SCN5A, exhibit bradycardia, conduction-system abnormalities and premature death. We furthermore show that SCN5A-WT, and to a lesser degree SCN5A-D1275N, are able to compensate the loss of endogenous zebrafish cardiac sodium channels, indicating that the basic pathways, through which SCN5A acts, are conserved in teleosts. This proof-of-principle study suggests that zebrafish may be highly useful in vivo models to differentiate functional from benign human genetic variants in cardiac ion channel genes in a time- and cost-efficient manner. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Na(+) Regulation in Cardiac Myocytes".
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Affiliation(s)
- Inken G Huttner
- Molecular Cardiology Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia
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44
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Paavola J, Schliffke S, Rossetti S, Kuo IYT, Yuan S, Sun Z, Harris PC, Torres VE, Ehrlich BE. Polycystin-2 mutations lead to impaired calcium cycling in the heart and predispose to dilated cardiomyopathy. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2013; 58:199-208. [PMID: 23376035 PMCID: PMC3636149 DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2013.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2012] [Revised: 01/04/2013] [Accepted: 01/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in PKD1 and PKD2, the genes encoding the proteins polycystin-1 (PC1) and polycystin-2 (PC2), cause autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD). Although the leading cause of mortality in ADPKD is cardiovascular disease, the relationship between these conditions remains poorly understood. PC2 is an intracellular calcium channel expressed in renal epithelial cells and in cardiomyocytes, and is thus hypothesized to modulate intracellular calcium signaling and affect cardiac function. Our first aim was to study cardiac function in a zebrafish model lacking PC2 (pkd2 mutants). Next, we aimed to explore the relevance of this zebrafish model to human ADPKD by examining the Mayo Clinic's ADPKD database for an association between ADPKD and idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy (IDCM). Pkd2 mutant zebrafish showed low cardiac output and atrioventricular block. Isolated pkd2 mutant hearts displayed impaired intracellular calcium cycling and calcium alternans. These results indicate heart failure in the pkd2 mutants. In human ADPKD patients, we found IDCM to coexist frequently with ADPKD. This association was strongest in patients with PKD2 mutations. Our results demonstrate that PC2 modulates intracellular calcium cycling, contributing to the development of heart failure. In human subjects we found an association between ADPKD and IDCM and suggest that PKD mutations contribute to the development of heart failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jere Paavola
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
- Department of Anatomy II: Experimental Morphology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistraße 52, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Simon Schliffke
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
- Department of Anatomy II: Experimental Morphology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistraße 52, 20246, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sandro Rossetti
- Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Ivana Y.-T. Kuo
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Shiaulou Yuan
- Minerva Foundation Institute for Medical Research, Biomedicum Helsinki 2U, Tukholmankatu 8, 00290, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Zhaoxia Sun
- Minerva Foundation Institute for Medical Research, Biomedicum Helsinki 2U, Tukholmankatu 8, 00290, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Peter C. Harris
- Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Vicente E. Torres
- Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Barbara E. Ehrlich
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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45
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Hwang PP, Chou MY. Zebrafish as an animal model to study ion homeostasis. Pflugers Arch 2013; 465:1233-47. [PMID: 23568368 PMCID: PMC3745619 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-013-1269-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2013] [Revised: 03/11/2013] [Accepted: 03/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Zebrafish (Danio rerio) possesses several advantages as an experimental organism, including the applicability of molecular tools, ease of in vivo cellular observation and functional analysis, and rapid embryonic development, making it an emerging model for the study of integrative and regulatory physiology and, in particular, the epithelial transport associated with body fluid ionic homeostasis. Zebrafish inhabits a hypotonic freshwater environment, and as such, the gills (or the skin, during embryonic stages) assume the role of the kidney in body fluid ionic homeostasis. Four types of ionocyte expressing distinct sets of transporters have been identified in these organs: H+-ATPase-rich, Na+-K+-ATPase-rich, Na+-Cl− cotransporter-expressing and K+-secreting cells; these ionocytes perform transepithelial H+ secretion/Na+ uptake/NH4+ excretion, Ca2+ uptake, Na+/Cl− uptake, and K+ secretion, respectively. Zebrafish ionocytes are analogous to various renal tubular cells, in terms of ion transporter expression and function. During embryonic development, ionocyte progenitors develop from epidermal stem cells and then differentiate into different types of ionocyte through a positive regulatory loop of Foxi3a/-3b and other transcription factors. Several hormones, including cortisol, vitamin D, stanniocalcin-1, calcitonin, and isotocin, were found to participate in the control pathways of ionic homeostasis by precisely studying the target ion transport pathways, ion transporters, or ionocytes of the hormonal actions. In conclusion, the zebrafish model not only enhances our understanding of body fluid ion homeostasis and hormonal control in fish but also informs studies on mammals and other animal species, thereby providing new insights into related fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pung-Pung Hwang
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan.
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46
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Ion flux dependent and independent functions of ion channels in the vertebrate heart: lessons learned from zebrafish. Stem Cells Int 2012; 2012:462161. [PMID: 23213340 PMCID: PMC3504466 DOI: 10.1155/2012/462161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2012] [Accepted: 10/14/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Ion channels orchestrate directed flux of ions through membranes and are essential for a wide range of physiological processes including depolarization and repolarization of biomechanical activity of cells. Besides their electrophysiological functions in the heart, recent findings have demonstrated that ion channels also feature ion flux independent functions during heart development and morphogenesis. The zebrafish is a well-established animal model to decipher the genetics of cardiovascular development and disease of vertebrates. In large scale forward genetics screens, hundreds of mutant lines have been isolated with defects in cardiovascular structure and function. Detailed phenotyping of these lines and identification of the causative genetic defects revealed new insights into ion flux dependent and independent functions of various cardiac ion channels.
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47
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Abstract
Understanding the developmental basis of cardiac electrical activity has proven technically challenging, largely as a result of the inaccessible nature of the heart during cardiogenesis in many organisms. The emergence of the zebrafish as a model organism has availed the very earliest stages of heart formation to experimental exploration. The zebrafish also offers a robust platform for genetic and chemical screening. These tools have been exploited in screens for modifiers of cardiac electrophysiologic phenotypes and in screens for novel drugs.
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48
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Verkerk AO, Remme CA. Zebrafish: a novel research tool for cardiac (patho)electrophysiology and ion channel disorders. Front Physiol 2012; 3:255. [PMID: 22934012 PMCID: PMC3429032 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2012.00255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2012] [Accepted: 06/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The zebrafish is a cold-blooded tropical freshwater teleost with two-chamber heart morphology. A major advantage of the zebrafish for heart studies is that the embryo is transparent, allowing for easy assessment of heart development, heart rate analysis and phenotypic characterization. Moreover, rapid and effective gene-specific knockdown can be achieved using morpholino oligonucleotides. Lastly, zebrafish are small in size, are easy to maintain and house, grow fast, and have large offspring size, making them a cost-efficient research model. Zebrafish embryonic and adult heart rates as well as action potential (AP) shape and duration and electrocardiogram morphology closely resemble those of humans. However, whether the zebrafish is truly an attractive alternative model for human cardiac electrophysiology depends on the presence and gating properties of the various ion channels in the zebrafish heart, but studies into the latter are as yet limited. The rapid component of the delayed rectifier K+ current (IKr) remains the best characterized and validated ion current in zebrafish myocytes, and zebrafish may represent a valuable model to investigate human IKr channel-related disease, including long QT syndrome. Arguments against the use of zebrafish as model for human cardiac (patho)electrophysiology include its cold-bloodedness and two-chamber heart morphology, absence of t-tubuli, sarcoplamatic reticulum function, and a different profile of various depolarizing and repolarizing ion channels, including a limited Na+ current density. Based on the currently available literature, we propose that zebrafish may constitute a relevant research model for investigating ion channel disorders associated with abnormal repolarization, but may be less suitable for studying depolarization disorders or Ca2+-modulated arrhythmias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arie O Verkerk
- Department of Anatomy, Embryology, and Physiology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam Amsterdam, Netherlands
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49
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Kettunen P. Calcium imaging in the zebrafish. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2012; 740:1039-71. [PMID: 22453983 DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-2888-2_48] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The zebrafish (Danio rerio) has emerged as a new model system during the last three decades. The fact that the zebrafish larva is transparent enables sophisticated in vivo imaging. While being the vertebrate, the reduced complexity of its nervous system and small size make it possible to follow large-scale activity in the whole brain. Its genome is sequenced and many genetic and molecular tools have been developed that simplify the study of gene function. Since the mid 1990s, the embryonic development and neuronal function of the larval, and later, adult zebrafish have been studied using calcium imaging methods. The choice of calcium indicator depends on the desired number of cells to study and cell accessibility. Dextran indicators have been used to label cells in the developing embryo from dye injection into the one-cell stage. Dextrans have also been useful for retrograde labeling of spinal cord neurons and cells in the olfactory system. Acetoxymethyl (AM) esters permit labeling of larger areas of tissue such as the tectum, a region responsible for visual processing. Genetically encoded calcium indicators have been expressed in various tissues by the use of cell-specific promoters. These studies have contributed greatly to our understanding of basic biological principles during development and adulthood, and of the function of disease-related genes in a vertebrate system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petronella Kettunen
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Sweden.
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50
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Langenbacher AD, Huang J, Chen Y, Chen JN. Sodium pump activity in the yolk syncytial layer regulates zebrafish heart tube morphogenesis. Dev Biol 2011; 362:263-70. [PMID: 22182522 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2011.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2011] [Revised: 11/13/2011] [Accepted: 12/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Na(+),K(+) ATPase pumps Na(+) out of and K(+) into the cytosol, maintaining a resting potential that is essential for the function of excitable tissues like cardiac muscle. In addition to its well-characterized physiological role in the heart, Na(+),K(+) ATPase also regulates the morphogenesis of the embryonic zebrafish heart via an as yet unknown mechanism. Here, we describe a novel non-cell autonomous function of Na(+),K(+) ATPase/Atp1a1 in the elongation of the zebrafish heart tube. Embryos lacking Atp1a1 function exhibit abnormal migration behavior of cardiac precursors, defects in the elongation of the heart tube, and a severe reduction in ECM/Fibronectin deposition around the myocardium, despite the presence of normal cell polarity and junctions in the myocardial epithelium prior to the timeframe of heart tube elongation. Interestingly, we found that Atp1a1 is not present in the myocardium at the time when cardiac morphogenesis defects first become apparent, but is expressed in an extra-embryonic tissue, the yolk syncytial layer (YSL), at earlier stages. Knockdown of Atp1a1 activity specifically in the YSL using morpholino oligonucleotides produced heart tube elongation defects like those found in atp1a1 mutants, indicating that Atp1a1 function in the YSL is necessary for heart tube elongation. Furthermore, atp1a1 expression in the YSL was regulated by the homeobox transcription factor mxtx1. Together, these data reveal a new non-cell autonomous role for Atp1a1 in cardiac morphogenesis and establish Na(+),K(+) ATPase as a major player in the genetic pathway by which the YSL regulates embryonic ECM deposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam D Langenbacher
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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