RNA polymerase II elongation factors Spt4p and Spt5p play roles in transcription elongation by RNA polymerase I and rRNA processing

Multiple mechanisms of termination modulate the dynamics of RNAPI transcription

Transcription elongation is stochastic, driven by a Brownian ratchet, making it subject to changes in velocity. On the rDNA, multiple polymerases are linked by "torsional entrainment" generated by DNA rotation. We report that release of entrainment by co-transcriptional 3' end cleavage, is permissive for relative movement between polymerases, promoting pausing and backtracking. Subsequent termination (polymerase release) is facilitated by the 5' exonuclease Rat1 (Xrn2) and backtracked transcript cleavage by the RNA polymerase I (RNAPI) subunit Rpa12. These activities are reproduced in vitro. Short nascent transcripts close to the transcriptional start site, combined with nascent transcript folding energy, similarly facilitate RNAPI pausing. Nascent, backtracked transcripts at pause sites are terminated by forward and reverse "torpedoes": Rat1 and the exosome cofactor Trf4/5-Air1/2-Mtr4 polyadenylation (TRAMP), respectively. Topoisomerase 2 localizes adjacent to RNAPI pause sites, potentially allowing continued elongation by downstream polymerases. Mathematical modeling supported substantial premature termination. These basic insights into transcription in vivo will be relevant to many systems.

Model-based characterization of the equilibrium dynamics of transcription initiation and promoter-proximal pausing in human cells

In metazoans, both transcription initiation and the escape of RNA polymerase (RNAP) from promoter-proximal pausing are key rate-limiting steps in gene expression. These processes play out at physically proximal sites on the DNA template and appear to influence one another through steric interactions. Here, we examine the dynamics of these processes using a combination of statistical modeling, simulation, and analysis of real nascent RNA sequencing data. We develop a simple probabilistic model that jointly describes the kinetics of transcription initiation, pause-escape, and elongation, and the generation of nascent RNA sequencing read counts under steady-state conditions. We then extend this initial model to allow for variability across cells in promoter-proximal pause site locations and steric hindrance of transcription initiation from paused RNAPs. In an extensive series of simulations, we show that this model enables accurate estimation of initiation and pause-escape rates. Furthermore, we show by simulation and analysis of real data that pause-escape is often strongly rate-limiting and that steric hindrance can dramatically reduce initiation rates. Our modeling framework is applicable to a variety of inference problems, and our software for estimation and simulation is freely available.

Features of yeast RNA polymerase I with special consideration of the lobe binding subunits

Ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) are structural components of ribosomes and represent the most abundant cellular RNA fraction. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, they account for more than 60 % of the RNA content in a growing cell. The major amount of rRNA is synthesized by RNA polymerase I (Pol I). This enzyme transcribes exclusively the rRNA gene which is tandemly repeated in about 150 copies on chromosome XII. The high number of transcribed rRNA genes, the efficient recruitment of the transcription machinery and the dense packaging of elongating Pol I molecules on the gene ensure that enough rRNA is generated. Specific features of Pol I and of associated factors confer promoter selectivity and both elongation and termination competence. Many excellent reviews exist about the state of research about function and regulation of Pol I and how Pol I initiation complexes are assembled. In this report we focus on the Pol I specific lobe binding subunits which support efficient, error-free, and correctly terminated rRNA synthesis.

Assessment of the roles of Spt5-nucleic acid contacts in promoter proximal pausing of RNA polymerase II

Promoter proximal pausing of RNA polymerase II (Pol II) is a critical transcriptional regulatory mechanism in metazoans that requires the transcription factor DRB sensitivity-inducing factor (DSIF) and the inhibitory negative elongation factor (NELF). DSIF, composed of Spt4 and Spt5, establishes the pause by recruiting NELF to the elongation complex. However, the role of DSIF in pausing beyond NELF recruitment remains unclear. We used a highly purified in vitro system and Drosophila nuclear extract to investigate the role of DSIF in promoter proximal pausing. We identified two domains of Spt5, the KOW4 and NGN domains, that facilitate Pol II pausing. The KOW4 domain promotes pausing through its interaction with the nascent RNA while the NGN domain does so through a short helical motif that is in close proximity to the non-transcribed DNA template strand. Removal of this sequence in Drosophila has a male-specific dominant negative effect. The alpha-helical motif is also needed to support fly viability. We also show that the interaction between the Spt5 KOW1 domain and the upstream DNA helix is required for DSIF association with the Pol II elongation complex. Disruption of the KOW1-DNA interaction is dominant lethal in vivo. Finally, we show that the KOW2-3 domain of Spt5 mediates the recruitment of NELF to the elongation complex. In summary, our results reveal additional roles for DSIF in transcription regulation and identify specific domains important for facilitating Pol II pausing.

Uncovering the effect of RNA polymerase steric interactions on gene expression noise: Analytical distributions of nascent and mature RNA numbers

The telegraph model is the standard model of stochastic gene expression, which can be solved exactly to obtain the distribution of mature RNA numbers per cell. A modification of this model also leads to an analytical distribution of nascent RNA numbers. These solutions are routinely used for the analysis of single-cell data, including the inference of transcriptional parameters. However, these models neglect important mechanistic features of transcription elongation, such as the stochastic movement of RNA polymerases and their steric (excluded-volume) interactions. Here we construct a model of gene expression describing promoter switching between inactive and active states, binding of RNA polymerases in the active state, their stochastic movement including steric interactions along the gene, and their unbinding leading to a mature transcript that subsequently decays. We derive the steady-state distributions of the nascent and mature RNA numbers in two important limiting cases: constitutive expression and slow promoter switching. We show that RNA fluctuations are suppressed by steric interactions between RNA polymerases, and that this suppression can in some instances even lead to sub-Poissonian fluctuations; these effects are most pronounced for nascent RNA and less prominent for mature RNA, since the latter is not a direct sensor of transcription. We find a relationship between the parameters of our microscopic mechanistic model and those of the standard models that ensures excellent consistency in their prediction of the first and second RNA number moments over vast regions of parameter space, encompassing slow, intermediate, and rapid promoter switching, provided the RNA number distributions are Poissonian or super-Poissonian. Furthermore, we identify the limitations of inference from mature RNA data, specifically showing that it cannot differentiate between highly distinct RNA polymerase traffic patterns on a gene.

The conserved RNA-binding protein Seb1 promotes cotranscriptional ribosomal RNA processing by controlling RNA polymerase I progression

Transcription by RNA polymerase I (RNAPI) represents most of the transcriptional activity in eukaryotic cells and is associated with the production of mature ribosomal RNA (rRNA). As several rRNA maturation steps are coupled to RNAPI transcription, the rate of RNAPI elongation directly influences processing of nascent pre-rRNA, and changes in RNAPI transcription rate can result in alternative rRNA processing pathways in response to growth conditions and stress. However, factors and mechanisms that control RNAPI progression by influencing transcription elongation rate remain poorly understood. We show here that the conserved fission yeast RNA-binding protein Seb1 associates with the RNAPI transcription machinery and promotes RNAPI pausing states along the rDNA. The overall faster progression of RNAPI at the rDNA in Seb1-deficient cells impaired cotranscriptional pre-rRNA processing and the production of mature rRNAs. Given that Seb1 also influences pre-mRNA processing by modulating RNAPII progression, our findings unveil Seb1 as a pause-promoting factor for RNA polymerases I and II to control cotranscriptional RNA processing.

Ribosome biogenesis factors-from names to functions

The assembly of ribosomal subunits is a highly orchestrated process that involves a huge cohort of accessory factors. Most eukaryotic ribosome biogenesis factors were first identified by genetic screens and proteomic approaches of pre-ribosomal particles in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Later, research on human ribosome synthesis not only demonstrated that the requirement for many of these factors is conserved in evolution, but also revealed the involvement of additional players, reflecting a more complex assembly pathway in mammalian cells. Yet, it remained a challenge for the field to assign a function to many of the identified factors and to reveal their molecular mode of action. Over the past decade, structural, biochemical, and cellular studies have largely filled this gap in knowledge and led to a detailed understanding of the molecular role that many of the players have during the stepwise process of ribosome maturation. Such detailed knowledge of the function of ribosome biogenesis factors will be key to further understand and better treat diseases linked to disturbed ribosome assembly, including ribosomopathies, as well as different types of cancer.

Spt4 promotes cellular senescence by activating non-coding RNA transcription in ribosomal RNA gene clusters

Genome instability can drive aging in many organisms. The ribosomal RNA gene (rDNA) cluster is one of the most unstable regions in the genome and the stability of this region impacts replicative lifespan in budding yeast. To understand the underlying mechanism, we search for yeast mutants with stabler rDNA and longer lifespans than wild-type cells. We show that absence of a transcription elongation factor, Spt4, results in increased rDNA stability, reduced levels of non-coding RNA transcripts from the regulatory E-pro promoter in the rDNA, and extended replicative lifespan in a SIR2-dependent manner. Spt4-dependent lifespan restriction is abolished in the absence of non-coding RNA transcription at the E-pro locus. The amount of Spt4 increases and its function becomes more important as cells age. These findings suggest that Spt4 is a promising aging factor that accelerates cellular senescence through rDNA instability driven by non-coding RNA transcription.

Nascent peptide-induced translation discontinuation in eukaryotes impacts biased amino acid usage in proteomes

Robust translation elongation of any given amino acid sequence is required to shape proteomes. Nevertheless, nascent peptides occasionally destabilize ribosomes, since consecutive negatively charged residues in bacterial nascent chains can stochastically induce discontinuation of translation, in a phenomenon termed intrinsic ribosome destabilization (IRD). Here, using budding yeast and a human factor-based reconstituted translation system, we show that IRD also occurs in eukaryotic translation. Nascent chains enriched in aspartic acid (D) or glutamic acid (E) in their N-terminal regions alter canonical ribosome dynamics, stochastically aborting translation. Although eukaryotic ribosomes are more robust to ensure uninterrupted translation, we find many endogenous D/E-rich peptidyl-tRNAs in the N-terminal regions in cells lacking a peptidyl-tRNA hydrolase, indicating that the translation of the N-terminal D/E-rich sequences poses an inherent risk of failure. Indeed, a bioinformatics analysis reveals that the N-terminal regions of ORFs lack D/E enrichment, implying that the translation defect partly restricts the overall amino acid usage in proteomes.

LP07 and LLC preclinical models of lung cancer induce divergent anabolic deficits and expression of pro-inflammatory effectors of muscle wasting

Preclinical models have been instrumental to elucidate the mechanisms underlying muscle wasting in lung cancer (LC). We investigated anabolic deficits and the expression of proinflammatory effectors of muscle wasting in the LP07 and Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) tumor models. Tumor growth resulted in significant weakness in LP07 but not in LLC mice despite similar reductions in gastrocnemius muscle mass in both models. The LP07 tumors caused a reduction in ribosomal (r)RNA and a decrease in rRNA gene (rDNA) transcription elongation, whereas no changes in ribosomal capacity were evident in LLC tumor-bearing mice. Expression of RNA Polymerase I (Pol I) elongation-associated subunits Polr2f, PAF53, and Znrd1 mRNAs was significantly elevated in the LP07 model, whereas Pol I elongation-related factors FACT and Spt4/5 mRNAs were elevated in the LLC mice. Reductions in RPS6 and 4E-BP1 phosphorylation were similar in both models but were independent of mTOR phosphorylation in LP07 mice. Muscle inflammation was also tumor-specific, IL-6 and TNF-α mRNA increased with LLC tumors, and upregulation of NLRP3 mRNA was independent of tumor type. In summary, although both models caused muscle wasting, only the LP07 model displayed muscle weakness with reductions in ribosomal capacity. Intracellular signaling diverged at the mTOR level with similar reductions in RPS6 and 4E-BP1 phosphorylation regardless of tumor type. The increase in proinflammatory factors was more pronounced in the LLC model. Our results demonstrate novel divergent anabolic deficits and expression of proinflammatory effectors of muscle wasting in the LP07 and LLC preclinical models of lung cancer.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We provide novel data demonstrating significant divergence in anabolic deficits and the expression of proinflammatory effectors of muscle wasting consequent to different lung-derived tumors.

Rate of transcription elongation and sequence-specific pausing by RNA polymerase I directly influence rRNA processing

One of the first steps in ribosome biogenesis is transcription of the ribosomal DNA by RNA polymerase I (Pol I). Processing of the resultant rRNA begins cotranscriptionally, and perturbation of Pol I transcription elongation results in defective rRNA processing. Mechanistic insight regarding the link between transcription elongation and ribosome assembly is lacking because of limited in vivo methods to assay Pol I transcription. Here, we use native elongating transcript sequencing (NET-Seq) with a strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae containing a point mutation in Pol I, rpa190-F1205H, which results in impaired rRNA processing and ribosome assembly. We previously demonstrated that this mutation caused a mild reduction in the transcription elongation rate of Pol I in vitro; however, transcription elongation by the mutant has not been characterized in vivo. Here, our findings demonstrate that the mutant Pol I has an increased pause propensity during processive transcription elongation both in vitro and in vivo. NET-Seq reveals that rpa190-F1205H Pol I displays alternative pause site preferences in vivo. Specifically, the mutant is sensitized to A/G residues in the RNA:DNA hybrid and at the last incorporated nucleotide position. Furthermore, both NET-Seq and EM analysis of Miller chromatin spreads reveal pileups of rpa190-F1205H Pol I throughout the ribosomal DNA, particularly at the 5' end of the 35S gene. This combination of in vitro and in vivo analyses of a Pol I mutant provides novel insights into Pol I elongation properties and indicates how these properties are crucial for efficient cotranscriptional rRNA processing and ribosome assembly.

The pleiotropic roles of SPT5 in transcription

Initially discovered by genetic screens in budding yeast, SPT5 and its partner SPT4 form a stable complex known as DSIF in metazoa, which plays pleiotropic roles in multiple steps of transcription. SPT5 is the most conserved transcription elongation factor, being found in all three domains of life; however, its structure has evolved to include new domains and associated posttranslational modifications. These gained features have expanded transcriptional functions of SPT5, likely to meet the demand for increasingly complex regulation of transcription in higher organisms. This review discusses the pleiotropic roles of SPT5 in transcription, including RNA polymerase II (Pol II) stabilization, enhancer activation, Pol II pausing and its release, elongation, and termination, with a focus on the most recent progress of SPT5 functions in regulating metazoan transcription.

Structural insights into nuclear transcription by eukaryotic DNA-dependent RNA polymerases

The eukaryotic transcription apparatus synthesizes a staggering diversity of RNA molecules. The labour of nuclear gene transcription is, therefore, divided among multiple DNA-dependent RNA polymerases. RNA polymerase I (Pol I) transcribes ribosomal RNA, Pol II synthesizes messenger RNAs and various non-coding RNAs (including long non-coding RNAs, microRNAs and small nuclear RNAs) and Pol III produces transfer RNAs and other short RNA molecules. Pol I, Pol II and Pol III are large, multisubunit protein complexes that associate with a multitude of additional factors to synthesize transcripts that largely differ in size, structure and abundance. The three transcription machineries share common characteristics, but differ widely in various aspects, such as numbers of RNA polymerase subunits, regulatory elements and accessory factors, which allows them to specialize in transcribing their specific RNAs. Common to the three RNA polymerases is that the transcription process consists of three major steps: transcription initiation, transcript elongation and transcription termination. In this Review, we outline the common principles and differences between the Pol I, Pol II and Pol III transcription machineries and discuss key structural and functional insights obtained into the three stages of their transcription processes.

Cell Cycle-Dependent Transcription: The Cyclin Dependent Kinase Cdk1 Is a Direct Regulator of Basal Transcription Machineries

The cyclin-dependent kinase Cdk1 is best known for its function as master regulator of the cell cycle. It phosphorylates several key proteins to control progression through the different phases of the cell cycle. However, studies conducted several decades ago with mammalian cells revealed that Cdk1 also directly regulates the basal transcription machinery, most notably RNA polymerase II. More recent studies in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae have revisited this function of Cdk1 and also revealed that Cdk1 directly controls RNA polymerase III activity. These studies have also provided novel insight into the physiological relevance of this process. For instance, cell cycle-stage-dependent activity of these complexes may be important for meeting the increased demand for various proteins involved in housekeeping, metabolism, and protein synthesis. Recent work also indicates that direct regulation of the RNA polymerase II machinery promotes cell cycle entry. Here, we provide an overview of the regulation of basal transcription by Cdk1, and we hypothesize that the original function of the primordial cell-cycle CDK was to regulate RNAPII and that it later evolved into specialized kinases that govern various aspects of the transcription machinery and the cell cycle.

Specialization of RNA Polymerase I in Comparison to Other Nuclear RNA Polymerases of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

In archaea and bacteria the major classes of RNAs are synthesized by one DNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RNAP). In contrast, most eukaryotes have three highly specialized RNAPs to transcribe the nuclear genome. RNAP I synthesizes almost exclusively ribosomal (r)RNA, RNAP II synthesizes mRNA as well as many noncoding RNAs involved in RNA processing or RNA silencing pathways and RNAP III synthesizes mainly tRNA and 5S rRNA. This review discusses functional differences of the three nuclear core RNAPs in the yeast S. cerevisiae with a particular focus on RNAP I transcription of nucleolar ribosomal (r)DNA chromatin.

Establishment and Maintenance of Open Ribosomal RNA Gene Chromatin States in Eukaryotes

In growing eukaryotic cells, nuclear ribosomal (r)RNA synthesis by RNA polymerase (RNAP) I accounts for the vast majority of cellular transcription. This high output is achieved by the presence of multiple copies of rRNA genes in eukaryotic genomes transcribed at a high rate. In contrast to most of the other transcribed genomic loci, actively transcribed rRNA genes are largely devoid of nucleosomes adapting a characteristic "open" chromatin state, whereas a significant fraction of rRNA genes resides in a transcriptionally inactive nucleosomal "closed" chromatin state. Here, we review our current knowledge about the nature of open rRNA gene chromatin and discuss how this state may be established.

Coupling Between Production of Ribosomal RNA and Maturation: Just at the Beginning

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) production represents the most active transcription in the cell. Synthesis of the large rRNA precursors (35S/47S in yeast/human) is achieved by up to hundreds of RNA polymerase I (Pol I) enzymes simultaneously transcribing a single rRNA gene. In this review, we present recent advances in understanding the coupling between rRNA production and nascent rRNA folding. Mapping of the distribution of Pol I along ribosomal DNA at nucleotide resolution, using either native elongating transcript sequencing (NET-Seq) or crosslinking and analysis of cDNAs (CRAC), revealed frequent Pol I pausing, and CRAC results revealed a direct coupling between pausing and nascent RNA folding. High density of Pol I per gene imposes topological constraints that establish a defined pattern of polymerase distribution along the gene, with a persistent spacing between transcribing enzymes. RNA folding during transcription directly acts as an anti-pausing mechanism, implying that proper folding of the nascent rRNA favors elongation in vivo. Defects in co-transcriptional folding of rRNA are likely to induce Pol I pausing. We propose that premature termination of transcription, at defined positions, can control rRNA production in vivo.

Spt4 Promotes Pol I Processivity and Transcription Elongation

RNA polymerases (Pols) I, II, and III collectively synthesize most of the RNA in a eukaryotic cell. Transcription by Pols I, II, and III is regulated by hundreds of trans-acting factors. One such protein, Spt4, has been previously identified as a transcription factor that influences both Pols I and II. Spt4 forms a complex with Spt5, described as the Spt4/5 complex (or DSIF in mammalian cells). This complex has been shown previously to directly interact with Pol I and potentially affect transcription elongation. The previous literature identified defects in transcription by Pol I when SPT4 was deleted, but the necessary tools to characterize the mechanism of this effect were not available at the time. Here, we use a technique called Native Elongating Transcript Sequencing (NET-seq) to probe for the global occupancy of Pol I in wild-type (WT) and spt4△ Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) cells at single nucleotide resolution in vivo. Analysis of NET-seq data reveals that Spt4 promotes Pol I processivity and enhances transcription elongation through regions of the ribosomal DNA that are particularly G-rich. These data suggest that Spt4/5 may directly affect transcription elongation by Pol I in vivo.

Transcriptional Riboswitches Integrate Timescales for Bacterial Gene Expression Control

Transcriptional riboswitches involve RNA aptamers that are typically found in the 5' untranslated regions (UTRs) of bacterial mRNAs and form alternative secondary structures upon binding to cognate ligands. Alteration of the riboswitch's secondary structure results in perturbations of an adjacent expression platform that controls transcription elongation and termination, thus turning downstream gene expression "on" or "off." Riboswitch ligands are typically small metabolites, divalent cations, anions, signaling molecules, or other RNAs, and can be part of larger signaling cascades. The interconnectedness of ligand binding, RNA folding, RNA transcription, and gene expression empowers riboswitches to integrate cellular processes and environmental conditions across multiple timescales. For a successful response to an environmental cue that may determine a bacterium's chance of survival, a coordinated coupling of timescales from microseconds to minutes must be achieved. This review focuses on recent advances in our understanding of how riboswitches affect such critical gene expression control across time.

Prefoldin-like Bud27 influences the transcription of ribosomal components and ribosome biogenesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Understanding the functional connection that occurs for the three nuclear RNA polymerases to synthesize ribosome components during the ribosome biogenesis process has been the focal point of extensive research. To preserve correct homeostasis on the production of ribosomal components, cells might require the existence of proteins that target a common subunit of these RNA polymerases to impact their respective activities. This work describes how the yeast prefoldin-like Bud27 protein, which physically interacts with the Rpb5 common subunit of the three RNA polymerases, is able to modulate the transcription mediated by the RNA polymerase I, likely by influencing transcription elongation, the transcription of the RNA polymerase III, and the processing of ribosomal RNA. Bud27 also regulates both RNA polymerase II-dependent transcription of ribosomal proteins and ribosome biogenesis regulon genes, likely by occupying their DNA ORFs, and the processing of the corresponding mRNAs. With RNA polymerase II, this association occurs in a transcription rate-dependent manner. Our data also indicate that Bud27 inactivation alters the phosphorylation kinetics of ribosomal protein S6, a readout of TORC1 activity. We conclude that Bud27 impacts the homeostasis of the ribosome biogenesis process by regulating the activity of the three RNA polymerases and, in this way, the synthesis of ribosomal components. This quite likely occurs through a functional connection of Bud27 with the TOR signaling pathway.

Erythropoietin Regulates Transcription and YY1 Dynamics in a Pre-established Chromatin Architecture

The three-dimensional architecture of the genome plays an essential role in establishing and maintaining cell identity. However, the magnitude and temporal kinetics of changes in chromatin structure that arise during cell differentiation remain poorly understood. Here, we leverage a murine model of erythropoiesis to study the relationship between chromatin conformation, the epigenome, and transcription in erythroid cells. We discover that acute transcriptional responses induced by erythropoietin (EPO), the hormone necessary for erythroid differentiation, occur within an invariant chromatin topology. Within this pre-established landscape, Yin Yang 1 (YY1) occupancy dynamically redistributes to sites in proximity of EPO-regulated genes. Using HiChIP, we identify chromatin contacts mediated by H3K27ac and YY1 that are enriched for enhancer-promoter interactions of EPO-responsive genes. Taken together, these data are consistent with an emerging model that rapid, signal-dependent transcription occurs in the context of a pre-established chromatin architecture.

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EPO induces rapid RNA Pol II response at a key subset of genes

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YY1 is redistributed in the genome following 1 h EPO stimulation

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CTCF and YY1 bind different locations pre and post 1 h EPO stimulation

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E-P loops mediated by H3K27ac are largely invariant in response to EPO

Rph1 coordinates transcription of ribosomal protein genes and ribosomal RNAs to control cell growth under nutrient stress conditions

Coordinated regulation of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis and ribosomal protein gene (RPG) transcription by eukaryotic RNA polymerases (RNAP) is a key requirement for growth control. Although evidence for balance between RNPI-dependent 35S rRNA production and RNAPII-mediated RPG transcription have been described, the molecular basis is still obscure. Here, we found that Rph1 modulates the transcription status of both rRNAs and RPGs in yeast. We show that Rph1 widely associates with RNAPI and RNAPII-transcribed genes. Deletion of RPH1 remarkably alleviates cell slow growth caused by TORC1 inhibition via derepression of rRNA and RPG transcription under nutrient stress conditions. Mechanistically, Rim15 kinase phosphorylates Rph1 upon rapamycin treatment. Phosphorylation-mimetic mutant of Rph1 exhibited more resistance to rapamycin treatment, decreased association with ribosome-related genes, and faster cell growth compared to the wild-type, indicating that Rph1 dissociation from chromatin ensures cell survival upon nutrient stress. Our results uncover the role of Rph1 in coordination of RNA polymerases-mediated transcription to control cell growth under nutrient stress conditions.

Nascent Transcript Folding Plays a Major Role in Determining RNA Polymerase Elongation Rates

Transcription elongation rates influence RNA processing, but sequence-specific regulation is poorly understood. We addressed this in vivo, analyzing RNAPI in S. cerevisiae. Mapping RNAPI by Miller chromatin spreads or UV crosslinking revealed 5' enrichment and strikingly uneven local polymerase occupancy along the rDNA, indicating substantial variation in transcription speed. Two features of the nascent transcript correlated with RNAPI distribution: folding energy and GC content in the transcription bubble. In vitro experiments confirmed that strong RNA structures close to the polymerase promote forward translocation and limit backtracking, whereas high GC in the transcription bubble slows elongation. A mathematical model for RNAPI elongation confirmed the importance of nascent RNA folding in transcription. RNAPI from S. pombe was similarly sensitive to transcript folding, as were S. cerevisiae RNAPII and RNAPIII. For RNAPII, unstructured RNA, which favors slowed elongation, was associated with faster cotranscriptional splicing and proximal splice site use, indicating regulatory significance for transcript folding.

Probing Mechanisms of Transcription Elongation Through Cell-to-Cell Variability of RNA Polymerase

The process of transcription initiation and elongation are primary points of control in the regulation of gene expression. Although biochemical studies have uncovered the mechanisms involved in controlling transcription at each step, how these mechanisms manifest in vivo at the level of individual genes is still unclear. Recent experimental advances have enabled single-cell measurements of RNA polymerase (RNAP) molecules engaged in the process of transcribing a gene of interest. In this article, we use Gillespie simulations to show that measurements of cell-to-cell variability of RNAP numbers and interpolymerase distances can reveal the prevailing mode of regulation of a given gene. Mechanisms of regulation at each step, from initiation to elongation dynamics, produce qualitatively distinct signatures, which can further be used to discern between them. Most intriguingly, depending on the initiation kinetics, stochastic elongation can either enhance or suppress cell-to-cell variability at the RNAP level. To demonstrate the value of this framework, we analyze RNAP number distribution data for ribosomal genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae from three previously published studies and show that this approach provides crucial mechanistic insights into the transcriptional regulation of these genes.

RNA polymerase I (Pol I) passage through nucleosomes depends on Pol I subunits binding its lobe structure

RNA polymerase I (Pol I) is a highly efficient enzyme specialized in synthesizing most ribosomal RNAs. After nucleosome deposition at each round of rDNA replication, the Pol I transcription machinery has to deal with nucleosomal barriers. It has been suggested that Pol I-associated factors facilitate chromatin transcription, but it is unknown whether Pol I has an intrinsic capacity to transcribe through nucleosomes. Here, we used in vitro transcription assays to study purified WT and mutant Pol I variants from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and compare their abilities to pass a nucleosomal barrier with those of yeast Pol II and Pol III. Under identical conditions, purified Pol I and Pol III, but not Pol II, could transcribe nucleosomal templates. Pol I mutants lacking either the heterodimeric subunit Rpa34.5/Rpa49 or the C-terminal part of the specific subunit Rpa12.2 showed a lower processivity on naked DNA templates, which was even more reduced in the presence of a nucleosome. Our findings suggest that the lobe-binding subunits Rpa34.5/Rpa49 and Rpa12.2 facilitate passage through nucleosomes, suggesting possible cooperation among these subunits. We discuss the contribution of Pol I-specific subunit domains to efficient Pol I passage through nucleosomes in the context of transcription rate and processivity.

Downstream sequence-dependent RNA cleavage and pausing by RNA polymerase I

The sequence of the DNA template has long been thought to influence the rate of transcription by DNA-dependent RNA polymerases, but the influence of DNA sequence on transcription elongation properties of eukaryotic RNA polymerase I (Pol I) from Saccharomyces cerevisiae has not been defined. In this study, we observe changes in dinucleotide production, transcription elongation complex stability, and Pol I pausing in vitro in response to downstream DNA. In vitro studies demonstrate that AT-rich downstream DNA enhances pausing by Pol I and inhibits Pol I nucleolytic cleavage activity. Analysis of Pol I native elongating transcript sequencing data in Saccharomyces cerevisiae suggests that these downstream sequence elements influence Pol I in vivo Native elongating transcript sequencing studies reveal that Pol I occupancy increases as downstream AT content increases and decreases as downstream GC content increases. Collectively, these data demonstrate that the downstream DNA sequence directly impacts the kinetics of transcription elongation prior to the sequence entering the active site of Pol I both in vivo and in vitro.

RNAi-Mediated Resistance Against Viruses in Perennial Fruit Plants

Small RNAs (sRNAs) are 20–30-nucleotide-long, regulatory, noncoding RNAs that induce silencing of target genes at the transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels. They are key components for cellular functions during plant development, hormone signaling, and stress responses. Generated from the cleavage of double-stranded RNAs (dsRNAs) or RNAs with hairpin structures by Dicer-like proteins (DCLs), they are loaded onto Argonaute (AGO) protein complexes to induce gene silencing of their complementary targets by promoting messenger RNA (mRNA) cleavage or degradation, translation inhibition, DNA methylation, and/or histone modifications. This mechanism of regulating RNA activity, collectively referred to as RNA interference (RNAi), which is an evolutionarily conserved process in eukaryotes. Plant RNAi pathways play a fundamental role in plant immunity against viruses and have been exploited via genetic engineering to control disease. Plant viruses of RNA origin that contain double-stranded RNA are targeted by the RNA-silencing machinery to produce virus-derived small RNAs (vsRNAs). Some vsRNAs serve as an effector to repress host immunity by capturing host RNAi pathways. High-throughput sequencing (HTS) strategies have been used to identify endogenous sRNA profiles, the “sRNAome”, and analyze expression in various perennial plants. Therefore, the review examines the current knowledge of sRNAs in perennial plants and fruits, describes the development and implementation of RNA interference (RNAi) in providing resistance against economically important viruses, and explores sRNA targets that are important in regulating a variety of biological processes.

The Histone Deacetylase SIRT6 Restrains Transcription Elongation via Promoter-Proximal Pausing

Transcriptional regulation in eukaryotes occurs at promoter-proximal regions wherein transcriptionally engaged RNA polymerase II (Pol II) pauses before proceeding toward productive elongation. The role of chromatin in pausing remains poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that the histone deacetylase SIRT6 binds to Pol II and prevents the release of the negative elongation factor (NELF), thus stabilizing Pol II promoter-proximal pausing. Genetic depletion of SIRT6 or its chromatin deficiency upon glucose deprivation causes intragenic enrichment of acetylated histone H3 at lysines 9 (H3K9ac) and 56 (H3K56ac), activation of cyclin-dependent kinase 9 (CDK9)-that phosphorylates NELF and the carboxyl terminal domain of Pol II-and enrichment of the positive transcription elongation factors MYC, BRD4, PAF1, and the super elongation factors AFF4 and ELL2. These events lead to increased expression of genes involved in metabolism, protein synthesis, and embryonic development. Our results identified SIRT6 as a Pol II promoter-proximal pausing-dedicated histone deacetylase.

Coordinated Control of rRNA Processing by RNA Polymerase I

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is co- and post-transcriptionally processed into active ribosomes. This process is dynamically regulated by direct covalent modifications of the polymerase that synthesizes the rRNA, RNA polymerase I (Pol I), and by interactions with cofactors that influence initiation, elongation, and termination activities of Pol I. The rate of transcription elongation by Pol I directly influences processing of nascent rRNA, and changes in Pol I transcription rate result in alternative rRNA processing events that lead to cellular signaling alterations and stress. It is clear that in divergent species, there exists robust organization of nascent rRNA processing events during transcription elongation. This review evaluates the current state of our understanding of the complex relationship between transcription elongation and rRNA processing.

Diverse Regulators of Human Ribosome Biogenesis Discovered by Changes in Nucleolar Number

Ribosome biogenesis is a highly regulated, essential cellular process. Although studies in yeast have established some of the biological principles of ribosome biogenesis, many of the intricacies of its regulation in higher eukaryotes remain unknown. To understand how ribosome biogenesis is globally integrated in human cells, we conducted a genome-wide siRNA screen for regulators of nucleolar number. We found 139 proteins whose depletion changed the number of nucleoli per nucleus from 2–3 to only 1 in human MCF10A cells. Follow-up analyses on 20 hits found many (90%) to be essential for the nucleolar functions of rDNA transcription (7), pre-ribosomal RNA (pre-rRNA) processing (16), and/or global protein synthesis (14). This genome-wide analysis exploits the relationship between nucleolar number and function to discover diverse cellular pathways that regulate the making of ribosomes and paves the way for further exploration of the links between ribosome biogenesis and human disease.

NETSeq reveals heterogeneous nucleotide incorporation by RNA polymerase I

DNA sequence motifs that affect RNA polymerase transcription elongation are well studied in prokaryotic organisms and contribute directly to regulation of gene expression. Despite significant work on the regulation of eukaryotic transcription, the effect of DNA template sequence on RNA polymerase I (Pol I) transcription elongation remains unknown. In this study, we examined the effects of DNA sequence motifs on Pol I transcription elongation kinetics in vitro and in vivo. Specifically, we characterized how the spy rho-independent terminator motif from Escherichia coli directly affects Saccharomyces cerevisiae Pol I activity, demonstrating evolutionary conservation of sequence-specific effects on transcription. The insight gained from this analysis led to the identification of a homologous sequence in the ribosomal DNA of S. cerevisiae We then used native elongating transcript sequencing (NETSeq) to determine whether Pol I encounters pause-inducing sequences in vivo. We found hundreds of positions within the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) that reproducibly induce pausing in vivo. We also observed significantly lower Pol I occupancy at G residues in the rDNA, independent of other sequence context, indicating differential nucleotide incorporation rates for Pol I in vivo. These data demonstrate that DNA template sequence elements directly influence Pol I transcription elongation. Furthermore, we have developed the necessary experimental and analytical methods to investigate these perturbations in living cells going forward.

Transcriptional and Epigenetic Regulation by the Mechanistic Target of Rapamycin Complex 1 Pathway

Nutrient availability impacts health such that nutrient excess states can dysregulate epigenetic and transcriptional pathways to cause many diseases. Increasing evidence implicates aberrant regulation of nutrient signaling cascades as one means of communicating nutrient information to the epigenetic and transcriptional regulatory machinery. One such signaling cascade, the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), is conserved from yeast to man, and it is deregulated in diverse disease states. The catalytic subunit of the mTORC1 kinase complex (Tor1 or Tor2 in budding yeast and mTor in mammals) phosphorylates several downstream effectors regulating transcriptional and translational responses controlling growth and proliferation. Delineating mechanisms of cytoplasmic nutrient mTORC1 activation continues to be a major research focus. However, Tor kinases not only localize to the cytoplasm but also are found in the nucleus where they selectively bind and regulate genes controlling cellular metabolism and anabolism. The nuclear mTORC1 functions are now beginning to be defined, and they suggest that mTORC1 has a critical role in regulating the complex transcriptional activities required for ribosomal biogenesis. The mTORC1 pathway also interacts with epigenetic regulators required for modifying chromatin structure and function to control gene expression. Because altered nutrient states exert both individual and transgenerational phenotypic changes, mTORC1 signaling to chromatin effectors may have a significant role in mediating the effects of diet and nutrients on the epigenome. This article will discuss the recent inroads into the function of nuclear mTORC1 and its role in epigenetic and transcriptional regulation.

Analysis of rRNA synthesis using quantitative transcription run-on (qTRO) in yeast

Comparative transcriptional analyses require appropriate and precise normalization. Here we describe a modified transcription run-on (TRO) method, named quantitative TRO (qTRO), that allows quantification of nascent transcription activity. The most critical improvement it introduces is a new standardization method for RNA isolation and hybridization steps, enabling transcription activity quantification and comparative biological analysis. We used this technique with chromatin immunoprecipitation to investigate RNA polymerase I (RNAPI) transcription activity and its rDNA gene profiles in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We designed a set of new oligonucleotide probes complementary to nascent ribosomal RNA (rRNA) transcripts and standardized their hybridization strength. The qTRO method could be successfully implemented to study RNAPI transcription in response to oxidative stress and in two mutant strains with impaired rRNA synthesis.

PWP1 Mediates Nutrient-Dependent Growth Control through Nucleolar Regulation of Ribosomal Gene Expression

Ribosome biogenesis regulates animal growth and is controlled by nutrient-responsive mTOR signaling. How ribosome biogenesis is regulated during the developmental growth of animals and how nutrient-responsive signaling adjusts ribosome biogenesis in this setting have remained insufficiently understood. We uncover PWP1 as a chromatin-associated regulator of developmental growth with a conserved role in RNA polymerase I (Pol I)-mediated rRNA transcription. We further observed that PWP1 epigenetically maintains the rDNA loci in a transcription-competent state. PWP1 responds to nutrition in Drosophila larvae via mTOR signaling through gene expression and phosphorylation, which controls the nucleolar localization of dPWP1. Our data further imply that dPWP1 acts synergistically with mTOR signaling to regulate the nucleolar localization of TFIIH, a known elongation factor of Pol I. Ribosome biogenesis is often deregulated in cancer, and we demonstrate that high PWP1 levels in human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma tumors are associated with poor prognosis.

The ribosome assembly gene network is controlled by the feedback regulation of transcription elongation

Ribosome assembly requires the concerted expression of hundreds of genes, which are transcribed by all three nuclear RNA polymerases. Transcription elongation involves dynamic interactions between RNA polymerases and chromatin. We performed a synthetic lethal screening in Saccharomyces cerevisiae with a conditional allele of SPT6, which encodes one of the factors that facilitates this process. Some of these synthetic mutants corresponded to factors that facilitate pre-rRNA processing and ribosome biogenesis. We found that the in vivo depletion of one of these factors, Arb1, activated transcription elongation in the set of genes involved directly in ribosome assembly. Under these depletion conditions, Spt6 was physically targeted to the up-regulated genes, where it helped maintain their chromatin integrity and the synthesis of properly stable mRNAs. The mRNA profiles of a large set of ribosome biogenesis mutants confirmed the existence of a feedback regulatory network among ribosome assembly genes. The transcriptional response in this network depended on both the specific malfunction and the role of the regulated gene. In accordance with our screening, Spt6 positively contributed to the optimal operation of this global network. On the whole, this work uncovers a feedback control of ribosome biogenesis by fine-tuning transcription elongation in ribosome assembly factor-coding genes.

RNA biology of angiogenin: Current state and perspectives

Angiogenin (ANG) is a secreted ribonuclease best known for its ability to promote formation of blood vessels. Extensive research over many years has elucidated its structure and biophysical properties, although our knowledge of molecular mechanisms underlying ANG-associated biologic processes remains limited. Intriguingly, many of processes require the ribonuclease activity of ANG, thus highlighting the importance of identifying and characterizing RNA targets and intermediates of ANG-mediated endonucleolytic cleavage. While ANG demonstrates ribonuclease activity toward many RNA substrates in vitro, specific target of ANG, namely mature tRNA, was only recently identified in vivo. ANG-mediated tRNA cleavage is an unorthodox manner of generating non-coding RNAs with diverse biologic activities. In addition, the ribonuclease activity of ANG has been reported to be crucial for rRNA transcription. Here we critically discuss various aspects of ANG biology related to its RNase activity and discuss areas in need of further investigation.

Cell cycle and growth stimuli regulate different steps of RNA polymerase I transcription

Transcription of the ribosomal RNA genes (rDNA) by RNA polymerase I (Pol I) is a major control step for ribosome synthesis and is tightly linked to cellular growth. However, the question of whether this process is modulated primarily at the level of transcription initiation or elongation is controversial. Studies in markedly different cell types have identified either initiation or elongation as the major control point. In this study, we have re-examined this question in NIH3T3 fibroblasts using a combination of metabolic labeling of the 47S rRNA, chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis of Pol I and overexpression of the transcription initiation factor Rrn3. Acute manipulation of growth factor levels altered rRNA synthesis rates over 8-fold without changing Pol I loading onto the rDNA. In fact, robust changes in Pol I loading were only observed under conditions where inhibition of rDNA transcription was associated with chronic serum starvation or cell cycle arrest. Overexpression of the transcription initiation factor Rrn3 increased loading of Pol I on the rDNA but failed to enhance rRNA synthesis in either serum starved, serum treated or G0/G1 arrested cells. Together these data suggest that transcription elongation is rate limiting for rRNA synthesis. We propose that transcription initiation is required for rDNA transcription in response to cell cycle cues, whereas elongation controls the dynamic range of rRNA synthesis output in response to acute growth factor modulation.

Transcription factors that influence RNA polymerases I and II: To what extent is mechanism of action conserved?

In eukaryotic cells, nuclear RNA synthesis is accomplished by at least three unique, multisubunit RNA polymerases. The roles of these enzymes are generally partitioned into the synthesis of the three major classes of RNA: rRNA, mRNA, and tRNA for RNA polymerases I, II, and III respectively. Consistent with their unique cellular roles, each enzyme has a complement of specialized transcription factors and enzymatic properties. However, not all transcription factors have evolved to affect only one eukaryotic RNA polymerase. In fact, many factors have been shown to influence the activities of multiple nuclear RNA polymerases. This review focuses on a subset of these factors, specifically addressing the mechanisms by which these proteins influence RNA polymerases I and II.

Inhibition of P-TEFb disrupts global transcription, oocyte maturation, and embryo development in the mouse

Positive transcription elongation factor b (P-TEFb) is an RNA polymerase II kinase that phosphorylates Ser2 of the carboxyl-terminal domain and promotes the elongation phase of transcription. Despite the fact that P-TEFb has role in many cellular processes, the role of this kinase complex remains to be understood in early developmental events. In this study, using immunocytochemical analyses, we find that the P-TEFb components, Cyclin T1, CDK9, and its T-loop phosphorylated form, are localized to nuclear speckles, as well as in nucleoli in mouse germinal vesicle oocytes. Moreover, using fluorescence in situ hybridization, we show that in absence of CDK9 activity, nucleolar integration, as well as production of 28S rRNA is impaired in oocytes and embryos. We also present evidence indicating that P-TEFb kinase activity is essential for completion of mouse oocyte maturation and embryo development. Treatment with CDK9 inhibitor, flavopiridol resulted in metaphase I arrest in maturing oocytes. Inhibition of CDK9 kinase activity did not interfere with in vitro fertilization and pronuclear formation. However, when zygotes or 2-cell embryos were treated with flavopiridol only in their G2 phase of the cell cycle, development to the blastocyst stage was impaired. Inhibition of the CDK9 activity after embryonic genome activation resulted in failure to form normal blastocysts and aberrant phosphorylation of RNA polymerase II CTD. In all stages analyzed, treatment with flavopiridol abrogated global transcriptional activity. Collectively, our data suggest that P-TEFb kinase activity is crucial for oocyte maturation, embryo development, and regulation of global RNA transcription in mouse early development.

Direct Characterization of Transcription Elongation by RNA Polymerase I

RNA polymerase I (Pol I) transcribes ribosomal DNA and is responsible for more than 60% of transcription in a growing cell. Despite this fundamental role that directly impacts cell growth and proliferation, the kinetics of transcription by Pol I are poorly understood. This study provides direct characterization of S. Cerevisiae Pol I transcription elongation using tethered particle microscopy (TPM). Pol I was shown to elongate at an average rate of approximately 20 nt/s. However, the maximum speed observed was, in average, about 60 nt/s, comparable to the rate calculated based on the in vivo number of active genes, the cell division rate and the number of engaged polymerases observed in EM images. Addition of RNA endonucleases to the TPM elongation assays enhanced processivity. Together, these data suggest that additional transcription factors contribute to efficient and processive transcription elongation by RNA polymerase I in vivo.

P-TEFb Kinase Activity Is Essential for Global Transcription, Resumption of Meiosis and Embryonic Genome Activation in Pig

Positive transcription elongation factor b (P-TEFb) is a RNA polymerase II carboxyl-terminal domain (Pol II CTD) kinase that phosphorylates Ser2 of the CTD and promotes the elongation phase of transcription. Despite the fact that P-TEFb has role in many cellular processes, the role of this kinase complex remains to be understood in mammalian early developmental events. In this study, using immunocytochemical analyses, we found that the P-TEFb components, CDK9, Cyclin T1 and Cyclin T2 were localized to nuclear speckles, as well as in nucleolar-like bodies in pig germinal vesicle oocytes. Using nascent RNA labeling and small molecule inhibitors, we showed that inhibition of CDK9 activity abolished the transcription of GV oocytes globally. Moreover, using fluorescence in situ hybridization, in absence of CDK9 kinase activity the production of ribosomal RNAs was impaired. We also presented the evidences indicating that P-TEFb kinase activity is essential for resumption of oocyte meiosis and embryo development. Treatment with CDK9 inhibitors resulted in germinal vesicle arrest in maturing oocytes in vitro. Inhibition of CDK9 kinase activity did not interfere with in vitro fertilization and pronuclear formation. However, when in vitro produced zygotes were treated with CDK9 inhibitors, their development beyond the 4-cell stage was impaired. In these embryos, inhibition of CDK9 abrogated global transcriptional activity and rRNA production. Collectively, our data suggested that P-TEFb kinase activity is crucial for oocyte maturation, embryo development and regulation of RNA transcription in pig.

The Transcription Factor THO Promotes Transcription Initiation and Elongation by RNA Polymerase I

Although ribosomal RNA represents the majority of cellular RNA, and ribosome synthesis is closely connected to cell growth and proliferation rates, a complete understanding of the factors that influence transcription of ribosomal DNA is lacking. Here, we show that the THO complex positively affects transcription by RNA polymerase I (Pol I). We found that THO physically associates with the rDNA repeat and interacts genetically with Pol I transcription initiation factors. Pol I transcription in hpr1 or tho2 null mutants is dramatically reduced to less than 20% of the WT level. Pol I occupancy of the coding region of the rDNA in THO mutants is decreased to ~50% of WT level. Furthermore, although the percentage of active rDNA repeats remains unaffected in the mutant cells, the overall rDNA copy number increases ~2-fold compared with WT. Together, these data show that perturbation of THO function impairs transcription initiation and elongation by Pol I, identifying a new cellular target for the conserved THO complex.

Ccr4-not regulates RNA polymerase I transcription and couples nutrient signaling to the control of ribosomal RNA biogenesis

Ribosomal RNA synthesis is controlled by nutrient signaling through the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) pathway. mTORC1 regulates ribosomal RNA expression by affecting RNA Polymerase I (Pol I)-dependent transcription of the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) but the mechanisms involved remain obscure. This study provides evidence that the Ccr4-Not complex, which regulates RNA Polymerase II (Pol II) transcription, also functions downstream of mTORC1 to control Pol I activity. Ccr4-Not localizes to the rDNA and physically associates with the Pol I holoenzyme while Ccr4-Not disruption perturbs rDNA binding of multiple Pol I transcriptional regulators including core factor, the high mobility group protein Hmo1, and the SSU processome. Under nutrient rich conditions, Ccr4-Not suppresses Pol I initiation by regulating interactions with the essential transcription factor Rrn3. Additionally, Ccr4-Not disruption prevents reduced Pol I transcription when mTORC1 is inhibited suggesting Ccr4-Not bridges mTORC1 signaling with Pol I regulation. Analysis of the non-essential Pol I subunits demonstrated that the A34.5 subunit promotes, while the A12.2 and A14 subunits repress, Ccr4-Not interactions with Pol I. Furthermore, ccr4Δ is synthetically sick when paired with rpa12Δ and the double mutant has enhanced sensitivity to transcription elongation inhibition suggesting that Ccr4-Not functions to promote Pol I elongation. Intriguingly, while low concentrations of mTORC1 inhibitors completely inhibit growth of ccr4Δ, a ccr4Δ rpa12Δ rescues this growth defect suggesting that the sensitivity of Ccr4-Not mutants to mTORC1 inhibition is at least partially due to Pol I deregulation. Collectively, these data demonstrate a novel role for Ccr4-Not in Pol I transcriptional regulation that is required for bridging mTORC1 signaling to ribosomal RNA synthesis.

All cells communicate their environmental nutrient status to the gene expression machinery so that transcription occurs in proportion to the nutrients available to support cell growth and proliferation. mTORC1 signaling, which is essential for this process, regulates Pol I-dependent rRNA expression. We provide evidence that the RNA polymerase II regulatory complex, Ccr4-Not, also is a novel Pol I regulator required for mTORC1-dependent control of Pol I activity. Ccr4-Not disruption increases Pol I transcription due to an inability to decrease Pol I interactions with the transcription factor Rrn3 when mTORC1 signaling is reduced. Additionally, genetic and biochemical evidence supports a role for Ccr4-Not as a positive regulator of Pol I transcription elongation as well. Surprisingly, while Ccr4-Not mutations profoundly inhibit growth when mTORC1 activity is reduced, this phenotype is reversed by simultaneously impairing Pol I transcription. Overall, our data demonstrate that the evolutionarily conserved Ccr4-Not complex mediates environmental signaling through mTORC1 to control Pol I transcription initiation and, additionally, to regulate Pol I elongation. These studies further suggest that uncoupling Pol I from upstream mTORC1 activity by targeting Ccr4-Not sensitizes cells to mTORC1 inhibitors which is a concept that could have implications for anti-cancer drug development.

UBF complexes with phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate in nucleolar organizer regions regardless of ongoing RNA polymerase I activity

To maintain growth and division, cells require a large-scale production of rRNAs which occurs in the nucleolus. Recently, we have shown the interaction of nucleolar phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) with proteins involved in rRNA transcription and processing, namely RNA polymerase I (Pol I), UBF, and fibrillarin. Here we extend the study by investigating transcription-related localization of PIP2 in regards to transcription and processing complexes of Pol I. To achieve this, we used either physiological inhibition of transcription during mitosis or inhibition by treatment the cells with actinomycin D (AMD) or 5,6-dichloro-1β-d-ribofuranosyl-benzimidazole (DRB). We show that PIP2 is associated with Pol I subunits and UBF in a transcription-independent manner. On the other hand, PIP2/fibrillarin colocalization is dependent on the production of rRNA. These results indicate that PIP2 is required not only during rRNA production and biogenesis, as we have shown before, but also plays a structural role as an anchor for the Pol I pre-initiation complex during the cell cycle. We suggest that throughout mitosis, PIP2 together with UBF is involved in forming and maintaining the core platform of the rDNA helix structure. Thus we introduce PIP2 as a novel component of the NOR complex, which is further engaged in the renewed rRNA synthesis upon exit from mitosis.

Histidine methylation of yeast ribosomal protein Rpl3p is required for proper 60S subunit assembly

Histidine protein methylation is an unusual posttranslational modification. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the large ribosomal subunit protein Rpl3p is methylated at histidine 243, a residue that contacts the 25S rRNA near the P site. Rpl3p methylation is dependent upon the presence of Hpm1p, a candidate seven-beta-strand methyltransferase. In this study, we elucidated the biological activities of Hpm1p in vitro and in vivo. Amino acid analyses reveal that Hpm1p is responsible for all of the detectable protein histidine methylation in yeast. The modification is found on a polypeptide corresponding to the size of Rpl3p in ribosomes and in a nucleus-containing organelle fraction but was not detected in proteins of the ribosome-free cytosol fraction. In vitro assays demonstrate that Hpm1p has methyltransferase activity on ribosome-associated but not free Rpl3p, suggesting that its activity depends on interactions with ribosomal components. hpm1 null cells are defective in early rRNA processing, resulting in a deficiency of 60S subunits and translation initiation defects that are exacerbated in minimal medium. Cells lacking Hpm1p are resistant to cycloheximide and verrucarin A and have decreased translational fidelity. We propose that Hpm1p plays a role in the orchestration of the early assembly of the large ribosomal subunit and in faithful protein production.

A user's guide to the ribosomal DNA in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Messenger RNA synthesis (mRNA) accounts for a small fraction of total RNA synthesis in growing eukaryotic cells. The bulk of cellular transcription is devoted to ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis (Warner, Trends Biochem Sci 24:437-440, 1999). Several unique characteristics of the rDNA and RNA polymerase I must be considered in order to accurately quantify the synthesis rate of rRNA or to characterize its processing. Indeed, an entirely different set of techniques must be applied to the study of rRNA synthesis than is routinely to study mRNA synthesis. Five of the most useful strategies for genetic and molecular analysis of rRNA synthesis and regulation are outlined in this chapter. The techniques described were developed for characterization of the model eukaryote Saccharomyces cerevisiae; however, many of these strategies can be adapted for studies in other eukaryotic cells.

Structure-function analysis of Hmo1 unveils an ancestral organization of HMG-Box factors involved in ribosomal DNA transcription from yeast to human

Ribosome biogenesis is a major metabolic effort for growing cells. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Hmo1, an abundant high-mobility group box protein (HMGB) binds to the coding region of the RNA polymerase I transcribed ribosomal RNAs genes and the promoters of ∼70% of ribosomal protein genes. In this study, we have demonstrated the functional conservation of eukaryotic HMGB proteins involved in ribosomal DNA (rDNA) transcription. We have shown that when expressed in budding yeast, human UBF1 and a newly identified Sp-Hmo1 (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) localize to the nucleolus and suppress growth defect of the RNA polymerase I mutant rpa49-Δ. Owing to the multiple functions of both proteins, Hmo1 and UBF1 are not fully interchangeable. By deletion and domains swapping in Hmo1, we identified essential domains that stimulate rDNA transcription but are not fully required for stimulation of ribosomal protein genes expression. Hmo1 is organized in four functional domains: a dimerization module, a canonical HMGB motif followed by a conserved domain and a C-terminal nucleolar localization signal. We propose that Hmo1 has acquired species-specific functions and shares with UBF1 and Sp-Hmo1 an ancestral function to stimulate rDNA transcription.

Divergent contributions of conserved active site residues to transcription by eukaryotic RNA polymerases I and II

Multisubunit RNA polymerases (msRNAPs) exhibit high sequence and structural homology, especially within their active sites, which is generally thought to result in msRNAP functional conservation. However, we show that mutations in the trigger loop (TL) in the largest subunit of RNA polymerase I (Pol I) yield phenotypes unexpected from studies of Pol II. For example, a well-characterized gain-of-function mutation in Pol II results in loss of function in Pol I (Pol II: rpb1- E1103G; Pol I: rpa190-E1224G). Studies of chimeric Pol II enzymes hosting Pol I or Pol III TLs suggest that consequences of mutations that alter TL dynamics are dictated by the greater enzymatic context and not solely the TL sequence. Although the rpa190-E1224G mutation diminishes polymerase activity, when combined with mutations that perturb Pol I catalysis, it enhances polymerase function, similar to the analogous Pol II mutation. These results suggest that Pol I and Pol II have different rate-limiting steps.