G protein-coupled odorant receptors underlie mechanosensitivity in mammalian olfactory sensory neurons

Respiratory modulation of beta corticomuscular coherence in isometric hand movements

Respiration is a fundamental physiological function in humans, often synchronized with movement to enhance performance and efficiency. Recent studies have underscored the modulatory effects of respiratory rhythms on brain oscillations and various behavioral responses, including sensorimotor processes. In light of this connection, our study aimed to investigate the influence of different respiratory patterns on beta corticomuscular coherence (CMC) during isometric hand flexion and extension. Utilizing electroencephalogram (EEG) and surface electromyography (sEMG), we examined three breathing conditions: normal breathing, deep inspiration, and deep expiration. Two experimental protocols were employed: the first experiment required participants to simultaneously breathe and exert force, while the other involved maintaining a constant force while varying breathing patterns. The results revealed that deep inspiration significantly enhanced beta CMC during respiration-synchronized tasks, whereas normal breathing resulted in higher CMC compared to deep respiration during sustained force exertion. In the second experiment, beta CMC was cyclically modulated by respiratory phase across all breathing conditions. The difference in the outcomes from the two protocols demonstrated a task-specific modulation of respiration on motor control. Overall, these findings indicate the complex dynamics of respiration-related effects on corticomuscular neural communication and provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underpinning the coupling between respiration and motor function.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11571-025-10245-x.

Olfactory receptors in neural regeneration in the central nervous system

Olfactory receptors are crucial for detecting odors and play a vital role in our sense of smell, influencing behaviors from food choices to emotional memories. These receptors also contribute to our perception of flavor and have potential applications in medical diagnostics and environmental monitoring. The ability of the olfactory system to regenerate its sensory neurons provides a unique model to study neural regeneration, a phenomenon largely absent in the central nervous system. Insights gained from how olfactory neurons continuously replace themselves and reestablish functional connections can provide strategies to promote similar regenerative processes in the central nervous system, where damage often results in permanent deficits. Understanding the molecular and cellular mechanisms underpinning olfactory neuron regeneration could pave the way for developing therapeutic approaches to treat spinal cord injuries and neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease. Olfactory receptors are found in almost any cell of every organ/tissue of the mammalian body. This ectopic expression provides insights into the chemical structures that can activate olfactory receptors. In addition to odors, olfactory receptors in ectopic expression may respond to endogenous compounds and molecules produced by mucosal colonizing microbiota. The analysis of the function of olfactory receptors in ectopic expression provides valuable information on the signaling pathway engaged upon receptor activation and the receptor's role in proliferation and cell differentiation mechanisms. This review explores the ectopic expression of olfactory receptors and the role they may play in neural regeneration within the central nervous system, with particular attention to compounds that can activate these receptors to initiate regenerative processes. Evidence suggests that olfactory receptors could serve as potential therapeutic targets for enhancing neural repair and recovery following central nervous system injuries.

Drosophila epidermal cells are intrinsically mechanosensitive and modulate nociceptive behavioral outputs

Somatosensory neurons (SSNs) that detect and transduce mechanical, thermal, and chemical stimuli densely innervate an animal's skin. However, although epidermal cells provide the first point of contact for sensory stimuli, our understanding of roles that epidermal cells play in SSN function, particularly nociception, remains limited. Here, we show that stimulating Drosophila epidermal cells elicits activation of SSNs including nociceptors and triggers a variety of behavior outputs, including avoidance and escape. Further, we find that epidermal cells are intrinsically mechanosensitive and that epidermal mechanically evoked calcium responses require the store-operated calcium channel Orai. Epidermal cell stimulation augments larval responses to acute nociceptive stimuli and promotes prolonged hypersensitivity to subsequent mechanical stimuli. Hence, epidermal cells are key determinants of nociceptive sensitivity and sensitization, acting as primary sensors of noxious stimuli that tune nociceptor output and drive protective behaviors.

Global coordination of brain activity by the breathing cycle

Neuronal activities that synchronize with the breathing rhythm have been found in humans and a host of mammalian species, not only in brain areas closely related to respiratory control or olfactory coding but also in areas linked to emotional and higher cognitive functions. In parallel, evidence is mounting for modulations of perception and action by the breathing cycle. In this Review, we discuss the extent to which brain activity locks to breathing across areas, levels of organization and brain states, and the physiological origins of this global synchrony. We describe how waves of sensory activity evoked by nasal airflow spread through brain circuits, synchronizing neuronal populations to the breathing cycle and modulating faster oscillations, cell assembly formation and cross-area communication, thereby providing a mechanistic link from breathing to neural coding, emotion and cognition. We argue that, through evolution, the breathing rhythm has come to shape network functions across species.

Modulation of EEG by Slow-Symmetric Breathing Incorporating Breath-Hold

The interplay between the brain and lungs involves intricate physiological mechanisms operating bidirectionally. Volitional breathing, unlike spontaneous breathing, offers various benefits with potential therapeutic effects. Volitional breathing involves many variables, such as breathing rate (BR) and breathing patterns. The main objective is to study the neural dynamics during slow-symmetric breathing (SSB) at different rates, with and without incorporating breath-holds post inhalation and exhalation. Electroencephalogram (EEG) is analyzed from 63 healthy adults while breathing at 10, 6, and 4 cycles per minute (cpm) guided by a visual metronome. A significant increase in coherence is observed during SSB at all breathing rates and resonance at 6 cpm (0.1 Hz). We also study EEG band power changes, coupling of the breathing phase with EEG amplitude, and EEG modulation during SSB. The power in alpha and beta bands is significantly higher during breath-hold than during inhalation and exhalation. Compared to the baseline, the modulation index increases significantly during SSB, illustrating the enhanced modulation of brain activity. Interestingly, coherence, phase-amplitude coupling, and modulation index depend mainly on the breathing rate, and the differences between symmetric breathing with and without breath-hold are not statistically significant. The observed similarities in neural dynamics across different breathing patterns suggest that achieving very low breathing rates is feasible with symmetric breathing with breath-holds while retaining the reported benefits of slow breathing.

Calcium response via CRAC channels in human synovial cells induced by shear stress in rheumatoid arthritis

The role of calcium release-activated calcium channel (CRAC) inhibitors in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is unclear. We focused on stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) and Ca2+ release-activated channel regulator 2 A (CRACR2A), which participate in CRAC activation, to understand the signaling mechanism of human RA fibroblast-like synovial (FLS) cells in response to shear stress (SS). Human normal and RA FLS cell cultures were studied. The rates of intracellular calcium release and extracellular calcium influx in response to SS differed, and the responses to the first and second stimuli were analyzed. In the RA FLS cells, CRAC inhibitor significantly decreased the second/first stimulus ratio compared with that of the normal cells, and STIM1 and CRACR2A exhibited significantly increased expression levels compared with those in the normal FLS cells. Therefore, STIM1 and CRACR2A expression and Ca2+ influx in FLS cells are implicated in the pathogenesis of RA.

Signal Transduction Pathway Mediating Carotid Body Dependent Sympathetic Activation and Hypertension by Chronic Intermittent Hypoxia

Patients with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) experience chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH). OSA patients and CIH-treated rodents exhibit overactive sympathetic nervous system and hypertension, mediated through hyperactive carotid body (CB) chemoreflex. Activation of olfactory receptor 78 (Olfr78) by hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is implicated in CB activation and sympathetic nerve responses to CIH, but the downstream signaling pathways remain unknown. Given that odorant receptor signaling is coupled to adenylyl cyclase 3 (Adcy3), we hypothesized that Adcy3-dependent cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) contributes to CB and sympathetic responses to CIH. Our findings show that CIH increases cAMP levels in the CB, a response absent in Adcy3, Cth (encoding CSE), and Olfr78 null mice. CBs from Cth and Olfr78 mutant mice lacked a persulfidation response to CIH, indicating that Adcy3 activation requires Olfr78 activation by H2S in CIH. CIH also enhanced glomus cell Ca2+ influx, an effect absent in Cnga2 (encoding cyclic nucleotide-gated channel alpha2 subunit) and Adcy3 mutants, suggesting that CIH-induced cAMP mediates enhanced Ca2+ responses through cyclic nucleotide-gated channels. Furthermore, Adcy3 null mice did not exhibit either CB activation or sympathetic activation by CIH. These results demonstrate that Adcy3-dependent cAMP is a downstream signaling pathway to H2S/Olfr78, mediating CIH-induced CB activation, sympathetic activity and hypertension.

Olfactory-trigeminal integration in the primary olfactory cortex

Humans naturally integrate signals from the olfactory and intranasal trigeminal systems. A tight interplay has been demonstrated between these two systems, and yet the neural circuitry mediating olfactory-trigeminal (OT) integration remains poorly understood. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), combined with psychophysics, this study investigated the neural mechanisms underlying OT integration. Fifteen participants with normal olfactory function performed a localization task with air-puff stimuli, phenylethyl alcohol (PEA; rose odor), or a combination thereof while being scanned. The ability to localize PEA to either nostril was at chance. Yet, its presence significantly improved the localization accuracy of weak, but not strong, air-puffs, when both stimuli were delivered concurrently to the same nostril, but not when different nostrils received the two stimuli. This enhancement in localization accuracy, exemplifying the principles of spatial coincidence and inverse effectiveness in multisensory integration, was associated with multisensory integrative activity in the primary olfactory (POC), orbitofrontal (OFC), superior temporal (STC), inferior parietal (IPC) and cingulate cortices, and in the cerebellum. Multisensory enhancement in most of these regions correlated with behavioral multisensory enhancement, as did increases in connectivity between some of these regions. We interpret these findings as indicating that the POC is part of a distributed brain network mediating integration between the olfactory and trigeminal systems. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Psychophysical and neuroimaging study of olfactory-trigeminal (OT) integration. Behavior, cortical activity, and network connectivity show OT integration. OT integration obeys principles of inverse effectiveness and spatial coincidence. Behavioral and neural measures of OT integration are correlated.

A mechanosensory feedback that uncouples external and self-generated sensory responses in the olfactory cortex

Sampling behaviors have sensory consequences that can hinder perceptual stability. In olfaction, sniffing affects early odor encoding, mimicking a sudden change in odor concentration. We examined how the inhalation speed affects the representation of odor concentration in the main olfactory cortex. Neurons combine the odor input with a global top-down signal preceding the sniff and a mechanosensory feedback generated by the air passage through the nose during inhalation. Still, the population representation of concentration is remarkably sniff invariant. This is because the mechanosensory and olfactory responses are uncorrelated within and across neurons. Thus, faster odor inhalation and an increase in concentration change the cortical activity pattern in distinct ways. This encoding strategy affords tolerance to potential concentration fluctuations caused by varying inhalation speeds. Since mechanosensory reafferences are widespread across sensory systems, the coding scheme described here may be a canonical strategy to mitigate the sensory ambiguities caused by movements.

A peripheral subepithelial network for chemotactile processing in the predatory sea slug Pleurobranchaea californica

Many soft-bodied animals have extensive peripheral nervous systems (PNS) with significant sensory roles. One such, the sea slug Pleurobranchaea californica, uses PNS computations in its chemotactile oral veil (OV) in prey tracking, averaging olfactory stimuli across the OV to target likely source direction, or "stimulus place". This suggests a peripheral subepithelial network (SeN) interconnecting sensory sites to compute the directional average. We pursued anatomy and connectivity of previously described ciliated putative sensory cells on OV papillae. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) confirmed paddle-shaped cilia in clusters. Anti-tubulin and phalloidin staining showed connections to branching nervelets and muscle fibers for contraction and expansion of papillae. Ciliary cell processes could not be traced into nerves, consistent with sensory transmission to CNS via secondary afferents. Anti-tyrosine hydroxylase-stained ciliated cells in clusters and revealed an at least partially dopaminergic subepithelial network interconnecting clusters near and distant, connections consistent with PNS averaging of multiple stimulated loci. Other, unidentified, SeN neurotransmitters are likely. Confirming chemotactile functions, perfusible suction electrodes recorded ciliary spiking excited by both mechanical and appetitive chemical stimuli. Stimuli induced sensory nerve spiking like that encoding stimulus place. Sensory nerve spikes and cilia cluster spikes were not identifiable as generated by the same neurons. Ciliary clusters likely drive the sensory nerve spikes via SeN, mediating appetitive and stimulus place codes to CNS. These observations may facilitate future analyses of the PNS in odor discrimination and memory, and also suggest such SeNs as potential evolutionary precursors of CNS place-coding circuitry in the segmented, skeletonized protostomes and deuterostomes.

Comparing neuronal oscillations during visual spatial attention orienting between normobaric and hypobaric hypoxia

Normobaric hypoxia (NH) and hypobaric hypoxia (HH) are both used to train aircraft pilots to recognize symptoms of hypoxia. NH (low oxygen concentration) training is often preferred because it is more cost effective, simpler, and safer than HH. It is unclear, however, whether NH is neurophysiologically equivalent to HH (high altitude). Previous studies have shown that neural oscillations, particularly those in the alpha band (8-12 Hz), are impacted by hypoxia. Attention tasks have been shown to reliably modulate alpha oscillations, although the neurophysiological impacts of hypoxia during cognitive processing remains poorly understood. To address this we investigated induced and evoked power alongside physiological data while participants performed an attention task during control (normobaric normoxia or NN), NH (fraction of inspired oxygen = 12.8%, partial pressure of inspired oxygen = 87.2 mmHg), and HH (3962 m, partial pressure of inspired oxygen = 87.2 mmHg) conditions inside a hypobaric chamber. No significant differences between NH and HH were found in oxygen saturation, end tidal gases, breathing rate, middle cerebral artery velocity and blood pressure. Induced alpha power was significantly decreased in NH and HH when compared to NN. Participants in the HH condition showed significantly increased induced lower-beta power and evoked higher-beta power, compared with the NH and NN conditions, indicating that NH and HH differ in their impact on neurophysiological activity supporting cognition. NH and HH were found not to be neurophysiologically equivalent as electroencephalography was able to differentiate NH from HH.

Mechanosensitive GPCRs and ion channels in shear stress sensing

As a universal mechanical cue, shear stress plays essential roles in many physiological processes, ranging from vascular morphogenesis and remodeling to renal transport and airway barrier function. Disrupted shear stress is commonly regarded as a major contributor to various human diseases such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, and chronic kidney disease. Despite the importance of shear stress in physiology and pathophysiology, our current understanding of mechanosensors that sense shear stress is far from complete. An increasing number of candidate mechanosensors have been proposed to mediate shear stress sensing in distinct cell types, including G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), G proteins, receptor tyrosine kinases, ion channels, glycocalyx proteins, and junctional proteins. Although multiple types of mechanosensors might be able to convert shear stress into downstream biochemical signaling events, in this review, we will focus on discussing the mechanosensitive GPCRs (angiotensin II type 1 receptor, GPR68, histamine H1 receptor, adhesion GPCRs) and ion channels (Piezo, TRP) that have been reported to be directly activated by shear stress.

Hypoxia sensing requires H2S-dependent persulfidation of olfactory receptor 78

Oxygen (O2) sensing by the carotid body is critical for maintaining cardiorespiratory homeostasis during hypoxia. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) signaling is implicated in carotid body activation by low O2. Here, we show that persulfidation of olfactory receptor 78 (Olfr78) by H2S is an integral component of carotid body activation by hypoxia. Hypoxia and H2S increased persulfidation in carotid body glomus cells and persulfidated cysteine240 in Olfr78 protein in heterologous system. Olfr78 mutants manifest impaired carotid body sensory nerve, glomus cell, and breathing responses to H2S and hypoxia. Glomus cells are positive for GOlf, adenylate cyclase 3 (Adcy3) and cyclic nucleotide-gated channel alpha 2 (Cnga2), key molecules of odorant receptor signaling. Adcy3 or Cnga2 mutants exhibited impaired carotid body and glomus cell responses to H2S and breathing responses to hypoxia. These results suggest that H2S through redox modification of Olfr78 participates in carotid body activation by hypoxia to regulate breathing.

Behavioral State-Dependent Modulation of Prefrontal Cortex Activity by Respiration

Respiration-rhythmic oscillations in the local field potential emerge in the mPFC, a cortical region with a key role in the regulation of cognitive and emotional behavior. Respiration-driven rhythms coordinate local activity by entraining fast γ oscillations as well as single-unit discharges. To what extent respiration entrainment differently engages the mPFC network in a behavioral state-dependent manner, however, is not known. Here, we compared the respiration entrainment of mouse PFC local field potential and spiking activity (23 male and 2 female mice) across distinct behavioral states: during awake immobility in the home cage (HC), during passive coping in response to inescapable stress under tail suspension (TS), and during reward consumption (Rew). Respiration-driven rhythms emerged during all three states. However, prefrontal γ oscillations were more strongly entrained by respiration during HC than TS or Rew. Moreover, neuronal spikes of putative pyramidal cells and putative interneurons showed significant respiration phase-coupling throughout behaviors with characteristic phase preferences depending on the behavioral state. Finally, while phase-coupling dominated in deep layers in HC and Rew conditions, TS resulted in the recruitment of superficial layer neurons to respiration. These results jointly suggest that respiration dynamically entrains prefrontal neuronal activity depending on the behavioral state.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The mPFC, through its extensive connections (e.g., to the amygdala, the striatum, serotoninergic and dopaminergic nuclei), flexibly regulates cognitive behaviors. Impairment of prefrontal functions can lead to disease states, such as depression, addiction, or anxiety disorders. Deciphering the complex regulation of PFC activity during defined behavioral states is thus an essential challenge. Here, we investigated the role of a prefrontal slow oscillation that has recently attracted rising interest, the respiration rhythm, in modulating prefrontal neurons during distinct behavioral states. We show that prefrontal neuronal activity is differently entrained by the respiration rhythm in a cell type- and behavior-dependent manner. These results provide first insight into the complex modulation of prefrontal activity patterns by rhythmic breathing.

Respiratory influence on brain dynamics: the preponderant role of the nasal pathway and deep slow regime

As a possible body signal influencing brain dynamics, respiration is fundamental for perception, cognition, and emotion. The olfactory system has recently acquired its credentials by proving to be crucial in the transmission of respiratory influence on the brain via the sensitivity to nasal airflow of its receptor cells. Here, we present recent findings evidencing respiration-related activities in the brain. Then, we review the data explaining the fact that breathing is (i) nasal and (ii) being slow and deep is crucial in its ability to stimulate the olfactory system and consequently influence the brain. In conclusion, we propose a possible scenario explaining how this optimal respiratory regime can promote changes in brain dynamics of an olfacto-limbic-respiratory circuit, providing a possibility to induce calm and relaxation by coordinating breathing regime and brain state.

Experimental and theoretical probe on mechano- and chemosensory integration in the insect antennal lobe

In nature, olfactory signals are delivered to detectors—for example, insect antennae—by means of turbulent air, which exerts concurrent chemical and mechanical stimulation on the detectors. The antennal lobe, which is traditionally viewed as a chemosensory module, sits downstream of antennal inputs. We review experimental evidence showing that, in addition to being a chemosensory structure, antennal lobe neurons also respond to mechanosensory input in the form of wind speed. Benchmarked with empirical data, we constructed a dynamical model to simulate bimodal integration in the antennal lobe, with model dynamics yielding insights such as a positive correlation between the strength of mechanical input and the capacity to follow high frequency odor pulses, an important task in tracking odor sources. Furthermore, we combine experimental and theoretical results to develop a conceptual framework for viewing the functional significance of sensory integration within the antennal lobe. We formulate the testable hypothesis that the antennal lobe alternates between two distinct dynamical regimes, one which benefits odor plume tracking and one which promotes odor discrimination. We postulate that the strength of mechanical input, which correlates with behavioral contexts such being mid-flight versus hovering near a flower, triggers the transition from one regime to the other.

Immature olfactory sensory neurons provide behaviourally relevant sensory input to the olfactory bulb

Postnatal neurogenesis provides an opportunity to understand how newborn neurons integrate into circuits to restore function. Newborn olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) wire into highly organized olfactory bulb (OB) circuits throughout life, enabling lifelong plasticity and regeneration. Immature OSNs form functional synapses capable of evoking firing in OB projection neurons but what contribution, if any, they make to odor processing is unknown. Here, we show that immature OSNs provide odor input to the mouse OB, where they form monosynaptic connections with excitatory neurons. Importantly, immature OSNs respond as selectively to odorants as mature OSNs and exhibit graded responses across a wider range of odorant concentrations than mature OSNs, suggesting that immature and mature OSNs provide distinct odor input streams. Furthermore, mice can successfully perform odor detection and discrimination tasks using sensory input from immature OSNs alone. Together, our findings suggest that immature OSNs play a previously unappreciated role in olfactory-guided behavior.

Olfactory modulation of the medial prefrontal cortex circuitry: Implications for social cognition

Olfactory dysfunction is manifested in a wide range of neurological and psychiatric diseases, and often emerges prior to the onset of more classical symptoms and signs. From a behavioral perspective, olfactory deficits typically arise in conjunction with impairments of cognition, motivation, memory, and emotion. However, a conceptual framework for explaining the impact of olfactory processing on higher brain functions in health and disease remains lacking. Here we aim to provide circuit-level insights into this question by synthesizing recent advances in olfactory network connectivity with other cortical brain regions such as the prefrontal cortex. We will focus on social cognition as a representative model for exploring and critically evaluating the relationship between olfactory cortices and higher-order cortical regions in rodent models. Although rodents do not recapitulate all dimensions of human social cognition, they have experimentally accessible neural circuits and well-established behavioral tests for social motivation, memory/recognition, and hierarchy, which can be extrapolated to other species including humans. In particular, the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) has been recognized as a key brain region in mediating social cognition in both rodents and humans. This review will highlight the underappreciated connectivity, both anatomical and functional, between the olfactory system and mPFC circuitry, which together provide a neural substrate for olfactory modulation of social cognition and social behaviors. We will provide future perspectives on the functional investigation of the olfactory-mPFC circuit in rodent models and discuss how to translate such animal research to human studies.

Coupling of Mouse Olfactory Bulb Projection Neurons to Fluctuating Odor Pulses

Odors are transported by turbulent air currents, creating complex temporal fluctuations in odor concentration that provide a potentially informative stimulus dimension. We have shown that mice are able to discriminate odor stimuli based on their temporal structure, indicating that information contained in the temporal structure of odor plumes can be extracted by the mouse olfactory system. Here, using in vivo extracellular and intracellular electrophysiological recordings, we show that mitral cells (MCs) and tufted cells (TCs) of the male C57BL/6 mouse olfactory bulb can encode the dominant temporal frequencies present in odor stimuli up to at least 20 Hz. A substantial population of cell-odor pairs showed significant coupling of their subthreshold membrane potential with the odor stimulus at both 2 Hz (29/70) and the suprasniff frequency 20 Hz (24/70). Furthermore, mitral/tufted cells (M/TCs) show differential coupling of their membrane potential to odor concentration fluctuations with tufted cells coupling more strongly for the 20 Hz stimulation. Frequency coupling was always observed to be invariant to odor identity, and M/TCs that coupled well to a mixture also coupled to at least one of the components of the mixture. Interestingly, pharmacological blocking of the inhibitory circuitry strongly modulated frequency coupling of cell-odor pairs at both 2 Hz (10/15) and 20 Hz (9/15). These results provide insight into how both cellular and circuit properties contribute to the encoding of temporal odor features in the mouse olfactory bulb.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Odors in the natural environment have a strong temporal structure that can be extracted and used by mice in their behavior. Here, using in vivo extracellular and intracellular electrophysiological techniques, we show that the projection neurons in the olfactory bulb can encode and couple to the dominant frequency present in an odor stimulus. Furthermore, frequency coupling was observed to be differential between mitral and tufted cells and was odor invariant but strongly modulated by local inhibitory circuits. In summary, this study provides insight into how both cellular and circuit properties modulate encoding of odor temporal features in the mouse olfactory bulb.

Mechanical stress acclimation in plants: Linking hormones and somatic memory to thigmomorphogenesis

A single event of mechanical stimulation is perceived by mechanoreceptors that transduce rapid transient signalling to regulate gene expression. Prolonged mechanical stress for days to weeks culminates in cellular changes that strengthen the plant architecture leading to thigmomorphogenesis. The convergence of multiple signalling pathways regulates mechanically induced tolerance to numerous biotic and abiotic stresses. Emerging evidence showed prolonged mechanical stimulation can modify the baseline level of gene expression in naive tissues, heighten gene expression, and prime disease resistance upon a subsequent pathogen encounter. The phenotypes of thigmomorphogenesis can persist throughout growth without continued stimulation, revealing somatic-stress memory. Epigenetic processes regulate TOUCH gene expression and could program transcriptional memory in differentiating cells to program thigmomorphogenesis. We discuss the early perception, gene regulatory and phytohormone pathways that facilitate thigmomorphogenesis and mechanical stress acclimation in Arabidopsis and other plant species. We provide insights regarding: (1) the regulatory mechanisms induced by single or prolonged events of mechanical stress, (2) how mechanical stress confers transcriptional memory to induce cross-acclimation to future stress, and (3) why thigmomorphogenesis might resemble an epigenetic phenomenon. Deeper knowledge of how prolonged mechanical stimulation programs somatic memory and primes defence acclimation could transform solutions to improve agricultural sustainability in stressful environments.

Parallel Processing of Olfactory and Mechanosensory Information in the Honey Bee Antennal Lobe

In insects, neuronal responses to clean air have so far been reported only episodically in moths. Here we present results obtained by fast two-photon calcium imaging in the honey bee Apis mellifera, indicating a substantial involvement of the antennal lobe, the first olfactory neuropil, in the processing of mechanical stimuli. Clean air pulses generate a complex pattern of glomerular activation that provides a code for stimulus intensity and dynamics with a similar level of stereotypy as observed for the olfactory code. Overlapping the air pulses with odor stimuli reveals a superposition of mechanosensory and odor response codes with high contrast. On the mechanosensitive signal, modulations were observed in the same frequency regime as the oscillatory motion of the antennae, suggesting a possible way to detect odorless airflow directions. The transduction of mechanosensory information via the insect antennae has so far been attributed primarily to Johnston's organ in the pedicel of the antenna. The possibility that the antennal lobe activation by clean air originates from Johnston's organ could be ruled out, as the signal is suppressed by covering the surfaces of the otherwise freely moving and bending antennae, which should leave Johnston's organ unaffected. The tuning curves of individual glomeruli indicate increased sensitivity at low-frequency mechanical oscillations as produced by the abdominal motion in waggle dance communication, suggesting a further potential function of this mechanosensory code. The discovery that the olfactory system can sense both odors and mechanical stimuli has recently been made also in mammals. The results presented here give hope that studies on insects can make a fundamental contribution to the cross-taxa understanding of this dual function, as only a few thousand neurons are involved in their brains, all of which are accessible by in vivo optical imaging.

Respiration-Driven Brain Oscillations in Emotional Cognition

Respiration paces brain oscillations and the firing of individual neurons, revealing a profound impact of rhythmic breathing on brain activity. Intriguingly, respiration-driven entrainment of neural activity occurs in a variety of cortical areas, including those involved in higher cognitive functions such as associative neocortical regions and the hippocampus. Here we review recent findings of respiration-entrained brain activity with a particular focus on emotional cognition. We summarize studies from different brain areas involved in emotional behavior such as fear, despair, and motivation, and compile findings of respiration-driven activities across species. Furthermore, we discuss the proposed cellular and network mechanisms by which cortical circuits are entrained by respiration. The emerging synthesis from a large body of literature suggests that the impact of respiration on brain function is widespread across the brain and highly relevant for distinct cognitive functions. These intricate links between respiration and cognitive processes call for mechanistic studies of the role of rhythmic breathing as a timing signal for brain activity.

A Shearless Microfluidic Device Detects a Role in Mechanosensitivity for AWCON Neuron in Caenorhabditis elegans

AWC olfactory neurons are fundamental for chemotaxis toward volatile attractants in Caenorhabditis elegans. Here, it is shown that AWC^ON responds not only to chemicals but also to mechanical stimuli caused by fluid flow changes in a microfluidic device. The dynamics of calcium events are correlated with the stimulus amplitude. It is further shown that the mechanosensitivity of AWC^ON neurons has an intrinsic nature rather than a synaptic origin, and the calcium transient response is mediated by TAX-4 cGMP-gated cation channel, suggesting the involvement of one or more "odorant" receptors in AWC^ON mechano-transduction. In many cases, the responses show plateau properties resembling bistable calcium dynamics where neurons can switch from one stable state to the other. To investigate the unprecedentedly observed mechanosensitivity of AWC^ON neurons, a novel microfluidic device is designed to minimize the fluid shear flow in the arena hosting the nematodes. Animals in this device show reduced neuronal activation of AWC^ON neurons. The results observed indicate that the tangential component of the mechanical stress is the main contributor to the mechanosensitivity of AWC^ON . Furthermore, the microfluidic platform, integrating shearless perfusion and calcium imaging, provides a novel and more controlled solution for in vivo analysis both in micro-organisms and cultured cells.

Respiratory coupling between prefrontal cortex and hippocampus of rats anaesthetized with urethane in theta and non-theta states

Respiratory modulation of forebrain activity, long considered hard to reliably separate from breathing artefacts, has been firmly established in recent years using a variety of advanced techniques. Respiratory-related oscillation (RRO) is derived from rhythmic nasal airflow in the olfactory bulb (OB) and is conveyed to higher order brain networks, including the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus (HC), where it may potentially contribute to communication between these structures by synchronizing their activities at the respiratory rate. RRO was shown to change with sleep-wake states; it is strongest in quiet waking, somewhat less in active waking, characterized with theta activity in the HC, and absent in sleep. The goal of this study was to test RRO synchronization between PFC and HC under urethane anaesthesia where theta and non-theta states spontaneously alternate. We found that in theta states, PFC-HC coherences significantly correlated with OB-HC but not with OB-PFC, even though RRO was stronger in PFC than in HC. In non-theta states, PFC-HC synchrony correlated with coherences connecting OB to either PFC or HC. Thus, similar to freely behaving rats, PFC-HC synchrony at RRO was primarily dependent on the response of HC to the common rhythmic drive, but only in theta state. The findings help outlining the value and the limits of applications in which urethane-anaesthetized rats can be used for modelling the neural mechanisms of RRO in behaving animals.

Principles of odor coding in vertebrates and artificial chemosensory systems

The biological olfactory system is the sensory system responsible for the detection of the chemical composition of the environment. Several attempts to mimic biological olfactory systems have led to various artificial olfactory systems using different technical approaches. Here we provide a parallel description of biological olfactory systems and their technical counterparts. We start with a presentation of the input to the systems, the stimuli, and treat the interface between the external world and the environment where receptor neurons or artificial chemosensors reside. We then delineate the functions of receptor neurons and chemosensors as well as their overall I-O relationships. Up to this point, our account of the systems goes along similar lines. The next processing steps differ considerably: while in biology the processing step following the receptor neurons is the "integration" and "processing" of receptor neuron outputs in the olfactory bulb, this step has various realizations in electronic noses. For a long period of time, the signal processing stages beyond the olfactory bulb, i.e., the higher olfactory centers were little studied. Only recently there has been a marked growth of studies tackling the information processing in these centers. In electronic noses, a third stage of processing has virtually never been considered. In this review, we provide an up-to-date overview of the current knowledge of both fields and, for the first time, attempt to tie them together. We hope it will be a breeding ground for better information, communication, and data exchange between very related but so far little connected fields.

Temporal Relations between Cortical Network Oscillations and Breathing Frequency during REM Sleep

Nasal breathing generates a rhythmic signal which entrains cortical network oscillations in widespread brain regions on a cycle-to-cycle time scale. It is unknown, however, how respiration and neuronal network activity interact on a larger time scale: are breathing frequency and typical neuronal oscillation patterns correlated? Is there any directionality or temporal relationship? To address these questions, we recorded field potentials from the posterior parietal cortex of mice together with respiration during REM sleep. In this state, the parietal cortex exhibits prominent θ and γ oscillations while behavioral activity is minimal, reducing confounding signals. We found that the instantaneous breathing frequency strongly correlates with the instantaneous frequency and amplitude of both θ and γ oscillations. Cross-correlograms and Granger causality revealed specific directionalities for different rhythms: changes in θ activity precede and Granger-cause changes in breathing frequency, suggesting control by the functional state of the brain. On the other hand, the instantaneous breathing frequency Granger causes changes in γ frequency, suggesting that γ is influenced by a peripheral reafference signal. These findings show that changes in breathing frequency temporally relate to changes in different patterns of rhythmic brain activity. We hypothesize that such temporal relations are mediated by a common central drive likely to be located in the brainstem.

A physicochemical model of odor sampling

We present a general physicochemical sampling model for olfaction, based on established pharmacological laws, in which arbitrary combinations of odorant ligands and receptors can be generated and their individual and collective effects on odor representations and olfactory performance measured. Individual odor ligands exhibit receptor-specific affinities and efficacies; that is, they may bind strongly or weakly to a given receptor, and can act as strong agonists, weak agonists, partial agonists, or antagonists. Ligands interacting with common receptors compete with one another for dwell time; these competitive interactions appropriately simulate the degeneracy that fundamentally defines the capacities and limitations of odorant sampling. The outcome of these competing ligand-receptor interactions yields a pattern of receptor activation levels, thereafter mapped to glomerular presynaptic activation levels based on the convergence of sensory neuron axons. The metric of greatest interest is the mean discrimination sensitivity, a measure of how effectively the olfactory system at this level is able to recognize a small change in the physicochemical quality of a stimulus. This model presents several significant outcomes, both expected and surprising. First, adding additional receptors reliably improves the system's discrimination sensitivity. Second, in contrast, adding additional ligands to an odorscene initially can improve discrimination sensitivity, but eventually will reduce it as the number of ligands increases. Third, the presence of antagonistic ligand-receptor interactions produced clear benefits for sensory system performance, generating higher absolute discrimination sensitivities and increasing the numbers of competing ligands that could be present before discrimination sensitivity began to be impaired. Finally, the model correctly reflects and explains the modest reduction in odor discrimination sensitivity exhibited by transgenic mice in which the specificity of glomerular targeting by primary olfactory neurons is partially disrupted.

Widespread Inhibition, Antagonism, and Synergy in Mouse Olfactory Sensory Neurons In Vivo

Sensory information is selectively or non-selectively enhanced and inhibited in the brain, but it remains unclear whether and how this occurs at the most peripheral level. Using in vivo calcium imaging of mouse olfactory bulb and olfactory epithelium in wild-type and mutant animals, we show that odors produce not only excitatory but also inhibitory responses in olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs). Heterologous assays indicate that odorants can act as agonists to some but inverse agonists to other odorant receptors. We also demonstrate that responses to odor mixtures are extensively suppressed or enhanced in OSNs. When high concentrations of odors are mixed, widespread antagonism suppresses the overall response amplitudes and density. In contrast, a mixture of low concentrations of odors often produces synergistic effects and boosts the faint odor inputs. Thus, odor responses are extensively tuned by inhibition, antagonism, and synergy at the most peripheral level, contributing to robust sensory representations.

Delta-range coupling between prefrontal cortex and hippocampus supported by respiratory rhythmic input from the olfactory bulb in freely behaving rats

Respiratory rhythm (RR) during sniffing is known to couple with hippocampal theta rhythm. However, outside of the short sniffing bouts, a more stable ~ 2 Hz RR was recently shown to rhythmically modulate non-olfactory cognitive processes, as well. The underlying RR coupling with wide-spread forebrain activity was confirmed using advanced techniques, creating solid premise for investigating how higher networks use this mechanism in their communication. Here we show essential differences in the way prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus (HC) process the RR signal from the olfactory bulb (OB) that may support dynamic, flexible PFC-HC coupling utilizing this input. We used inter-regional coherences and their correlations in rats, breathing at low rate (~ 2 Hz), outside of the short sniffing bouts. We found strong and stable OB-PFC coherence in wake states, contrasting OB-HC coherence which was low but highly variable. Importantly, this variability was essential for establishing PFC-HC synchrony at RR, whereas variations of RRO in OB and PFC had no significant effect. The findings help to understand the mechanism of rhythmic modulation of non-olfactory cognitive processes by the on-going regular respiration, reported in rodents as well as humans. These mechanisms may be impaired when nasal breathing is limited or in OB-pathology, including malfunctions of the olfactory epithelium due to infections, such as in Covid-19.

Medical aromatherapy in geriatric syndrome

Geriatric syndromes are symptoms and signs, such as falls, incontinence, delirium, pressure ulcers, dysphagia and so on, that often threaten the independence of older adults, rather than the disease itself. Although the syndromes are very common in older people, it is difficult to treat those by modern medicine due to their complexity. To mitigate the intractable geriatric symptoms, we review the efficacy of aromatherapy, especially for dysphagia, dyspnea, cognitive dysfunction and falls in geriatric syndrome. Olfactory stimulation using a volatile black pepper oil on institutional residents improved the swallowing reflex, which is a crucial risk factor of aspiration pneumonia. Brain imaging study showed that olfactory stimulation using volatile black pepper oil activated cerebral regions of the anterior cingulate and the insular cortex, which play a role in controlling appetite and swallowing. Also, aromatherapy with volatile l-menthol decreased the sense of dyspnea and improved the efficacy of exercise therapy. The fragrance of the combination of rosemary and lemon oils in the morning, and the combination of lavender and orange oils in the night-time were reported to improve cognition and behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia, respectively. Also, the combination of lavender and lemon balm oils was reported to be effective for irritability-related agitation in older adults. Furthermore, aromatherapy with lavender fragrance could improve both static and dynamic balance, resulting in a reduction in the number of fallers and the incidence rate in older people. Thus, aromatherapy is a promising remedy for geriatric syndrome. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2021; 21: 377-385.

Delta-range coupling between prefrontal cortex and hippocampus supported by respiratory rhythmic input from the olfactory bulb in freely behaving rats

An explosion of recent findings firmly demonstrated that brain activity and cognitive function in rodents and humans are modulated synchronously with nasal respiration. Rhythmic respiratory (RR) coupling of wide-spread forebrain activity was confirmed using advanced techniques, including current source density analysis, single unit firing, and phase modulation of local gamma activity, creating solid premise for investigating how higher networks use this mechanism in their communication. Here we show essential differences in the way prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus (HC) process the RR signal from the olfactory bulb (OB) allowing dynamic PFC-HC coupling utilizing this input. We used inter-regional coherences and their correlations in rats, breathing at low rate (∼2 Hz) at rest, outside of the short sniffing bouts. We found strong and stable OB-PFC coherence, contrasting OB-HC coherence which was low but highly variable. PFC-HC coupling, however, primarily correlated with the latter, indicating that HC access to the PFC output is dynamically regulated by the responsiveness of HC to the common rhythmic drive. This pattern was present in both theta and non-theta states of waking, whereas PFC-HC communication appeared protected from RR synchronization in sleep states. The findings help to understand the mechanism of rhythmic modulation of non-olfactory cognitive processes by the on-going regular respiration, reported in rodents as well as humans. These mechanisms may be impaired when nasal breathing is limited or in OB-pathology, including malfunctions of the OB epithelium due to infections, such as in COVID-19.

The cyclic AMP signaling pathway in the rodent main olfactory system

Odor perception begins with the detection of odorant molecules by the main olfactory epithelium located in the nasal cavity. Odorant molecules bind to and activate a large family of G-protein-coupled odorant receptors and trigger a cAMP-mediated transduction cascade that converts the chemical stimulus into an electrical signal transmitted to the brain. Morever, odorant receptors and cAMP signaling plays a relevant role in olfactory sensory neuron development and axonal targeting to the olfactory bulb. This review will first explore the physiological response of olfactory sensory neurons to odorants and then analyze the different components of cAMP signaling and their different roles in odorant detection and olfactory sensory neuron development.

Olfactory marker protein interacts with adenosine nucleotide derivatives

Olfactory marker protein (OMP) is a genetic signature for mature olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs). Recently, it has been proposed that OMP directly captures odour-induced cAMP to swiftly terminate the olfactory signal transduction to maintain neuronal sensitivity. In the present study, we show that OMP can also interact with other adenosine nucleotides as ATP, ADP and AMP with different affinities. We performed bioluminescent resonant energy transfer (BRET) assay to measure the binding actions of the adenosine nucleotide derivatives in competition to cAMP. Amongst all, ATP showed the bell-shape affinity to OMP in the presence of cAMP; ADP and AMP showed fewer affinities to OMP than ATP. In the absence of cAMP analogues, ATP alone bound to OMP in a dose dependent manner with a lower affinity than to cAMP. Thus, OMP possessed different affinities to ATP in the presence or absence of cAMP. OMP may interact differentially with ATP and cAMP depending on its supply and demand along the cAMP-associated signalling in the limited spaces of cilia of ORNs.

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Olfactory marker protein (OMP) contains cAMP-binding sites.

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The affinity of OMP towards adenosine nucleotide derivatives was studied.

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OMP showed sigmoid-shaped affinity towards ATP.

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OMP showed U-shaped affinity towards ATP in competition with cAMP.

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OMP dose-dependently and differentially captured ATP.

Ovarian odorant-like biomolecules in promoting chemotaxis behavior of spermatozoa olfactory receptors during migration, maturation, and fertilization

Background

Studies have shown that olfactory receptor genes are the largest in the human genome, which are significantly expressed in olfactory and non-olfactory tissues such as the reproductive systems where they perform many important biological functions.

Main body

There is growing evidence that bioactive metabolites from the ovary, follicular fluid, and other parts of the female reproductive tract signal the sperm through a series of signal transduction cascades that regulate sperm migration, maturation, and fertilization processes. Several studies have highlighted the role of G-protein-coupled receptors in these cellular processes. Thus, we aimed to summarize the existing evidence describing the physiological role of most prominent exogenous and endogenous biomolecules found in the female reproductive organ in enhancing the chemotaxis behavior of spermatozoa during migration, maturation, and fertilization and also to elucidate the pathological implications of its dysfunctions and the clinical significance in human fertility.

Short conclusion

In the future, drugs and molecules can be designed to activate these receptors on sperm to facilitate fertility among infertile couples and use as contraceptives.

Nasal airflow engages central olfactory processing and shapes olfactory percepts

Binding of airborne odour molecules to olfactory receptors at the top of the nasal cavity gives rise to our rich olfactory experience. Whether airflow plays a role in human olfactory perception beyond the transportation of odorants is scantly known. Combining psychophysical measures with strict controls of nasal flow parameters, we demonstrate in four experiments that the perceived intensity of a unilaterally presented odour decreases systematically with the amount of contralateral nasal airflow, in manners that are independent of odour flow rate, nasal pressure, perceived sniff vigour or attentional allocation. Moreover, the effect is due to the sensed rather than the factual amount of nasal flow, as applying a local anaesthetic to the contralateral nostril produces the same effect as physically blocking it. Our findings indicate that nasal flow spontaneously engages central olfactory processing and serves as an integral part of the olfactory percept in humans.

Olfactory marker protein contributes to the evaluation of odour values by olfactory glomerular processing

Olfaction starts from olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) that express olfactory marker protein (OMP). OMP deficit results in various behavioural phenotypes indicating olfactory dysfunction due to the impaired responses of ORNs. Recently, OMP was demonstrated to maintain strong olfaction by buffering olfactory cAMP signalling. However, the impact of OMP on olfaction behaviours, the assessment of which requires time to evaluate odour values, remains largely unexplained. Here, we examined the behaviour of heterozygous OMP^+/GFP (HET) mice vs. homologous GFP-knock-in OMP-deficient OMP ^{GFP/ GFP} (KI) mice during the olfactory investigation of odours with different values. When a swab containing an organic odour was presented, both HET and KI mice swiftly approached and investigated the swab with gradual habituation over test sessions. However, when another similar odour was presented, KI mice investigated the new swab much less intensively than HET mice. Next, mice were placed in a chamber with an aversive odour source in one corner of a test chamber. KI mice more frequently approached the compartment containing the aversive odour source than HET mice. Finally, we trained mice to associate two odours with solutions by utilizing reward-penalty values. HET mice stayed close to the reward-associated odour, while KI mice initially approached the reward-associated odour, occasionally turned towards the penalty-associated odour source and eventually stayed in the reward-odour compartment. Histologically, c-Fos-expressing juxtaglomerular cells were fewer and more broadly distributed around glomeruli in KI mice than HET mice. In conclusion, OMP contributes to the evaluation of odour values by glomerular processing during an olfactory investigation task.

Respiration-Locking of Olfactory Receptor and Projection Neurons in the Mouse Olfactory Bulb and Its Modulation by Brain State

For sensory systems of the brain, the dynamics of an animal’s own sampling behavior has a direct consequence on ensuing computations. This is particularly the case for mammalian olfaction, where a rhythmic flow of air over the nasal epithelium entrains activity in olfactory system neurons in a phenomenon known as sniff-locking. Parameters of sniffing can, however, change drastically with brain states. Coupled to the fact that different observation methods have different kinetics, consensus on the sniff-locking properties of neurons is lacking. To address this, we investigated the sniff-related activity of olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs), as well as the principal neurons of the olfactory bulb (OB), using 2-photon calcium imaging and intracellular whole-cell patch-clamp recordings in vivo, both in anesthetized and awake mice. Our results indicate that OSNs and OB output neurons lock robustly to the sniff rhythm, but with a slight temporal shift between behavioral states. We also observed a slight delay between methods. Further, the divergent sniff-locking by tufted cells (TCs) and mitral cells (MCs) in the absence of odor can be used to determine the cell type reliably using a simple linear classifier. Using this classification on datasets where morphological identification is unavailable, we find that MCs use a wider range of temporal shifts to encode odors than previously thought, while TCs have a constrained timing of activation due to an early-onset hyperpolarization. We conclude that the sniff rhythm serves as a fundamental rhythm but its impact on odor encoding depends on cell type, and this difference is accentuated in awake mice.

Mechanosensitivity is an essential component of phototransduction in vertebrate rods

Photoreceptors are specialized cells devoted to the transduction of the incoming visual signals. Rods are able also to shed from their tip old disks and to synthesize at the base of the outer segment (OS) new disks. By combining electrophysiology, optical tweezers (OTs), and biochemistry, we investigate mechanosensitivity in the rods of Xenopus laevis, and we show that 1) mechanosensitive channels (MSCs), transient receptor potential canonical 1 (TRPC1), and Piezo1 are present in rod inner segments (ISs); 2) mechanical stimulation—of the order of 10 pN—applied briefly to either the OS or IS evokes calcium transients; 3) inhibition of MSCs decreases the duration of photoresponses to bright flashes; 4) bright flashes of light induce a rapid shortening of the OS; and 5) the genes encoding the TRPC family have an ancient association with the genes encoding families of protein involved in phototransduction. These results suggest that MSCs play an integral role in rods’ phototransduction.

It is widely thought that sensory neurons are specialized to transduce just a single sensory modality. A combination of electrophysiology, optical tweezers, and histochemistry reveals that rod photoreceptors not only express mechanosensitive channels but display mechanosensitivity, which is crucial for phototransduction.

Olfactory marker protein directly buffers cAMP to avoid depolarization-induced silencing of olfactory receptor neurons

Olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) use odour-induced intracellular cAMP surge to gate cyclic nucleotide-gated nonselective cation (CNG) channels in cilia. Prolonged exposure to cAMP causes calmodulin-dependent feedback-adaptation of CNG channels and attenuates neural responses. On the other hand, the odour-source searching behaviour requires ORNs to be sensitive to odours when approaching targets. How ORNs accommodate these conflicting aspects of cAMP responses remains unknown. Here, we discover that olfactory marker protein (OMP) is a major cAMP buffer that maintains the sensitivity of ORNs. Upon the application of sensory stimuli, OMP directly captured and swiftly reduced freely available cAMP, which transiently uncoupled downstream CNG channel activity and prevented persistent depolarization. Under repetitive stimulation, OMP^-/- ORNs were immediately silenced after burst firing due to sustained depolarization and inactivated firing machinery. Consequently, OMP^-/- mice showed serious impairment in odour-source searching tasks. Therefore, cAMP buffering by OMP maintains the resilient firing of ORNs.

Respiratory regulation & interactions with neuro-cognitive circuitry

It is increasingly being recognized that active control of breathing - a key aspect of ancient Vedic meditative practices, can relieve stress and anxiety and improve cognition. However, the underlying mechanisms of respiratory modulation of neurophysiology are just beginning to be elucidated. Research shows that brainstem circuits involved in the motor control of respiration receive input from and can directly modulate activity in subcortical circuits, affecting emotion and arousal. Meanwhile, brain regions involved in the sensory aspects of respiration, such as the olfactory bulb, are like-wise linked with wide-spread brain oscillations; and perturbing olfactory bulb activity can significantly affect both mood and cognition. Thus, via both motor and sensory pathways, there are clear mechanisms by which brain activity is entrained to the respiratory cycle. Here, we review evidence gathered across multiple species demonstrating the links between respiration, entrainment of brain activity and functional relevance for affecting mood and cognition. We also discuss further linkages with cardiac rhythms, and the potential translational implications for biorhythm monitoring and regulation in neuropsychiatric disorders.

Complex neural representation of odour information in the olfactory bulb

The most important task of the olfactory system is to generate a precise representation of odour information under different brain and behavioural states. As the first processing stage in the olfactory system and a crucial hub, the olfactory bulb plays a key role in the neural representation of odours, encoding odour identity, intensity and timing. Although the neural circuits and coding strategies used by the olfactory bulb for odour representation were initially identified in anaesthetized animals, a large number of recent studies focused on neural representation of odorants in the olfactory bulb in awake behaving animals. In this review, we discuss these recent findings, covering (a) the neural circuits for odour representation both within the olfactory bulb and the functional connections between the olfactory bulb and the higher order processing centres; (b) how related factors such as sniffing affect and shape the representation; (c) how the representation changes under different states; and (d) recent progress on the processing of temporal aspects of odour presentation in awake, behaving rodents. We highlight discussion of the current views and emerging proposals on the neural representation of odorants in the olfactory bulb.

Spatiotemporal dynamics of odor responses in the lateral and dorsal olfactory bulb

The mammalian olfactory bulb (OB) plays an essential role in odor processing during the perception of smell. Optical imaging of the OB has proven to be a key tool in elucidating the spatial odor mapping and temporal dynamics that underlie higher-order odor processing. Much is known about the activation of olfactory sensory neuron (OSN) glomerular responses in the dorsal olfactory bulb (dOB) during odor presentation. However, the dorsal bulb provides access to only approximately 25% of all glomeruli, and little is known about how the lateral bulb functions during this critical process. Here, we report, for the first time, simultaneous measurements of OSN glomerular activity from both the dOB and the lateral olfactory bulb (lOB), thus describing odor-specific spatial mapping and the temporal dynamics of olfactory input to both the dorsal and lateral bulb. Odor responses in the lateral bulb tended to be most prominent in the dorso-lateral (D-L) region. Lateral glomeruli became active in a dorso-ventral (D-V) sequence upon odor inhalation, unlike the anterio-posterior (A-P) activity wave typical of the dorsal glomeruli. Across the entire D-L bulb, the spatial organization of these dynamics can be explained neither by the purely mechanosensitive dynamics (to breathing clean air) nor by the response amplitudes across glomeruli. Instead, these dynamics can be explained by a combination of zonal receptor distributions, associated OB projections, and air flow paths across the epithelium upon inhalation. Remarkably, we also found that a subset of OSN glomeruli in the lOB was highly sensitive to extranasal air pressure changes, a response type that has not been reported in dorsal glomeruli.

The mammalian olfactory bulb plays an essential role in odor processing during the perception of smell, but most studies have focused on the dorsal olfactory bulb, which contains only a quarter of all glomeruli. In this study, imaging of the lateral olfactory bulb reveals new properties in smell processing.

Ectopic expression of olfactory receptors and associated G-protein subunits in the head integument of the amphihaline migratory fish hilsa Tenualosa ilisha

The chemosensory nature of the tissue from the dorsal surface of the head (also termed sensory pad; SP) of the amphihaline diadromous fish hilsa Tenualosa ilisha was investigated for odorant receptor (OR), olfactory marker protein (OMP) and G-protein subunits (Gαs-olf, Gαq, Gαo, Gαi3) through immunolocalization and immunoblotting techniques. The immunolocalization of OR, OMP and G-protein subunits showed clear expression of these proteins in the tissues of the SP. Robust expressions of these proteins in the SP were detected with immunoblot analysis. The strong expression of these proteins in the SP indicates that the tissues from this area in riverine T. ilisha may play significant role in chemosensing and signalling through ectopic expression of olfactory receptor proteins which are otherwise reported in olfactory organs in vertebrates. Being migratory in nature, ectopic expression of these receptors in T. ilisha probably helps them to prevent damage to epidermal tissues of the SP, or they may also utilize them as a chemo and mechanosensory tool to optimize chemo-communications during migration.

Odor-Induced Electrical and Calcium Signals from Olfactory Sensory Neurons In Situ

Electrophysiological recording and optical imaging enable the characterization of membrane and odorant response properties of olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) in the nasal neuroepithelium. Here we describe a method to record the responses of mammalian OSNs to odorant stimulations in an ex vivo preparation of intact olfactory epithelium. The responses of individual OSNs with defined odorant receptor types can be monitored via patch-clamp recording or calcium imaging.

Sniffing Fast: Paradoxical Effects on Odor Concentration Discrimination at the Levels of Olfactory Bulb Output and Behavior

In awake mice, sniffing behavior is subject to complex contextual modulation. It has been hypothesized that variance in inhalation dynamics alters odor concentration profiles in the naris despite a constant environmental concentration. Using whole-cell recordings in the olfactory bulb of awake mice, we directly demonstrate that rapid sniffing mimics the effect of odor concentration increase at the level of both mitral and tufted cell (MTC) firing rate responses and temporal responses. Paradoxically, we find that mice are capable of discriminating fine concentration differences within short timescales despite highly variable sniffing behavior. One way that the olfactory system could differentiate between a change in sniffing and a change in concentration would be to receive information about the inhalation parameters in parallel with information about the odor. We find that the sniff-driven activity of MTCs without odor input is informative of the kind of inhalation that just occurred, allowing rapid detection of a change in inhalation. Thus, a possible reason for sniff modulation of the early olfactory system may be to directly inform downstream centers of nasal flow dynamics, so that an inference can be made about environmental concentration independent of sniff variance.

Coincidence Detection of Membrane Stretch and Extracellular pH by the Proton-Sensing Receptor OGR1 (GPR68)

The physical environment critically affects cell shape, proliferation, differentiation, and survival by exerting mechanical forces on cells. These forces are sensed and transduced into intracellular signals and responses by cells. A number of different membrane and cytoplasmic proteins have been implicated in sensing mechanical forces, but the picture is far from complete, and the exact transduction pathways remain largely elusive. Furthermore, mechanosensation takes place alongside chemosensation, and cells need to integrate physical and chemical signals to respond appropriately and ensure normal tissue and organ development and function. Here, we report that ovarian cancer G protein coupled receptor 1 (OGR1) (aka GPR68) acts as coincidence detector of membrane stretch and its physiological ligand, extracellular H⁺. Using fluorescence imaging, substrates of different stiffness, microcontact printing methods, and cell-stretching techniques, we show that OGR1 only responds to extracellular acidification under conditions of membrane stretch and vice versa. The level of OGR1 activity mirrors the extent of membrane stretch and degree of extracellular acidification. Furthermore, actin polymerization in response to membrane stretch is critical for OGR1 activity, and its depolymerization limits how long OGR1 remains responsive following a stretch event, thus providing a "memory" for past stretch. Cells experience changes in membrane stretch and extracellular pH throughout their lifetime. Because OGR1 is a widely expressed receptor, it represents a unique yet widespread mechanism that enables cells to respond dynamically to mechanical and pH changes in their microenvironment by integrating these chemical and physical stimuli at the receptor level.

Reversible deafferentation of the zebrafish olfactory bulb with wax plug insertion

BACKGROUND

Deafferentation of the zebrafish olfactory bulb allows investigation of neuroplasticity in a particularly dynamic brain region of a popular model animal known for its regenerative abilities. Current methods to remove sensory input to the zebrafish olfactory bulb differ in the extent of deafferentation and potential for recovery.

NEW METHOD

We present a novel method of olfactory bulb deafferentation using continuous wax plug insertions into the nasal cavity of zebrafish. Wax plugs were placed in the nasal cavity and replaced if needed over 1wk or 3wk survival periods. Wax plugs were removed from fish after 1wk of occlusion to analyze the potential recovery of the olfactory organ and bulb.

RESULTS

Wax plug insertions caused a dramatic reduction in olfactory organ size and structure and significantly reduced afferent input to the olfactory bulb after 1wk and 3wk. Removal of the wax plugs after 1wk allowed for recovery of the olfactory organ and subsequent reinnervation of the olfactory bulb.

COMPARISONS WITH EXISTING METHODS

Chemical ablation with detergent causes partial, temporary deafferentation of the olfactory bulb. Cautery ablation causes complete, permanent deafferentation of the olfactory bulb. Wax plug insertions cause nearly complete, temporary deafferentation, allowing both significant deafferentation and the potential for reinnervation of the olfactory bulb.

CONCLUSIONS

The wax plug insertion method of deafferentation described here is unique in that it destroys almost completely the structure of the olfactory organ and removes almost completely sensory input to the olfactory bulb, yet the organ returns to its typical morphology and afferent innervation returns.

Cell Mechanotransduction With Piconewton Forces Applied by Optical Tweezers

Mechanical stresses are always present in the cellular environment and mechanotransduction occurs in all cells. Although many experimental approaches have been developed to investigate mechanotransduction, the physical properties of the mechanical stimulus have yet to be accurately characterized. Here, we propose a mechanical stimulation method employing an oscillatory optical trap to apply piconewton forces perpendicularly to the cell membrane, for short instants. We show that this stimulation produces membrane indentation and induces cellular calcium transients in mouse neuroblastoma NG108-15 cells dependent of the stimulus strength and the number of force pulses.