Inhibition of MAPK stimulates the Ca2+ -dependent big-conductance K channels in cortical collecting duct

Therapeutic strategies to reverse cigarette smoke-induced ion channel and mucociliary dysfunction in COPD airway epithelial cells

Cigarette smoke (CS) is a leading cause of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Here, we investigated whether the ion channel amplifier nesolicaftor rescues CS-induced mucociliary and ion channel dysfunction. As CS increases the expression of transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-β1), human bronchial epithelial cells (HBECs) from healthy donors were used for TGF-β1 and COPD donors (COPD-HBEC) for CS exposure experiments. CS and TGF-β1 induce mucociliary dysfunction by increasing MUC5AC and decreasing ion channel conductance important for mucus hydration. These include cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) and apical large-conductance, Ca2+-activated K+ (BK) channels. Nesolicaftor rescued CFTR and BK channel dysfunction, restored ciliary beat frequency (CBF), and decreased mucus viscosity and MUC5AC expression in CS-exposed COPD-HBEC. Nesolicaftor further reversed reductions in airway surface liquid (ASL) volumes, CBF, and CFTR and BK conductance, and blocked the increase in extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling in TGF-β1-exposed normal HBECs. Mechanistically, nesolicaftor increased, as expected, not only binding of PCBP1 to CFTR mRNA but also surprisingly to LRRC26 mRNA, which encodes the gamma subunit required for BK function. Similar to nesolicaftor, the angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) losartan rescued TGF-β1-mediated decreases in PCBP1 binding to LRRC26 mRNA. In addition, the ARB telmisartan restored PCBP1 binding to CFTR and LRRC26 mRNAs to rescue CFTR and BK function in CS-exposed COPD-HBEC. Thus, nesolicaftor and ARBs act on the same target and were therefore neither additive nor synergistic in their actions. These data demonstrate that nesolicaftor and ARBs may provide benefits in COPD by improving ion channel function important for mucus hydration.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Cigarette smoke (CS) increases transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-β1) expression that causes mucociliary dysfunction by decreasing ion channel function. In our study, a CFTR amplifier (nesolicaftor) and angiotensin II receptor blockers (losartan and telmisartan) improve CS-induced ion channel dysfunction, by increasing binding of PCBP1 to CFTR and LRRC26 mRNAs. Therefore, nesolicaftor and ARBs, acting on the same target, may provide therapeutic benefits for treating smoking-related diseases.

Going with the flow: New insights regarding flow induced K+ secretion in the distal nephron

K+ secretion in the distal nephron has a critical role in K+ homeostasis and is the primary route by which K+ is lost from the body. Renal K+ secretion is enhanced by increases in dietary K+ intake and by increases in tubular flow rate in the distal nephron. This review addresses new and important insights regarding the mechanisms underlying flow-induced K+ secretion (FIKS). While basal K+ secretion in the distal nephron is mediated by renal outer medullary K+ (ROMK) channels in principal cells (PCs), FIKS is mediated by large conductance, Ca2+/stretch activated K+ (BK) channels in intercalated cells (ICs), a distinct cell type. BK channel activation requires an increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i), and both PCs and ICs exhibit increases in [Ca2+]i in response to increases in tubular fluid flow rate, associated with an increase in tubular diameter. PIEZO1, a mechanosensitive, nonselective cation channel, is expressed in the basolateral membranes of PCs and ICs, where it functions as a mechanosensor. The loss of flow-induced [Ca2+]i transients in ICs and BK channel-mediated FIKS in microperfused collecting ducts isolated from mice with IC-specific deletion of Piezo1 in the CCD underscores the importance of PIEZO1 in the renal regulation of K+ transport.

PIEZO1 is a distal nephron mechanosensor and is required for flow-induced K+ secretion

Ca2+-activated BK channels in renal intercalated cells (ICs) mediate luminal flow-induced K+ secretion (FIKS), but how ICs sense increased flow remains uncertain. We examined whether PIEZO1, a mechanosensitive Ca2+-permeable channel expressed in the basolateral membranes of ICs, is required for FIKS. In isolated cortical collecting ducts (CCDs), the mechanosensitive cation-selective channel inhibitor GsMTx4 dampened flow-induced increases in intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i), whereas the PIEZO1 activator Yoda1 increased [Ca2+]i and BK channel activity. CCDs from mice fed a high-K+ (HK) diet exhibited a greater Yoda1-dependent increase in [Ca2+]i than CCDs from mice fed a control K+ diet. ICs in CCDs isolated from mice with a targeted gene deletion of Piezo1 in ICs (IC-Piezo1-KO) exhibited a blunted [Ca2+]i response to Yoda1 or increased flow, with an associated loss of FIKS in CCDs. Male IC-Piezo1-KO mice selectively exhibited an increased blood [K+] in response to an oral K+ bolus and blunted urinary K+ excretion following a volume challenge. Whole-cell expression of BKα subunit was reduced in ICs of IC-Piezo1-KO mice fed an HK diet. We conclude that PIEZO1 mediates flow-induced basolateral Ca2+ entry into ICs, is upregulated in the CCD in response to an HK diet, and is necessary for FIKS.

Dietary anions control potassium excretion: it is more than a poorly absorbable anion effect

The urinary potassium (K+) excretion machinery is upregulated with increasing dietary K+, but the role of accompanying dietary anions remains inadequately characterized. Poorly absorbable anions, including [Formula: see text], are thought to increase K+ secretion through a transepithelial voltage effect. Here, we tested if they also influence the K+ secretion machinery. Wild-type mice, aldosterone synthase (AS) knockout (KO) mice, or pendrin KO mice were randomized to control, high-KCl, or high-KHCO3 diets. The K+ secretory capacity was assessed in balance experiments. Protein abundance, modification, and localization of K+-secretory transporters were evaluated by Western blot analysis and confocal microscopy. Feeding the high-KHCO3 diet increased urinary K+ excretion and the transtubular K+ gradient significantly more than the high-KCl diet, coincident with more pronounced upregulation of epithelial Na+ channels (ENaC) and renal outer medullary K+ (ROMK) channels and apical localization in the distal nephron. Experiments in AS KO mice revealed that the enhanced effects of [Formula: see text] were aldosterone independent. The high-KHCO3 diet also uniquely increased the large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (BK) channel β4-subunit, stabilizing BKα on the apical membrane, the Cl-/[Formula: see text] exchanger, pendrin, and the apical KCl cotransporter (KCC3a), all of which are expressed specifically in pendrin-positive intercalated cells. Experiments in pendrin KO mice revealed that pendrin was required to increase K+ excretion with the high-KHCO3 diet. In summary, [Formula: see text] stimulates K+ excretion beyond a poorly absorbable anion effect, upregulating ENaC and ROMK in principal cells and BK, pendrin, and KCC3a in pendrin-positive intercalated cells. The adaptive mechanism prevents hyperkalemia and alkalosis with the consumption of alkaline ash-rich diets but may drive K+ wasting and hypokalemia in alkalosis.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Dietary anions profoundly impact K+ homeostasis. Here, we found that a K+-rich diet, containing [Formula: see text] as the counteranion, enhances the electrogenic K+ excretory machinery, epithelial Na+ channels, and renal outer medullary K+ channels, much more than a high-KCl diet. It also uniquely induces KCC3a and pendrin, in B-intercalated cells, providing an electroneutral KHCO3 secretion pathway. These findings reveal new K+ balance mechanisms that drive adaption to alkaline and K+-rich foods, which should guide new treatment strategies for K+ disorders.

Paracrine and endocrine regulation of renal potassium secretion

The seminal studies conducted by Giebisch and colleagues in the 1960s paved the way for understanding the renal mechanisms involved in K+ homeostasis. It was demonstrated that differential handling of K+ in the distal segments of the nephron is crucial for proper K+ balance. Although aldosterone had been classically ascribed as the major ion transport regulator in the distal nephron, thereby contributing to K+ homeostasis, it became clear that aldosterone per se could not explain the kidney's ability to modulate kaliuresis in both acute and chronic settings. The existence of alternative kaliuretic and antikaliuretic mechanisms was suggested by physiological studies in the 1980s but only gained form and shape with the advent of molecular biology. It is now established that the kidneys recruit several endocrine and paracrine mechanisms for adequate kaliuretic response. These mechanisms include the direct effects of peritubular K+, a gut-kidney regulatory axis sensing dietary K+ levels, the kidney secretion of kallikrein during postprandial periods, the upregulation of angiotensin II receptors in the distal nephron during chronic changes in the K+ diet, and the local increase of prostaglandins by low K+ diet. This review discusses recent advances in the understanding of endocrine and paracrine mechanisms underlying the modulation of K+ secretion and how these mechanisms impact kaliuresis and K+ balance. We also highlight important unknowns about the regulation of renal K+ excretion under physiological circumstances.

14-3-3γ, a novel regulator of the large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel

14-3-3γ is a small protein regulating its target proteins through binding to phosphorylated serine/threonine residues. Sequence analysis of large-conductance Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ (BK) channels revealed a putative 14-3-3 binding site in the COOH-terminal region. Our previous data showed that 14-3-3γ is widely expressed in the mouse kidney. Therefore, we hypothesized that 14-3-3γ has a novel role in the regulation of BK channel activity and protein expression. We used electrophysiology, Western blot analysis, and coimmunoprecipitation to examine the effects of 14-3-3γ on BK channels both in vitro and in vivo. We demonstrated the interaction of 14-3-3γ with BK α-subunits (BKα) by coimmunoprecipitation. In human embryonic kidney-293 cells stably expressing BKα, overexpression of 14-3-3γ significantly decreased BK channel activity and channel open probability. 14-3-3γ inhibited both total and cell surface BKα protein expression while enhancing ERK1/2 phosphorylation in Cos-7 cells cotransfected with flag-14-3-3γ and myc-BK. Knockdown of 14-3-3γ by siRNA transfection markedly increased BKα expression. Blockade of the ERK1/2 pathway by incubation with the MEK-specific inhibitor U0126 partially abolished 14-3-3γ-mediated inhibition of BK protein expression. Similarly, pretreatment of the lysosomal inhibitor bafilomycin A1 reversed the inhibitory effects of 14-3-3γ on BK protein expression. Furthermore, overexpression of 14-3-3γ significantly increased BK protein ubiquitination in embryonic kidney-293 cells stably expressing BKα. Additionally, 3 days of dietary K⁺ challenge reduced 14-3-3γ expression and ERK1/2 phosphorylation while enhancing renal BK protein expression and K⁺ excretion. These data suggest that 14-3-3γ modulates BK channel activity and protein expression through an ERK1/2-mediated ubiquitin-lysosomal pathway.

Intercalated cell BKα subunit is required for flow-induced K+ secretion

BK channels are expressed in intercalated cells (ICs) and principal cells (PCs) in the cortical collecting duct (CCD) of the mammalian kidney and have been proposed to be responsible for flow-induced K+ secretion (FIKS) and K+ adaptation. To examine the IC-specific role of BK channels, we generated a mouse with targeted disruption of the pore-forming BK α subunit (BKα) in ICs (IC-BKα-KO). Whole cell charybdotoxin-sensitive (ChTX-sensitive) K+ currents were readily detected in control ICs but largely absent in ICs of IC-BKα-KO mice. When placed on a high K+ (HK) diet for 13 days, blood [K+] was significantly greater in IC-BKα-KO mice versus controls in males only, although urinary K+ excretion rates following isotonic volume expansion were similar in males and females. FIKS was present in microperfused CCDs isolated from controls but was absent in IC-BKα-KO CCDs of both sexes. Also, flow-stimulated epithelial Na+ channel-mediated (ENaC-mediated) Na+ absorption was greater in CCDs from female IC-BKα-KO mice than in CCDs from males. Our results confirm a critical role of IC BK channels in FIKS. Sex contributes to the capacity for adaptation to a HK diet in IC-BKα-KO mice.

ERK1,2 Signalling Pathway along the Nephron and Its Role in Acid-base and Electrolytes Balance

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are intracellular molecules regulating a wide range of cellular functions, including proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, cytoskeleton remodeling and cytokine production. MAPK activity has been shown in normal kidney, and its over-activation has been demonstrated in several renal diseases. The extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases (ERK 1,2) signalling pathway is the first described MAPK signaling. Intensive investigations have demonstrated that it participates in the regulation of ureteric bud branching, a fundamental process in establishing final nephron number; in addition, it is also involved in the differentiation of the nephrogenic mesenchyme, indicating a key role in mammalian kidney embryonic development. In the present manuscript, we show that ERK1,2 signalling mediates several cellular functions also in mature kidney, describing its role along the nephron and demonstrating whether it contributes to the regulation of ion channels and transporters implicated in acid-base and electrolytes homeostasis.

Studying Na+ and K+ channels in aldosterone-sensitive distal nephrons

Aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron (ASDN) including the distal convoluted tubule (DCT), connecting tubule (CNT) and collecting duct (CD) plays an important role in the regulation of hormone-dependent Na⁺ reabsorption and dietary K⁺-intake dependent K⁺ excretion. The major Na⁺ transporters in the ASDN are thiazide-sensitive Na-Cl cotransporter (NCC), epithelial Na⁺ channel (ENaC), pendrin/Na⁺-dependent Cl^--bicarbonate exchanger (NDCBE). Whereas major K⁺ channels in the ASDN are Kir4.1 and Kir5.1 in the basolateral membrane; and Kir1.1 (ROMK) and Ca²⁺ activated big conductance K⁺ channel (BK) in the apical membrane. Although a variety of in vitro cell lines of the ASDN is available and these cell models have been employed for studying Na⁺ and K⁺ channels, the biophysical properties and the regulation of Na⁺ and K⁺ channels in vitro cell models may not be able to recapitulate those in vivo conditions. Thus, the studies performed in the native ASDN are essential for providing highly physiological relevant information and for understanding the Na⁺ and K⁺ transport in the ASDN. Here we provide a detailed methodology describing how to perform the electrophysiological measurement in the native DCT, CNT and cortical collecting duct (CCD).

Metformin regulates atrial SK2 and SK3 expression through inhibiting the PKC/ERK signaling pathway in type 2 diabetic rats

Background

Our previous study showed that metformin regulates the mRNA and protein levels of type 2 small conductance calcium-activated potassium channel (SK2) and type 3 small conductance calcium-activated potassium channels (SK3) in atrial tissue as well as the ion current of atrial myocytes in rats with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), but the underlying signaling mechanism is unknown. This study aimed to investigate whether metformin regulates atrial SK2 and SK3 protein expression in T2DM rats though the protein kinase C (PKC)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling pathway.

Methods

A T2DM rat model was established using a high-fat and high-sugar diet combined with a low-dose intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin (STZ). The rats were randomly divided into the following five groups: the control group, the untreated T2DM group, the metformin-treated only group, the phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA; a PKC agonist administered by intraperitoneal injection) treatment group, and the recombinant human epidermal growth factor (rh-EGF; an ERK agonist administered by tail vein injection) treatment group. The activity of PKC in atrial tissues was assayed by a PKC kinase activity assay kit. The protein expression of SK2, SK3, and phosphorylated ERK (pERK) were determined by western blotting and immunohistochemistry.

Results

Compared with the Control group, atrial PKC activity and pERK and SK3 protein expression were increased, while SK2 protein expression was decreased in atrial tissues of T2DM rats. Eight weeks of metformin treatment inhibited the PKC activity and pERK and SK3 expression, and elevated SK2 expression compared with the T2DM group. Compared with the metformin-treated only group, the injection of rh-EGF increased pERK and SK3 expression, and decreased SK2 expression; the injection of PMA increased PKC activity and SK3 expression, and decreased SK2 expression. In addition, the injection with PMA significantly elevated the expression of pERK.

Conclusions

The PKC/ERK signaling pathway is involved in the downregulation of SK2 expression and the upregulation of SK3 expression in the atrium of T2DM rats. Long-term metformin treatment prevents the SK2 downregulation and the SK3 upregulation through inhibiting the PKC/ERK signaling pathway.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12872-018-0950-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

G protein pathway suppressor 2 enhanced the renal large-conductance Ca2+-activated potassium channel expression via inhibiting ERK1/2 signaling pathway

G protein pathway suppressor 2 (GPS2) is a multifunctional protein and transcriptional regulation factor that is involved in the G protein MAPK signaling pathway. It has been shown that the MAPK signaling pathway plays an important role in the regulation of renal large-conductance Ca²⁺-activated potassium (BK) channels. In this study, we investigated the effects of GPS2 on BK channel activity and protein expression. In human embryonic kidney (HEK) BK stably expressing cells transfected with either GPS2 or its vector control, a single-cell recording showed that GPS2 significantly increased BK channel activity ( NP_o), increasing BK open probability ( P_o), and channel number ( N) compared with the control. In Cos-7 cells and HEK 293 T cells, GPS2 overexpression significantly enhanced the total protein expression of BK in a dose-dependent manner. Knockdown of GPS2 expression significantly decreased BK protein expression, while increasing ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Knockdown of ERK1/2 expression reversed the GPS2 siRNA-mediated inhibition of BK protein expression in Cos-7 cells. Pretreatments of Cos-7 cells with either the lysosomal inhibitor bafilomycin A1 or the proteasomal inhibitor MG132 partially reversed the inhibitory effects of GPS2 siRNA on BK protein expression. In addition, feeding a high-potassium diet significantly increased both GPS2 and BK protein abundance in mice. These data suggest that GPS2 enhances BK channel activity and its protein expression by reducing ERK1/2 signaling-mediated degradation of the channel.

Role of Smad3 and p38 Signalling in Cigarette Smoke-induced CFTR and BK dysfunction in Primary Human Bronchial Airway Epithelial Cells

Mucociliary clearance (MCC) is a major airway host defence system that is impaired in patients with smoking-associated chronic bronchitis. This dysfunction is partially related to a decrease of airway surface liquid (ASL) volume that is in part regulated by apically expressed cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) and large-conductance, Ca²⁺-activated, and voltage dependent K⁺ (BK) channels. Here, data from human bronchial epithelial cells (HBEC) confirm that cigarette smoke not only downregulates CFTR activity but also inhibits BK channel function, thereby causing ASL depletion. Inhibition of signalling pathways involved in cigarette smoke-induced channel dysfunction reveals that CFTR activity is downregulated via Smad3 signalling whereas BK activity is decreased via the p38 cascade. In addition, pre-treatment with pirfenidone, a drug presently used to inhibit TGF-β signalling in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, ameliorated BK dysfunction and ASL volume loss. Taken together, our results highlight the importance of not only CFTR but also BK channel function in maintaining ASL homeostasis and emphasize the possibility that pirfenidone could be employed as a novel therapeutic regimen to help improve MCC in smoking-related chronic bronchitis.

Inhibition of ROMK blocks macula densa tubuloglomerular feedback yet causes renal vasoconstriction in anesthetized rats

The Na⁺-K⁺-2Cl^- cotransporter (NKCC2) on the loop of Henle is the site of action of furosemide. Because outer medullary potassium channel (ROMK) inhibitors prevent reabsorption by NKCC2, we tested the hypothesis that ROMK inhibition with a novel selective ROMK inhibitor (compound C) blocks tubuloglomerular feedback (TGF) and reduces vascular resistance. Loop perfusion of either ROMK inhibitor or furosemide caused dose-dependent blunting of TGF, but the response to furosemide was 10-fold more sensitive (IC₅₀ = 10^-6 M for furosemide and IC₅₀ = 10^-5 M for compound C). During systemic infusion, both diuretics inhibited TGF, but ROMK inhibitor was 10-fold more sensitive (compound C: 63% inhibition; furosemide: 32% inhibition). Despite blockade of TGF, 1 h of constant systemic infusion of both diuretics reduced the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and renal blood flow (RBF) by 40-60% and increased renal vascular resistance (RVR) by 100-200%. Neither diuretic altered blood pressure or hematocrit. Proximal tubule hydrostatic pressures (P_PT) increased transiently with both diuretics (compound C: 56% increase; furosemide: 70% increase) but returned to baseline. ROMK inhibitor caused more natriuresis (3,400 vs. 1,600% increase) and calciuresis (1,200 vs. 800% increase) but less kaliuresis (33 vs. 167% increase) than furosemide. In conclusion, blockade of ROMK or Na⁺-K⁺-2Cl^- transport inhibits TGF yet increases renal vascular resistance. The renal vasoconstriction was independent of volume depletion, blood pressure, TGF, or P_PT.

The mechanosensitive BKα/β1 channel localizes to cilia of principal cells in rabbit cortical collecting duct (CCD)

Within the CCD of the distal nephron of the rabbit, the BK (maxi K) channel mediates Ca²⁺- and/or stretch-dependent flow-induced K⁺ secretion (FIKS) and contributes to K⁺ adaptation in response to dietary K⁺ loading. An unresolved question is whether BK channels in intercalated cells (ICs) and/or principal cells (PCs) in the CCD mediate these K⁺ secretory processes. In support of a role for ICs in FIKS is the higher density of immunoreactive apical BKα (pore-forming subunit) and functional BK channel activity than detected in PCs, and an increase in IC BKα expression in response to a high-K⁺ diet. PCs possess a single apical cilium which has been proposed to serve as a mechanosensor; direct manipulation of cilia leads to increases in cell Ca²⁺ concentration, albeit of nonciliary origin. Immunoperfusion of isolated and fixed CCDs isolated from control K⁺-fed rabbits with channel subunit-specific antibodies revealed colocalization of immunodetectable BKα- and β1-subunits in cilia as well as on the apical membrane of cilia-expressing PCs. Ciliary BK channels were more easily detected in rabbits fed a low-K⁺ vs. high-K⁺ diet. Single-channel recordings of cilia revealed K⁺ channels with conductance and kinetics typical of the BK channel. The observations that 1) FIKS was preserved but 2) the high-amplitude Ca²⁺ peak elicited by flow was reduced in microperfused CCDs subject to pharmacological deciliation suggest that cilia BK channels do not contribute to K⁺ secretion in this segment, but that cilia serve as modulators of cell signaling.

Expression of a Diverse Array of Ca2+-Activated K+ Channels (SK1/3, IK1, BK) that Functionally Couple to the Mechanosensitive TRPV4 Channel in the Collecting Duct System of Kidney

The voltage- and Ca²⁺-activated, large conductance K⁺ channel (BK, maxi-K) is expressed in the collecting duct system of kidney where it underlies flow- and Ca²⁺-dependent K⁺ excretion. To determine if other Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channels (KCa) may participate in this process, mouse kidney and the K⁺-secreting mouse cortical collecting duct (CCD) cell line, mCCDcl1, were assessed for TRPV4 and KCa channel expression and cross-talk. qPCR mRNA analysis and immunocytochemical staining demonstrated TRPV4 and KCa expression in mCCDcl1 cells and kidney connecting tubule (CNT) and CCD. Three subfamilies of KCa channels were revealed: the high Ca²⁺-binding affinity small-conductance SK channels, SK1and SK3, the intermediate conductance channel, IK1, and the low Ca²⁺-binding affinity, BK channel (BKα subunit). Apparent expression levels varied in CNT/CCD where analysis of CCD principal cells (PC) and intercalated cells (IC) demonstrated differential staining: SK1:PC<IC, and SK3:PC>IC, IK1:PC>IC, BKα:PC = IC, and TRPV4:PC>IC. Patch clamp analysis and fluorescence Ca²⁺ imaging of mCCDcl1 cells demonstrated potent TRPV4-mediated Ca²⁺ entry and strong functional cross-talk between TRPV4 and KCa channels. TRPV4-mediated Ca²⁺ influx activated each KCa channel, as evidenced by selective inhibition of KCa channels, with each active KCa channel enhancing Ca²⁺ entry (due to membrane hyperpolarization). Transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) analysis of confluent mCCDcl1 cells grown on permeable supports further demonstrated this cross-talk where TRPV4 activation induce a decrease in TEER which was partially restored upon selective inhibition of each KCa channel. It is concluded that SK1/SK3 and IK1 are highly expressed along with BKα in CNT and CCD and are closely coupled to TRPV4 activation as observed in mCCDcl1 cells. The data support a model in CNT/CCD segments where strong cross talk between TRPV4-mediated Ca²⁺ influx and each KCa channel leads to enhance Ca²⁺ entry which will support activation of the low Ca²⁺-binding affinity BK channel to promote BK-mediated K⁺ secretion.

Posttranscriptional and Posttranslational Regulation of BK Channels

Large conductance calcium- and voltage-activated potassium (BK) channels are ubiquitously expressed and play an important role in the regulation of an eclectic array of physiological processes. Their diverse functional role requires channels with a wide variety of properties even though the pore-forming α-subunit is encoded by a single gene, KCNMA1. To achieve this, BK channels exploit some of the most fundamental posttranscriptional and posttranslational mechanisms that allow proteomic diversity to be generated from a single gene. These include mechanisms that diversify mRNA variants and abundance such as alternative pre-mRNA splicing, editing, and control by miRNA. The BK channel is also subject to a diverse array of posttranslational modifications including protein phosphorylation, lipidation, glycosylation, and ubiquitination to control the number, properties, and regulation of BK channels in specific cell types. Importantly, "cross talk" between these posttranscriptional and posttranslational modifications typically converge on disordered domains of the BK channel α-subunit. This allows both wide physiological diversity to be generated and a diversity of mechanisms to allow conditional regulation of BK channels and is emerging as an important determinant of BK channel function in health and disease.

Cell-specific regulation of L-WNK1 by dietary K

Flow-induced K(+) secretion in the aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron is mediated by high-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (BK) channels. Familial hyperkalemic hypertension (pseudohypoaldosteronism type II) is an inherited form of hypertension with decreased K(+) secretion and increased Na(+) reabsorption. This disorder is linked to mutations in genes encoding with-no-lysine kinase 1 (WNK1), WNK4, and Kelch-like 3/Cullin 3, two components of an E3 ubiquitin ligase complex that degrades WNKs. We examined whether the full-length (or "long") form of WNK1 (L-WNK1) affected the expression of BK α-subunits in HEK cells. Overexpression of L-WNK1 promoted a significant increase in BK α-subunit whole cell abundance and functional channel expression. BK α-subunit abundance also increased with coexpression of a kinase dead L-WNK1 mutant (K233M) and with kidney-specific WNK1 (KS-WNK1), suggesting that the catalytic activity of L-WNK1 was not required to increase BK expression. We examined whether dietary K(+) intake affected L-WNK1 expression in the aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron. We found a paucity of L-WNK1 labeling in cortical collecting ducts (CCDs) from rabbits on a low-K(+) diet but observed robust staining for L-WNK1 primarily in intercalated cells when rabbits were fed a high-K(+) diet. Our results and previous findings suggest that L-WNK1 exerts different effects on renal K(+) secretory channels, inhibiting renal outer medullary K(+) channels and activating BK channels. A high-K(+) diet induced an increase in L-WNK1 expression selectively in intercalated cells and may contribute to enhanced BK channel expression and K(+) secretion in CCDs.

Up-Regulatory Effects of Curcumin on Large Conductance Ca2+-Activated K+ Channels

Large conductance Ca²⁺-activated potassium channels (BK) are targets for research that explores therapeutic means to various diseases, owing to the roles of the channels in mediating multiple physiological processes in various cells and tissues. We investigated the pharmacological effects of curcumin, a compound isolated from the herb Curcuma longa, on BK channels. As recorded by whole-cell patch-clamp, curcumin increased BK (α) and BK (α+β1) currents in transfected HEK293 cells as well as the current density of BK in A7r5 smooth muscle cells in a dose-dependent manner. By incubating with curcumin for 24 hours, the current density of exogenous BK (α) in HEK293 cells and the endogenous BK in A7r5 cells were both enhanced notably, though the steady-state activation of the channels did not shift significantly, except for BK (α+β1). Curcumin up-regulated the BK protein expression without changing its mRNA level in A7r5 cells. The surface expression and the half-life of BK channels were also increased by curcumin in HEK293 cells. These effects of curcumin were abolished by MG-132, a proteasome inhibitor. Curcumin also increased ERK 1/2 phosphorylation, while inhibiting ERK by U0126 attenuated the curcumin-induced up-regulation of BK protein expression. We also observed that the curcumin-induced relaxation in the isolated rat aortic rings was significantly attenuated by paxilline, a BK channel specific blocker. These results show that curcumin enhances the activity of the BK channels by interacting with BK directly as well as enhancing BK protein expression through inhibiting proteasomal degradation and activating ERK signaling pathway. The findings suggest that curcumin is a potential BK channel activator and provide novel insight into its complicated pharmacological effects and the underlying mechanisms.

Roles and Regulation of Renal K Channels

More than two dozen types of potassium channels, with different biophysical and regulatory properties, are expressed in the kidney, influencing renal function in many important ways. Recently, a confluence of discoveries in areas from human genetics to physiology, cell biology, and biophysics has cast light on the special function of five different potassium channels in the distal nephron, encoded by the genes KCNJ1, KCNJ10, KCNJ16, KCNMA1, and KCNN3. Research aimed at understanding how these channels work in health and go awry in disease has transformed our understanding of potassium balance and provided new insights into mechanisms of renal sodium handling and the maintenance of blood pressure. This review focuses on recent advances in this rapidly evolving field.

An unexpected journey: conceptual evolution of mechanoregulated potassium transport in the distal nephron

Flow-induced K secretion (FIKS) in the aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron (ASDN) is mediated by large-conductance, Ca(2+)/stretch-activated BK channels composed of pore-forming α-subunits (BKα) and accessory β-subunits. This channel also plays a critical role in the renal adaptation to dietary K loading. Within the ASDN, the cortical collecting duct (CCD) is a major site for the final renal regulation of K homeostasis. Principal cells in the ASDN possess a single apical cilium whereas the surfaces of adjacent intercalated cells, devoid of cilia, are decorated with abundant microvilli and microplicae. Increases in tubular (urinary) flow rate, induced by volume expansion, diuretics, or a high K diet, subject CCD cells to hydrodynamic forces (fluid shear stress, circumferential stretch, and drag/torque on apical cilia and presumably microvilli/microplicae) that are transduced into increases in principal (PC) and intercalated (IC) cell cytoplasmic Ca(2+) concentration that activate apical voltage-, stretch- and Ca(2+)-activated BK channels, which mediate FIKS. This review summarizes studies by ourselves and others that have led to the evolving picture that the BK channel is localized in a macromolecular complex at the apical membrane, composed of mechanosensitive apical Ca(2+) channels and a variety of kinases/phosphatases as well as other signaling molecules anchored to the cytoskeleton, and that an increase in tubular fluid flow rate leads to IC- and PC-specific responses determined, in large part, by the cell-specific composition of the BK channels.

Implementing Patch Clamp and Live Fluorescence Microscopy to Monitor Functional Properties of Freshly Isolated PKD Epithelium

Cyst initiation and expansion during polycystic kidney disease is a complex process characterized by abnormalities in tubular cell proliferation, luminal fluid accumulation and extracellular matrix formation. Activity of ion channels and intracellular calcium signaling are key physiologic parameters which determine functions of tubular epithelium. We developed a method suitable for real-time observation of ion channels activity with patch-clamp technique and registration of intracellular Ca2+ level in epithelial monolayers freshly isolated from renal cysts. PCK rats, a genetic model of autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD), were used here for ex vivo analysis of ion channels and calcium flux. Described here is a detailed step-by-step procedure designed to isolate cystic monolayers and non-dilated tubules from PCK or normal Sprague Dawley (SD) rats, and monitor single channel activity and intracellular Ca2+ dynamics. This method does not require enzymatic processing and allows analysis in a native setting of freshly isolated epithelial monolayer. Moreover, this technique is very sensitive to intracellular calcium changes and generates high resolution images for precise measurements. Finally, isolated cystic epithelium can be further used for staining with antibodies or dyes, preparation of primary cultures and purification for various biochemical assays.

WNK1 activates large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels through modulation of ERK1/2 signaling

With no lysine (WNK) kinases are members of the serine/threonine kinase family. We previously showed that WNK4 inhibits renal large-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (BK) channel activity by enhancing its degradation through a lysosomal pathway. In this study, we investigated the effect of WNK1 on BK channel activity. In HEK293 cells stably expressing the α subunit of BK (HEK-BKα cells), siRNA-mediated knockdown of WNK1 expression significantly inhibited both BKα channel activity and open probability. Knockdown of WNK1 expression also significantly inhibited BKα protein expression and increased ERK1/2 phosphorylation, whereas overexpression of WNK1 significantly enhanced BKα expression and decreased ERK1/2 phosphorylation in a dose-dependent manner in HEK293 cells. Knockdown of ERK1/2 prevented WNK1 siRNA-mediated inhibition of BKα expression. Similarly, pretreatment of HEK-BKα cells with the lysosomal inhibitor bafilomycin A1 reversed the inhibitory effects of WNK1 siRNA on BKα expression in a dose-dependent manner. Knockdown of WNK1 expression also increased the ubiquitination of BKα channels. Notably, mice fed a high-K(+) diet for 10 days had significantly higher renal protein expression levels of BKα and WNK1 and lower levels of ERK1/2 phosphorylation compared with mice fed a normal-K(+) diet. These data suggest that WNK1 enhances BK channel function by reducing ERK1/2 signaling-mediated lysosomal degradation of the channel.

Effects of biomechanical forces on signaling in the cortical collecting duct (CCD)

An increase in tubular fluid flow rate (TFF) stimulates Na reabsorption and K secretion in the cortical collecting duct (CCD) and subjects cells therein to biomechanical forces including fluid shear stress (FSS) and circumferential stretch (CS). Intracellular MAPK and extracellular autocrine/paracrine PGE2 signaling regulate cation transport in the CCD and, at least in other systems, are affected by biomechanical forces. We hypothesized that FSS and CS differentially affect MAPK signaling and PGE2 release to modulate cation transport in the CCD. To validate that CS is a physiological force in vivo, we applied the intravital microscopic approach to rodent kidneys in vivo to show that saline or furosemide injection led to a 46.5 ± 2.0 or 170 ± 32% increase, respectively, in distal tubular diameter. Next, murine CCD (mpkCCD) cells were grown on glass or silicone coated with collagen type IV and subjected to 0 or 0.4 dyne/cm(2) of FSS or 10% CS, respectively, forces chosen based on prior biomechanical modeling of ex vivo microperfused CCDs. Cells exposed to FSS expressed an approximately twofold greater abundance of phospho(p)-ERK and p-p38 vs. static cells, while CS did not alter p-p38 and p-ERK expression compared with unstretched controls. FSS induced whereas CS reduced PGE2 release by ∼40%. In conclusion, FSS and CS differentially affect ERK and p38 activation and PGE2 release in a cell culture model of the CD. We speculate that TFF differentially regulates biomechanical signaling and, in turn, cation transport in the CCD.

The role of large-conductance, calcium-activated potassium channels in a rat model of trigeminal neuropathic pain

BACKGROUND

Trigeminal neuralgia is a disorder of paroxysmal and severely disabling facial pain and continues to be a real therapeutic challenge. At present there are few effective drugs. Here the aim of this study was to investigate the role of BKCa channels in trigeminal neuropathic pain.

METHODS

Rats were divided into two groups: a sham and a chronic constriction injury of infraorbital branch of trigeminal nerve (ION-CCI) group. Nociceptive behavior testing, immunohistochemistry, RT-PCR, Western blotting and whole-cell patch clamp recording were used.

RESULTS

Relative to the sham group, rats with ION-CCI consistently displayed lower mechanical pain thresholds in the vibrissal pad region from day 6 to 42 after ION-CCI operation. ION-CCI induced a significant down-regulation of BKCa channels both in mRNA and protein levels in the ipsilateral trigeminal ganglion (TG), a lower threshold intensity of action potential, and decreased total BKCa currents in cultured TG neurons. TG target injection of NS1619 (20-100 µg), an opener of BKCa channels, dose-dependently increased the mechanical pain threshold, which was blocked by the BKCa channel inhibitor iberiotoxin (IbTX, 20 µg). NS1619 (10 µM) significantly increased the mean threshold intensities of action potentials in ION-CCI rats, while failing to affect those in the sham rats. The levels of phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38 and c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK) in TG were significantly increased after ION-CCI operation. The ERK1/2 antagonist U0126, p38 antagonist SB203580 and JNK antagonist SP600125 significantly reversed the facial mechanical allodynia in ION-CCI rats. However, the ERK1/2 antagonist U0126, p38 antagonist SB203580 but not JNK antagonist SP600125 significantly increased BKCa currents in ION-CCI TG neurons.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate the important involvement of mainly ERK and p38 MAPK pathways in modulating BKCa channels in ION-CCI TG neurons. BKCa channels represent a new therapeutic target for the clinical treatment of trigeminal neuropathic pain.

Regulation of renal potassium secretion: molecular mechanisms

A new understanding of renal potassium balance has emerged as the molecular underpinnings of potassium secretion have become illuminated, highlighting the key roles of apical potassium channels, renal outer medullary potassium channel (ROMK) and Big Potassium (BK), in the aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron and collecting duct. These channels act as the final-regulated components of the renal potassium secretory machinery. Their activity, number, and driving forces are precisely modulated to ensure potassium excretion matches dietary potassium intake. Recent identification of the underlying regulatory mechanisms at the molecular level provides a new appreciation of the physiology and reveals a molecular insight to explain the paradoxic actions of aldosterone on potassium secretion. Here, we review the current state of knowledge in the field.

In vivo and ex vivo analysis of tubule function

Analysis of tubule function with in vivo and ex vivo approaches has been instrumental in revealing renal physiology. This work allows assignment of functional significance to known gene products expressed along the nephron, primary of which are proteins involved in electrolyte transport and regulation of these transporters. Not only we have learned much about the key roles played by these transport proteins and their proper regulation in normal physiology but also the combination of contemporary molecular biology and molecular genetics with in vivo and ex vivo analysis opened a new era of discovery informative about the root causes of many renal diseases. The power of in vivo and ex vivo analysis of tubule function is that it preserves the native setting and control of the tubule and proteins within tubule cells enabling them to be investigated in a "real-life" environment with a high degree of precision. In vivo and ex vivo analysis of tubule function continues to provide a powerful experimental outlet for testing, evaluating, and understanding physiology in the context of the novel information provided by sequencing of the human genome and contemporary genetic screening. These tools will continue to be a mainstay in renal laboratories as this discovery process continues and as we continue to identify new gene products functionally compromised in renal disease.

WNK4 inhibits Ca(2+)-activated big-conductance potassium channels (BK) via mitogen-activated protein kinase-dependent pathway

We used the perforated whole-cell recording technique to examine the effect of with-no-lysine kinase 4 (WNK4) on the Ca(2+) activated big-conductance K channels (BK) in HEK293T cells transfected with BK-α subunit (BK-α). Expression of WNK4 inhibited BK channels and decreased the outward K currents. Coexpression of SGK1 abolished the inhibitory effect of WNK4 on BK channels and restored the outward K currents. Expression of WNK4(S1169D//1196D), in which both SGK1-phosphorylation sites (serine 1169 and 1196) were mutated to aspartate, had no effect on BK channels. Moreover, coexpression of SGK1 had no additional effect on K currents in the cells transfected with BKα+WNK4(S1169D//1196D), suggesting that SGK1 reversed WNK4-induced inhibition of BK channels by stimulating WNK4 phosphorylation. Expression of WNK4 but not WNK4(S1169D//1196D) increased the phosphorylation of ERK and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK); an effect was abolished by coexpression of SGK1. The role of ERK and p38 MAPK in mediating the effect of WNK4 on BK channels was further suggested by the finding that the inhibition of ERK and P38 MAPK completely abolished the inhibitory effect of WNK4 on BK channels. In contrast, inhibition of MAPK failed to abolish the inhibitory effect of WNK4 on ROMK channels in both HEK cells and Xenopus oocytes. Expression of dominant negative dynaminK44A (Dyn(K44A)) or treatment of the cells with dynasore, a dynamin inhibitor, not only increased K currents but also largely abolished the inhibitory effect of WNK4 on BK channels. However, inhibition of MAPK still increased the outward K currents in the cells transfected with BKα+WNK4 and treated with dynasore. Similar results were obtained in experiments performed in the native tissue in which inhibition of ERK and p38 MAPK increased BK channel activity in the cortical collecting duct (CCD) treated with dynasore. We concluded that WNK4 inhibited BK channels by stimulating ERK and p38 MAPK and that activation of MAPK by WNK4 may inhibit BK channels partially via a mechanism other than stimulating endocytosis.

Regulation of large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels by WNK4 kinase

Large-conductance, Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels, commonly referred to as BK channels, have a major role in flow-induced K(+) secretion in the distal nephron. With-no-lysine kinase 4 (WNK4) is a serine-threonine kinase expressed in the distal nephron that inhibits ROMK activity and renal K(+) secretion. WNK4 mutations have been described in individuals with familial hyperkalemic hypertension (FHHt), a Mendelian disorder characterized by low-renin hypertension and hyperkalemia. As BK channels also have an important role in renal K(+) secretion, we examined whether they are regulated by WNK4 in a manner similar to ROMK. BK channel activity was inhibited in a rabbit intercalated cell line transfected with WNK4 or a WNK4 mutant found in individuals with FHHt. Coexpression of an epitope-tagged BK α-subunit with WNK4 or the WNK4 mutant in HEK293 cells reduced BK α-subunit plasma membrane and whole cell expression. A region within WNK4 encompassing the autoinhibitory domain and a coiled coil domain was required for WNK4 to inhibit BK α-subunit expression. The relative fraction of BK α-subunit that was ubiquitinated was significantly increased in cells expressing WNK4, compared with controls. Our results suggest that WNK4 inhibits BK channel activity, in part, by increasing channel degradation through an ubiquitin-dependent pathway. Based on these results, we propose that WNK4 provides a cellular mechanism for the coordinated regulation of two key secretory K(+) channels in the distal nephron, ROMK and BK.

Hypoxic depression of PKG-mediated inhibition of serotonergic contraction in ovine carotid arteries

Chronic hypoxia attenuates soluble guanylate cyclase-induced vasorelaxation in serotonin (5-HT)-contracted ovine carotid arteries. Because protein kinase G (PKG) mediates many effects of soluble guanylate cyclase activation through phosphorylation of multiple kinase targets in vascular smooth muscle, we tested the hypothesis that chronic hypoxia reduces the ability of PKG to phosphorylate its target proteins, which attenuates the ability of PKG to induce vasorelaxation. We also tested the hypothesis that hypoxia attenuates PKG expression and/or activity. Arteries from normoxic and chronically hypoxic (altitude of 3,820 m for 110 days) fetal and adult sheep were denuded of endothelium and equilibrated with 95% O2-5% CO2 in the presence of nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME) and N(G)-nitro-l-arginine (l-NNA) to inhibit residual endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Concentration-response relations for 5-HT were determined in the presence of prazosin to minimize activation of α-adrenergic receptors. The PKG activator 8-(p-chlorophenylthio)-guanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (8-pCTP-cGMP) reduced agonist binding affinity of the 5-HT receptor in a concentration-dependent manner that was attenuated by hypoxia. Expression and activity of PKG-I was not significantly affected by chronic hypoxia in either fetal or adult arteries, although PKG-I abundance was greater in fetal arteries. Pretreatment with the large conductance calcium-sensitive potassium channel (BK) inhibitor iberiotoxin attenuated the vasorelaxation induced by 8-pCPT-cGMP in normoxic but not chronically hypoxic arteries. These results support the hypothesis that hypoxia attenuates the vasorelaxant effects of PKG through suppression of the ability of PKG to activate large conductance calcium-sensitive potassium channels in arterial smooth muscle. The results also reveal that this hypoxic effect is greater in fetal than adult arteries and that chronic maternal hypoxia can profoundly affect fetal vascular function.

Carbon monoxide stimulates Ca2+ -dependent big-conductance K channels in the cortical collecting duct

We used the patch-clamp technique to examine the role of carbon monoxide (CO) in regulating Ca(2+)-activated big-conductance K (BK) channels in the principal cell of the cortical collecting duct (CCD). Application of CORM3 or CORM2, a CO donor, activated BK channels in the CCD, whereas adding inactivated CORM2/3 had no effect. Superfusion of the CCD with CO-bubbled bath solution also activated the BK channels in the cell-attached patches. The effect of CO on BK channels was not dependent on nitric oxide synthase (NOS) because the effect of CORM3 was also observed in the CCD treated with l-NAME, an agent that inhibits the NOS. Adding a membrane-permeable cGMP analog, 8-bromo-cGMP, significantly increased the BK channel in the CCD. However, inhibition of soluble guanylate cyclase failed to abolish the stimulatory effect of CORM3 on BK channels. Moreover, inhibition of cGMP-dependent protein kinase G did not block the stimulatory effect of CORM3 on the BK channels, suggesting that the stimulatory effect of CO on the BK channels was, at least partially, induced by a cGMP-independent mechanism. Western blot demonstrated that heme oxygenase type 1 (HO-1) and HO-2 were expressed in the kidney. Moreover, a high-K (HK) intake increased the expression of HO-1 but not HO-2 in the kidney. A HK intake also increased renal HO activity defined by NADPH-dependent CO generation following addition of heme in the cell lysate from renal cortex and outer medulla. The role of HO in regulating BK channel activity in the CCD was also suggested by experiments in which application of hemin increased the BK channels. The stimulatory effect of hemin on the BK channels was blocked by SnMP, a HO inhibitor. But, adding CORM3 was still able to activate the BK channels in the presence of SnMP. We conclude that CO activates the BK channels, at least partially, through a NO-cGMP-independent pathway and that HO plays a role in mediating the effect of HK intake on the BK channels in the CCD.

Regulation of transport in the connecting tubule and cortical collecting duct

The central goal of this overview article is to summarize recent findings in renal epithelial transport,focusing chiefly on the connecting tubule (CNT) and the cortical collecting duct (CCD).Mammalian CCD and CNT are involved in fine-tuning of electrolyte and fluid balance through reabsorption and secretion. Specific transporters and channels mediate vectorial movements of water and solutes in these segments. Although only a small percent of the glomerular filtrate reaches the CNT and CCD, these segments are critical for water and electrolyte homeostasis since several hormones, for example, aldosterone and arginine vasopressin, exert their main effects in these nephron sites. Importantly, hormones regulate the function of the entire nephron and kidney by affecting channels and transporters in the CNT and CCD. Knowledge about the physiological and pathophysiological regulation of transport in the CNT and CCD and particular roles of specific channels/transporters has increased tremendously over the last two decades.Recent studies shed new light on several key questions concerning the regulation of renal transport.Precise distribution patterns of transport proteins in the CCD and CNT will be reviewed, and their physiological roles and mechanisms mediating ion transport in these segments will also be covered. Special emphasis will be given to pathophysiological conditions appearing as a result of abnormalities in renal transport in the CNT and CCD.

Luminal flow modulates H+-ATPase activity in the cortical collecting duct (CCD)

Epithelial Na(+) channel (ENaC)-mediated Na(+) absorption and BK channel-mediated K(+) secretion in the cortical collecting duct (CCD) are modulated by flow, the latter requiring an increase in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)), microtubule integrity, and exocytic insertion of preformed channels into the apical membrane. As axial flow modulates HCO(3)(-) reabsorption in the proximal tubule due to changes in both luminal Na(+)/H(+) exchanger 3 and H(+)-ATPase activity (Du Z, Yan Q, Duan Y, Weinbaum S, Weinstein AM, Wang T. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 290: F289-F296, 2006), we sought to test the hypothesis that flow also regulates H(+)-ATPase activity in the CCD. H(+)-ATPase activity was assayed in individually identified cells in microperfused CCDs isolated from New Zealand White rabbits, loaded with the pH-sensitive dye BCECF, and then subjected to an acute intracellular acid load (NH(4)Cl prepulse technique). H(+)-ATPase activity was defined as the initial rate of bafilomycin-inhibitable cell pH (pH(i)) recovery in the absence of luminal K(+), bilateral Na(+), and CO(2)/HCO(3)(-), from a nadir pH of ∼6.2. We found that 1) an increase in luminal flow rate from ∼1 to 5 nl·min(-1)·mm(-1) stimulated H(+)-ATPase activity, 2) flow-stimulated H(+) pumping was Ca(2+) dependent and required microtubule integrity, and 3) basal and flow-stimulated pH(i) recovery was detected in cells that labeled with the apical principal cell marker rhodamine Dolichos biflorus agglutinin as well as cells that did not. We conclude that luminal flow modulates H(+)-ATPase activity in the rabbit CCD and that H(+)-ATPases therein are present in both principal and intercalated cells.

The role of extracellular-signal regulate kinase (ERK) in the regulation of airway tone in porcine isolated peripheral bronchioles

Extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK) is known to regulate vascular smooth muscle contraction. However, a role for ERK in airway smooth muscle contraction has yet to be demonstrated conclusively, although contractile agents increase ERK activity in airway smooth muscle. Rather than initiating contraction, ERK could regulate airway tone by interfering with relaxation. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine whether ERK regulates contraction or relaxation of airway smooth muscle. Segments of porcine peripheral bronchioles were mounted in an isolated tissue bath in Krebs-Henseleit buffer and maintained at 37°C. Cumulative concentration-response curves to histamine, endothelin-1, or the muscarinic agonist carbachol were then carried out in the absence or presence of the MEK inhibitor PD98059. In separate experiments, cumulative concentration response curves to the β-adrenoceptor agonist isoprenaline or the adenylyl cyclase activator forskolin were carried out in the absence or presence of the MEK inhibitors PD98059 or U0126. ERK activity was measured by Western blotting. All three contractile agents increased ERK activity, but the contractile responses were unaffected by PD98059. On the other hand, both PD98059 and U0126 enhanced the relaxations to isoprenaline but not relaxations to the adenylyl cyclase activator forskolin. The enhancement of isoprenaline-induced relaxations with PD98059 was prevented by the K(+) channel blocker tetraethylammonium. These data suggest that ERK regulates airway smooth muscle tone by inhibiting β-adrenoceptor-mediated relaxations, rather than an initiation of contraction. The effect on β-adrenoceptor-mediated responses appears to be through a cAMP-independent mechanism, possibly through an interaction with K(+) channels.

Role of NKCC in BK channel-mediated net K⁺ secretion in the CCD

Apical SK/ROMK and BK channels mediate baseline and flow-induced K secretion (FIKS), respectively, in the cortical collecting duct (CCD). BK channels are detected in acid-base transporting intercalated (IC) and Na-absorbing principal (PC) cells. Although the density of BK channels is greater in IC than PC, Na-K-ATPase activity in IC is considered inadequate to sustain high rates of urinary K secretion. To test the hypothesis that basolateral NKCC in the CCD contributes to BK channel-mediated FIKS, we measured net K secretion (J(K)) and Na absorption (J(Na)) at slow (∼1) and fast (∼5 nl·min(-1)·mm(-1)) flow rates in rabbit CCDs microperfused in vitro in the absence and presence of bumetanide, an inhibitor of NKCC, added to the bath. Bumetanide inhibited FIKS but not basal J(K), J(Na), or the flow-induced [Ca(2+)](i) transient necessary for BK channel activation. Addition of luminal iberiotoxin, a BK channel inhibitor, to bumetanide-treated CCDs did not further reduce J(K). Basolateral Cl removal reversibly inhibited FIKS but not basal J(K) or J(Na). Quantitative PCR performed on single CCD samples using NKCC1- and 18S-specific primers and probes and the TaqMan assay confirmed the presence of the transcript in this nephron segment. To identify the specific cell type to which basolateral NKCC is localized, we exploited the ability of NKCC to accept NH(4)(+) at its K-binding site to monitor the rate of bumetanide-sensitive cytosolic acidification after NH(4)(+) addition to the bath in CCDs loaded with the pH indicator dye BCECF. Both IC and PC were found to have a basolateral bumetanide-sensitive NH(4)(+) entry step and NKCC1-specific antibodies labeled the basolateral surfaces of both cell types in CCDs. These results suggest that BK channel-mediated FIKS is dependent on a basolateral bumetanide-sensitive, Cl-dependent transport pathway, proposed to be NKCC1, in both IC and PC in the CCD.

WNK4 kinase inhibits Maxi K channel activity by a kinase-dependent mechanism

WNK [with no lysine (k)] kinase is a serine/threonine kinase subfamily. Mutations in two of the WNK kinases result in pseudohypoaldosteronism type II (PHA II) characterized by hypertension, hyperkalemia, and metabolic acidosis. Recent studies showed that both WNK1 and WNK4 inhibit ROMK activity. However, little is known about the effect of WNK kinases on Maxi K, a large-conductance Ca(2+) and voltage-activated potassium (K) channel. Here, we report that WNK4 wild-type (WT) significantly inhibits Maxi K channel activity in HEK αBK stable cell lines compared with the control group. However, a WNK4 dead-kinase mutant, D321A, has no inhibitory effect on Maxi K activity. We further found that WNK4 inhibits total and cell surface protein expression of Maxi K equally compared with control groups. A dominant-negative dynamin mutant, K44A, did not alter the WNK4-mediated inhibitory effect on Maxi K surface expression. Treatment with bafilomycin A1 (a proton pump inhibitor) and leupeptin (a lysosomal inhibitor) reversed WNK4 WT-mediated inhibition of Maxi K total protein expression. These findings suggest that WNK4 WT inhibits Maxi K activity by reducing Maxi K protein at the membrane, but that the inhibition is not due to an increase in clathrin-mediated endocytosis of Maxi K, but likely due to enhancing its lysosomal degradation. Also, WNK4's inhibitory effect on Maxi K activity is dependent on its kinase activity.

Inhibition of K+ secretion in the distal nephron in nephrotic syndrome: possible role of albuminuria

Nephrotic syndrome features massive proteinuria and retention of sodium which promotes ascite formation. In the puromycin aminonucleoside-induced rat model of nephrotic syndrome, sodium retention originates from the collecting duct where it generates a driving force for potassium secretion. However, there is no evidence for urinary potassium loss or hypokalaemia in the nephrotic syndrome. We therefore investigated the mechanism preventing urinary potassium loss in the nephrotic rats and, for comparison, in hypovolaemic rats, another model displaying increased sodium reabsorption in collecting ducts. We found that sodium retention is not associated with urinary loss of potassium in either nephrotic or hypovolaemic rats, but that different mechanisms account for potassium conservation in the two models. Collecting ducts from hypovolaemic rats displayed high expression of the potassium-secreting channel ROMK but no driving force for potassium secretion owing to low luminal sodium availability. In contrast, collecting ducts from nephrotic rats displayed a high driving force for potassium secretion but no ROMK. Down-regulation of ROMK in nephrotic rats probably stems from phosphorylation of ERK arising from the presence of proteins in the luminal fluid. In addition, nephrotic rats displayed a blunted capacity to excrete potassium when fed a potassium-rich diet, and developed hyperkalaemia. As nephrotic patients were found to display plasma potassium levels in the normal to high range, we would recommend not only a low sodium diet but also a controlled potassium diet for patients with nephrotic syndrome.

Regulation and function of potassium channels in aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

K channels in the aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron (ASDN) participate in generating cell membrane potential and in mediating K secretion. The aim of the review is to provide an overview of the recent development regarding physiological function of the K channels and the novel factors which modulate the K channels of the ASDN.

RECENT FINDINGS

Genetic studies and transgenic mouse models have revealed the physiological function of basolateral K channels including inwardly rectifying K channel (Kir) and Ca-activated big-conductance K channels in mediating salt transport in the ASDN. A recent study shows that intersectin is required for mediating with-no-lysine kinase (WNK)-induced endocytosis. Moreover, a clathrin adaptor, autosomal recessive hypercholesterolemia (ARH), and an aging-suppression protein, Klothe, have been shown to regulate the endocytosis of renal outer medullary potassium (ROMK) channel. Also, serum-glucocorticoids-induced kinase I (SGK1) reversed the inhibitory effect of WNK4 on ROMK through the phosphorylation of WNK4. However, Src-family protein tyrosine kinase (SFK) abolished the effect of SGK1 on WNK4 and restored the WNK4-induced inhibition of ROMK.

SUMMARY

Basolateral K channels including big-conductance K channel and Kir4.1/5.1 play an important role in regulating Na and Mg transport in the ASDN. Apical K channels are not only responsible for mediating K excretion but they are also involved in regulating transepithelial Mg absorption. New factors and mechanisms by which hormones and dietary K intake regulate apical K secretory channels expand the current knowledge regarding renal K handling.

Potassium secretion by voltage-gated potassium channel Kv1.3 in the rat kidney

The fine regulation of Na(+) and K(+) transport takes place in the cortical distal nephron. It is well established that K(+) secretion occurs through apical K(+) channels: the ROMK and the Ca(2+)- and voltage-dependent maxi-K. Previously, we identified the voltage-gated Kv1.3 channel in the inner medulla of the rat kidney (Escobar LI, Martínez-Téllez JC, Salas M, Castilla SA, Carrisoza R, Tapia D, Vázquez M, Bargas J, Bolívar JJ. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 286: C965-C974, 2004). To examine the role of Kv1.3 in the renal regulation of K(+) homeostasis, we characterized the effect of dietary K(+) on the molecular and functional expression of this channel. We performed real-time-PCR and immunoblot assays in kidneys from rats fed a control (CK; 1.2% wt/wt) or high-K(+) (HK; 10% wt/wt) diet for 5-15 days. Kv1.3 mRNA and protein expression did not change with HK in the whole kidney. However, dietary K(+) loading provoked a change in the cellular distribution of Kv1.3 from the cytoplasm to apical membranes. Immunolocalization of Kv1.3 detected the channel exclusively in the intercalated cells. We investigated whether Kv1.3 mediated K(+) transport in microperfused cortical collecting ducts (CCDs). The HK diet led to an increase in net K(+) transport from 7.4 +/- 1.1 (CK) to 11.4 +/- 1.0 (HK) pmol x min(-1.) mm(-1). Luminal margatoxin, a specific blocker of Kv1.3, decreased net K(+) secretion in HK CCDs to 6.0 +/- 1.6 pmol x min(-1.) mm(-1). Our data provide the first evidence that Kv1.3 channels participate in K(+) secretion and that apical membrane localization of Kv1.3 is enhanced in the intercalated cells by dietary K(+) loading.

Decrease in dietary K intake stimulates the generation of superoxide anions in the kidney and inhibits K secretory channels in the CCD

We previously demonstrated that K depletion inhibited ROMK-like small-conductance K channels (SK) in the cortical collecting duct (CCD) and that the effect was mediated by superoxide anions that stimulated Src family protein tyrosine kinase (PTK) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) (51). However, because animals on a K-deficient diet had a severe hypokalemia, superoxide-dependent signaling may not regulate ROMK channels under physiological conditions with a normal plasma K concentration. In the present study, we used the patch-clamp technique and Western blot to examine the effect of a moderate K restriction on ROMK-like SK channels and the role of PTK and MAPK in regulating apical K channels in the CCD of animals on a low-K diet (LK; 0.1% K). Rats and mice fed a LK diet for 7 days had a normal plasma K concentration. However, a LK intake increased the expression of angiotensin II type 1 receptor in the kidney. Moreover, patch-clamp experiments demonstrated that LK intake decreased the probability finding SK channels and channel activity defined by NP(o) (a product of channel number and open probability) in the CCD of both rat and mouse kidneys. Also, LK intake significantly stimulated the production of superoxide anions in the renal cortex and outer medulla in both rats and mice and increased superoxide level in the rat CCD. Moreover, LK intake augments the phosphorylation of p38 and ERK MAPK, the expression of c-Src and tyrosine phosphorylation of ROMK channels. However, treatment of animals with tempol abolished the effect of LK intake on MAPK and c-Src and increased ROMK channel activity in comparing with those of nontreated rats on a LK diet. Inhibiting p38 and ERK with SB202190 and PD98059 significantly stimulated SK in the CCD in rats on a LK diet. In addition, inhibition of PTK with herbimycin A activated SK channels in the CCD from rats on a LK diet. We conclude that LK intake stimulates the generation of superoxide anion and related products and that MAPK and Src family PTK play a physiological role in inhibiting apical K channels in the principal cells in response to LK intake.

Intercalated cell BK-alpha/beta4 channels modulate sodium and potassium handling during potassium adaptation

The large-conductance, calcium-activated potassium (BK) channels help eliminate potassium in mammals consuming potassium-rich diets. In the distal nephron, principal cells contain BK-alpha/beta1 channels and intercalated cells contain BK-alpha/beta4 channels. We studied whether BK-beta4-deficient mice (Kcnmb4(-/-)) have altered renal sodium and potassium clearances compared with wild-type mice when fed a regular or potassium-rich diet for ten days. We did not detect differences in urinary flow or fractional excretions of potassium (FE(K)) or sodium (FE(Na)) between Kcnmb4-deficient and wild-type mice fed a regular diet. However, a potassium-rich diet led to >4-fold increases in urinary flows for both groups of mice, although Kcnmb4-deficient mice exhibited less urinary flow, higher plasma potassium concentration, more fluid retention, and significantly lower FE(K) and FE(Na) than wild-type mice despite similar plasma aldosterone levels. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed increased basolateral Na-K-ATPase in principal cells of all potassium-adapted mice, but expression of Na-K-ATPase in intercalated cells was >10-fold lower. The size of intercalated cells reduced and luminal volume increased among potassium-adapted wild-type but not Kcnmb4-deficient mice. Paradoxically, this led to increased urinary fluid velocity in potassium-adapted Kcnmb4-deficient mice compared with wild-type mice. Taken together, these data suggest that BK-alpha/beta4 channels in intercalated cells reduce cell size, increasing luminal volume to accommodate higher distal flow rates during potassium adaptation. These changes streamline flow across the principal cells, producing gradients more favorable for potassium secretion and less favorable for sodium reabsorption.

Effect of inhibition of extracellular signal-regulated kinase on relaxations to beta-adrenoceptor agonists in porcine isolated blood vessels

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Stimulation of vascular beta-adrenoceptors causes vasodilatation through activation of adenylyl cyclase (AC) and plasma membrane potassium channels, and beta-adrenoceptors have been linked to activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) mitogen-activated protein kinase in various cell lines. However, how these findings relate to functional responses in intact tissues is largely unknown. The aim of this study, therefore, was to investigate the role of ERK in beta-adrenoceptor-induced vasodilatation.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Segments of porcine coronary artery were mounted in a Mulvany wire myograph and bathed in Krebs-Henseleit buffer gassed with 95% O(2)/5% CO(2) and maintained at 37 degrees C. Tissues were pre-contracted with the thromboxane mimetic U46619, endothelin-1 or KCl. Cumulative concentration-response curves to beta-adrenoceptor agonists or forskolin were then carried out in the absence or presence of the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK) inhibitors PD98059 (10 or 50 microM) or U0126 (10 microM).

KEY RESULTS

PD98059 caused a concentration-dependent leftward shift in response to isoprenaline (pEC(50) control, 7.5 +/- 0.1; 50 microM PD98059, 8.1 +/- 0.1: P < 0.05). Inhibition of MEK also enhanced the maximum relaxation seen with salbutamol, but not the responses to the beta(1)-adrenoceptor selective agonist xamoterol or the AC activator forskolin. There was no enhancement of the relaxations to beta-adrenoceptor agonists after inhibition of ERK activation in tissues pre-contracted with KCl or treated with the K(+) channel blocker tetraethylammonium.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

These data indicate that ERK inhibits beta(2)-adrenoceptor-mediated vasodilatation through a mechanism which may involve inactivation of plasma membrane potassium channels.

Mechanoregulation of BK channel activity in the mammalian cortical collecting duct: role of protein kinases A and C

Flow-stimulated net K secretion (J(K)) in the cortical collecting duct (CCD) is mediated by an iberiotoxin (IBX)-sensitive BK channel, and requires an increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+](i)). The alpha-subunit of the reconstituted BK channel is phosphorylated by PKA and PKC. To test whether the BK channel in the native CCD is regulated by these kinases, J(K) and net Na absorption (J(Na)) were measured at slow (approximately 1) and fast (approximately 5 nl x min(-1) x mm(-1)) flow rates in rabbit CCDs microperfused in the presence of mPKI, an inhibitor of PKA; calphostin C, which inhibits diacylglycerol binding proteins, including PKC; or bisindolylmaleimide (BIM) and Gö6976, inhibitors of classic and novel PKC isoforms, added to luminal (L) and/or basolateral (B) solutions. L but not B mPKI increased J(K) in CCDs perfused at a slow flow rate; a subsequent increase in flow rate augmented J(K) modestly. B mPKI alone or with L inhibitor abolished flow stimulation of J(K). Similarly, L calphostin C increased J(K) in CCDs perfused at slow flow rates, as did calphostin C in both L and B solutions. The observation that IBX inhibited the L mPKI- and calphostin C-mediated increases in J(K) at slow flow rates implicated the BK channel in this K flux, a notion suggested by patch-clamp analysis of principal cells. The kinase inhibited by calphostin C was not PKC as L and/or B BIM and Gö6976 failed to enhance J(K) at the slow flow rate. However, addition of these PKC inhibitors to the B solution alone or with L inhibitor blocked flow stimulation of J(K). Interpretation of these results in light of the effects of these inhibitors on the flow-induced elevation of [Ca2+](i) suggests that the principal cell apical BK channel is tonically inhibited by PKA and that flow stimulation of J(K) in the CCD is PKA and PKC dependent. The specific targets of the kinases remain to be identified.

Regulation of potassium (K) handling in the renal collecting duct

This review provides an overview of the molecular mechanisms of K transport in the mammalian connecting tubule (CNT) and cortical collecting duct (CCD), both nephron segments responsible for the regulation of renal K secretion. Aldosterone and dietary K intake are two of the most important factors regulating K secretion in the CNT and CCD. Recently, angiotensin II (AngII) has also been shown to play a role in the regulation of K secretion. In addition, genetic and molecular biological approaches have further identified new mechanisms by which aldosterone and dietary K intake regulate K transport. Thus, the interaction between serum-glucocorticoid-induced kinase 1 (SGK1) and with-no-lysine kinase 4 (WNK4) plays a significant role in mediating the effect of aldosterone on ROMK (Kir1.1), an important apical K channel modulating K secretion. Recent evidence suggests that WNK1, mitogen-activated protein kinases such as P38, ERK, and Src family protein tyrosine kinase are involved in mediating the effect of low K intake on apical K secretory channels.

MAGI-1 interacts with Slo1 channel proteins and suppresses Slo1 expression on the cell surface

Large conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (BK(Ca)) channels encoded by the Slo1 gene (also known as KCNMA1) are physiologically important in a wide range of cell types and form complexes with a number of other proteins that affect their function. We performed a yeast two-hybrid screen to identify proteins that interact with BK(Ca) channels using a bait construct derived from domains in the extreme COOH-terminus of Slo1. A protein known as membrane-associated guanylate kinase with inverted orientation protein-1 (MAGI-1) was identified in this screen. MAGI-1 is a scaffolding protein that allows formation of complexes between certain transmembrane proteins, actin-binding proteins, and other regulatory proteins. MAGI-1 is expressed in a number of tissues, including podocytes and the brain. The interaction between MAGI-1 and BK(Ca) channels was confirmed by coimmunoprecipitation and glutathione S-transferase pull-down assays in differentiated cells of a podocyte cell line and in human embryonic kidneys (HEK)293T cells transiently coexpressing MAGI-1a and three different COOH-terminal Slo1 variants. Coexpression of MAGI-1 with Slo1 channels in HEK-293T cells results in a significant reduction in the surface expression of Slo1, as assessed by cell-surface biotinylation assays, confocal microscopy, and whole cell recordings. Partial knockdown of endogenous MAGI-1 expression by small interfering RNA (siRNA) in differentiated podocytes increased the surface expression of endogenous Slo1 as assessed by electrophysiology and cell-surface biotinylation assays, whereas overexpression of MAGI-1a reduced steady-state voltage-evoked outward current through podocyte BK(Ca) channels. These data suggest that MAGI-1 plays a role in regulation of surface expression of BK(Ca) channels in the kidney and possibly in other tissues.

Inhibition of angiotensin type 1 receptor impairs renal ability of K conservation in response to K restriction

We have previously demonstrated that ANG II inhibits ROMK-like small-conductance K channels (SK) in the cortical collecting duct from rats on a K-deficient diet (KD) (35). In the present study, we examined the role of angiotensin type 1 receptor (AT(1)R) in mediating the effect of K restriction on K secretion. We confirmed the previous finding that K restriction increased the superoxide anion level, c-Src expression, and the phosphorylation of both p38 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) in renal cortex and outer medulla. However, the effect of K restriction on superoxide anion generation, c-Src expression, and MAPK phosphorylation was significantly attenuated in rats receiving losartan, an inhibitor of AT(1)R. In contrast, losartan treatment had no effect on superoxide anion level, c-Src expression, and MAPK phosphorylation in animals on a normal K diet (NK). K restriction decreased SK channel activity and increased the tyrosine phosphorylation of ROMK. However, inhibiting AT(1)R abolished the effect of K restriction on SK channels and tyrosine phosphorylation of ROMK channels. The notion that AT(1)R is involved in regulating renal K excretion was also supported by the experiments with metabolic cages showing that losartan treatment significantly enhanced urinary K loss in rats on a KD diet while it had no effect in animals on a NK diet. Consequently, losartan-treated animals had severe hypokalemia in response to K restriction compared with rats without losartan intake. We conclude that AT(1)R is involved in mediating the effect of K restriction on superoxide generation, c-Src, and MAPK and that inhibiting AT(1)R impairs renal ability of K conservation in response to K depletion.

Epoxyeicosatrienoic acid activates BK channels in the cortical collecting duct

The cortical collecting duct (CCD), which is involved in renal potassium (K) excretion, expresses cytochrome P450 (CYP)-epoxygenase. Here, we examined the effect of high dietary K on renal expression of CYP2C23 and CYP2J2 in the rat, as well as the role of CYP-epoxygenase-dependent metabolism of arachidonic acid in the regulation of Ca(2+)-activated big-conductance K (BK) channels. By Western blot analysis, high dietary K stimulated the expression of CYP2C23 but not CYP2J2 and increased 11,12-epoxyeicosatrienoic acid (11,12-EET) levels in isolated rat CCD tubules. Application of arachidonic acid increased BK channel activity, and this occurred to a greater extent in rats on a high-K diet compared with a normal-K diet. This effect was unlikely due to arachidonic acid-induced changes in membrane fluidity, because 11,14,17-eicosatrienoic acid did not alter BK channel activity. Inhibiting CYP-epoxygenase but not cyclooxygenase- or CYP-omega-hydroxylase-dependent pathways completely abolished the stimulatory effect of arachidonic acid on BK channel activity. In addition, application of 11,12-EET mimicked the effect of arachidonic acid on BK channel activity, even in the presence of CYP-epoxygenase inhibition. This effect seemed specific to 11,12-EET, because both 8,9- and 14,15-EET failed to stimulate BK channels. Finally, inhibition of CYP-epoxygenase abolished iberiotoxin-sensitive and flow-stimulated but not basal net K secretion in isolated microperfused CCD. In conclusion, high dietary K stimulates the renal CYP-epoxygenase pathway, which plays an important role in activating BK channels and flow-stimulated K secretion in the CCD.

Effect of aldosterone on BK channel expression in mammalian cortical collecting duct

Apical large-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (BK) channels in the cortical collecting duct (CCD) mediate flow-stimulated K(+) secretion. Dietary K(+) loading for 10-14 days leads to an increase in BK channel mRNA abundance, enhanced flow-stimulated K(+) secretion in microperfused CCDs, and a redistribution of immunodetectable channels from an intracellular pool to the apical membrane (Najjar F, Zhou H, Morimoto T, Bruns JB, Li HS, Liu W, Kleyman TR, Satlin LM. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 289: F922-F932, 2005). To test whether this adaptation was mediated by a K(+)-induced increase in aldosterone, New Zealand White rabbits were fed a low-Na(+) (LS) or high-Na(+) (HS) diet for 7-10 days to alter circulating levels of aldosterone but not serum K(+) concentration. Single CCDs were isolated for quantitation of BK channel subunit (total, alpha-splice variants, beta-isoforms) mRNA abundance by real-time PCR and measurement of net transepithelial Na(+) (J(Na)) and K(+) (J(K)) transport by microperfusion; kidneys were processed for immunolocalization of BK alpha-subunit by immunofluorescence microscopy. At the time of death, LS rabbits excreted no urinary Na(+) and had higher circulating levels of aldosterone than HS animals. The relative abundance of BK alpha-, beta(2)-, and beta(4)-subunit mRNA and localization of immunodetectable alpha-subunit were similar in CCDs from LS and HS animals. In response to an increase in tubular flow rate from approximately 1 to 5 nl.min(-1).mm(-1), the increase in J(Na) was greater in LS vs. HS rabbits, yet the flow-stimulated increase in J(K) was similar in both groups. These data suggest that aldosterone does not contribute to the regulation of BK channel expression/activity in response to dietary K(+) loading.

PGE2 inhibits basolateral 50 pS potassium channels in the thick ascending limb of the rat kidney

To study the inhibition of the inwardly rectifying basolateral 50 pS potassium channels by PGE(2) we performed patch-clamp studies on the basolateral membrane of the rat kidney thick ascending limb. PGE(2)'s effect was mimicked by the selective EP1- and EP3-receptor agonist, sulprostone, but was prevented by inhibiting protein kinase-C with calphostin-C. The mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitor PD98059 (ERK) or SB203580 (p38) increased basal channel activity; however, while neither alone prevented the inhibitory effect of PGE(2), but using both of them together completely abolished PGE(2)'s effect on channel activity. Treatment with PGE(2) stimulated phosphorylation of both p38 and ERK in primary cultures of medullary thick ascending limb cells. The PGE(2)-mediated mitogen-activated protein kinase activation was not affected by indomethacin, but was completely blocked by calphostin-C. These studies show that inhibition of basolateral 50 pS potassium channels by PGE(2) is mediated by protein kinase-C, which in turn stimulates mitogen-activated protein kinases in the thick ascending limb of the rat kidney.

MiRP3 acts as an accessory subunit with the BK potassium channel

MinK-related peptides (MiRPs) are single-span membrane proteins that assemble with specific voltage-gated K+ (Kv) channel alpha-subunits to establish gating kinetics, unitary conductance, expression level, and pharmacology of the mixed complex. MiRP3 (encoded by the KCNE4 gene) has been shown to alter the behavior of some Kv alpha-subunits in vitro but its natural partners and physiologic functions are unknown. Seeking in vivo partners for MiRP3, immunohistochemistry was used to localize its expression to a unique subcellular site, the apical membrane of renal intercalated cells, where one potassium channel type has been recorded, the calcium- and voltage-gated channel BK. Overlapping staining of these two proteins was found in rabbit intercalated cells, and MiRP3 and BK subunits expressed in tissue culture cells were found to form detergent-stable complexes. Electrophysiologic and biochemical evaluation showed MiRP3 to act on BK to reduce current density in two fashions: shifting the current-voltage relationship to more depolarized voltages in a calcium-dependent fashion ( approximately 10 mV at normal intracellular calcium levels) and accelerating degradation of MiRP3-BK complexes. The findings suggest a role for MiRP3 modulation of BK-dependent urinary potassium excretion.