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Hoffman AJ, Dees L, Wada H. Heat-induced maternal effects shape avian eggshell traits and embryo development and phenotype at high incubation temperatures. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e10546. [PMID: 37745787 PMCID: PMC10515880 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.10546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Phenotypic plasticity is an important avenue by which organisms may persist in the face of rapid environmental change. Environmental cues experienced by the mother can also influence the phenotype of offspring, a form of plasticity called maternal effects. Maternal effects can adaptively prepare offspring for the environmental conditions they will likely experience; however, their ability to buffer offspring against environmental stressors as embryos is understudied. Using captive zebra finches, we performed a maternal-offspring environmental match-mismatch experiment utilizing a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design. Mothers were exposed to a mild heat conditioning (38°C) or control (22°C) treatment as juveniles, an acute high heat (42°C) or control (22°C) treatment as adults, then paired for breeding. The eggs produced by those females were incubated at a hyperthermic (38.5°C) or optimal temperature (37.2°C). We found that when mothers were exposed to a mild heat conditioning as juveniles, their embryos exhibited reduced water loss, longer development times, and produced hatchlings with heavier pectoralis muscles when incubated at high incubation temperatures, compared to embryos from control mothers. Mothers exposed to both the mild heat conditioning as juveniles and a high heat stressor as adults produced eggs with a higher density of shell pores and embryos with lower heart rates during development. However, there was a cost when there was a mismatch between maternal and embryo environment. Embryos from these conditioned and heat-stressed mothers had reduced survival at control incubation temperatures, indicating the importance of offspring environment when interpreting potential adaptive effects.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Haruka Wada
- Department of Biological SciencesAuburn UniversityAuburnAlabamaUSA
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2
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Kulshreshtha G, D’Alba L, Dunn IC, Rehault-Godbert S, Rodriguez-Navarro AB, Hincke MT. Properties, Genetics and Innate Immune Function of the Cuticle in Egg-Laying Species. Front Immunol 2022; 13:838525. [PMID: 35281050 PMCID: PMC8914949 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.838525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Cleidoic eggs possess very efficient and orchestrated systems to protect the embryo from external microbes until hatch. The cuticle is a proteinaceous layer on the shell surface in many bird and some reptile species. An intact cuticle forms a pore plug to occlude respiratory pores and is an effective physical and chemical barrier against microbial penetration. The interior of the egg is assumed to be normally sterile, while the outer eggshell cuticle hosts microbes. The diversity of the eggshell microbiome is derived from both maternal microbiota and those of the nesting environment. The surface characteristics of the egg, outer moisture layer and the presence of antimicrobial molecules composing the cuticle dictate constituents of the microbial communities on the eggshell surface. The avian cuticle affects eggshell wettability, water vapor conductance and regulates ultraviolet reflectance in various ground-nesting species; moreover, its composition, thickness and degree of coverage are dependent on species, hen age, and physiological stressors. Studies in domestic avian species have demonstrated that changes in the cuticle affect the food safety of eggs with respect to the risk of contamination by bacterial pathogens such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli. Moreover, preventing contamination of internal egg components is crucial to optimize hatching success in bird species. In chickens there is moderate heritability (38%) of cuticle deposition with a potential for genetic improvement. However, much less is known about other bird or reptile cuticles. This review synthesizes current knowledge of eggshell cuticle and provides insight into its evolution in the clade reptilia. The origin, composition and regulation of the eggshell microbiome and the potential function of the cuticle as the first barrier of egg defense are discussed in detail. We evaluate how changes in the cuticle affect the food safety of table eggs and vertical transmission of pathogens in the production chain with respect to the risk of contamination. Thus, this review provides insight into the physiological and microbiological characteristics of eggshell cuticle in relation to its protective function (innate immunity) in egg-laying birds and reptiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garima Kulshreshtha
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Liliana D’Alba
- Evolutionary Ecology, Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Ian C. Dunn
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Maxwell T. Hincke
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
- Department of Innovation in Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
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3
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D'Alba L, Goldenberg J, Nallapaneni A, Parkinson DY, Zhu C, Vanthournout B, Shawkey MD. Evolution of eggshell structure in relation to nesting ecology in non-avian reptiles. J Morphol 2021; 282:1066-1079. [PMID: 33713039 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Amniotic eggs are multifunctional structures that enabled early tetrapods to colonize the land millions of years ago, and are now the reproductive mode of over 70% of all terrestrial amniotes. Eggshell morphology is at the core of animal survival, mediating the interactions between embryos and their environment, and has evolved into a massive diversity of forms and functions in modern reptiles. These functions are critical to embryonic survival and may serve as models for new antimicrobial and/or breathable membranes. However, we still lack critical data on the basic structural and functional properties of eggs, particularly of reptiles. Here, we first characterized egg shape, shell thickness, porosity, and mineralization of eggs from 91 reptile species using optical images, scanning electron microscopy, and micro computed tomography, and collected data on nesting ecology from the literature. We then used comparative analyses to test hypotheses on the selective pressures driving their evolution. We hypothesized that eggshell morphology has evolved to protect shells from physical damage and desiccation, and, in support, found a positive relationship between thickness and precipitation, and a negative relationship between porosity and temperature. Although mineralization varied extensively, it was not correlated with nesting ecology variables. Ancestral state reconstructions show thinning and increased porosity over evolutionary time in squamates, but the opposite in turtles and crocodilians. Egg shape, size, porosity and calcification were correlated, suggesting potential structural or developmental tradeoffs. This study provides new data and insights into the morphology and evolution of reptile eggs, and raises numerous questions for additional research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liliana D'Alba
- Department of Biology, EON-Unit, Universiteit Gent, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - Asritha Nallapaneni
- Advanced Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Dilworth Y Parkinson
- Advanced Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Chenhui Zhu
- Advanced Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California, USA
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4
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Vieco‐Galvez D, Castro I, Morel PCH, Chua WH, Loh M. The eggshell structure in apteryx; form, function, and adaptation. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:3184-3202. [PMID: 33841776 PMCID: PMC8019059 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Revised: 01/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Apteryx is a genus of flightless birds endemic to New Zealand known to lay very large eggs in proportion to body weight. The eggshell of Apteryx is unusually thin and less porous than allometrically expected possibly as a compensation for a very long incubation period. Past studies have been carried out on Apteryx australis, a species which once comprised all kiwi with brown plumage, now separated into three distinct species. These species use different habitats and live at different latitudes and altitudes, therefore generating a need to revise our knowledge of the attributes of their eggshells. In this study, we measured the physical characteristics and water conductance on eggshell fragments of these three species and Great-spotted Kiwi and relate them to the environmental conditions of their respective environments; we also measured the water vapor conductance of Brown Kiwi eggs of late stages of incubation. We found that several trade-offs exist between incubation behavior, environmental conditions, and eggshell structure. We found differences between species in eggshell water vapor conductance seemingly related to altitude; Brown Kiwi and Rowi generally inhabiting lower altitudes had the highest conductance and Tokoeka, generally living in montane environments, the lowest. This is achieved by an increased eggshell thickness rather than a pore area reduction. Finally, the water vapor conductance late in incubation was 58% higher than infertile unincubated eggs, suggesting a drastic increase in conductance throughout the long incubation period. Using the values previously reported, we calculated the embryonic eggshell thinning to be 32.5% at the equatorial region of the eggshell. We describe several new features, such as triangular mineral particles in the cuticle, reported for the extinct Trigonoolithus amoei, and confirmed the existence of plugged pores. We suggest that these structures provide microbial protection needed by a burrow nesting species with a long incubation period.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Vieco‐Galvez
- School of Agriculture and EnvironmentMassey UniversityPalmerston NorthNew Zealand
| | - Isabel Castro
- School of Agriculture and EnvironmentMassey UniversityPalmerston NorthNew Zealand
| | - Patrick C. H. Morel
- School of Agriculture and EnvironmentMassey UniversityPalmerston NorthNew Zealand
| | - Wei Hang Chua
- School of Health SciencesMassey UniversityPalmerston NorthNew Zealand
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5
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Narinç D, Aydemir E. Chick quality: an overview of measurement techniques and influencing factors. WORLD POULTRY SCI J 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/00439339.2021.1892469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D. Narinç
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey
| | - E. Aydemir
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey
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6
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Blackburn DG, Stewart JR. Morphological research on amniote eggs and embryos: An introduction and historical retrospective. J Morphol 2021; 282:1024-1046. [PMID: 33393149 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2020] [Revised: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Evolution of the terrestrial egg of amniotes (reptiles, birds, and mammals) is often considered to be one of the most significant events in vertebrate history. Presence of an eggshell, fetal membranes, and a sizeable yolk allowed this egg to develop on land and hatch out well-developed, terrestrial offspring. For centuries, morphologically-based studies have provided valuable information about the eggs of amniotes and the embryos that develop from them. This review explores the history of such investigations, as a contribution to this special issue of Journal of Morphology, titled Developmental Morphology and Evolution of Amniote Eggs and Embryos. Anatomically-based investigations are surveyed from the ancient Greeks through the Scientific Revolution, followed by the 19th and early 20th centuries, with a focus on major findings of historical figures who have contributed significantly to our knowledge. Recent research on various aspects of amniote eggs is summarized, including gastrulation, egg shape and eggshell morphology, eggs of Mesozoic dinosaurs, sauropsid yolk sacs, squamate placentation, embryogenesis, and the phylotypic phase of embryonic development. As documented in this review, studies on amniote eggs and embryos have relied heavily on morphological approaches in order to answer functional and evolutionary questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel G Blackburn
- Department of Biology and Electron Microscopy Center, Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut, USA
| | - James R Stewart
- Department of Biological Sciences, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tennessee, USA
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7
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Souchet J, Gangloff EJ, Micheli G, Bossu C, Trochet A, Bertrand R, Clobert J, Calvez O, Martinez-Silvestre A, Darnet E, LE Chevalier H, Guillaume O, Mossoll-Torres M, Barthe L, Pottier G, Philippe H, Aubret F. High-elevation hypoxia impacts perinatal physiology and performance in a potential montane colonizer. Integr Zool 2020; 15:544-557. [PMID: 32649806 PMCID: PMC7689776 DOI: 10.1111/1749-4877.12468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Climate change is generating range shifts in many organisms, notably along the elevational gradient in mountainous environments. However, moving up in elevation exposes organisms to lower oxygen availability, which may reduce the successful reproduction and development of oviparous organisms. To test this possibility in an upward‐colonizing species, we artificially incubated developing embryos of the viperine snake (Natrix maura) using a split‐clutch design, in conditions of extreme high elevation (hypoxia at 2877 m above sea level; 72% sea‐level equivalent O2 availability) or low elevation (control group; i.e. normoxia at 436 m above sea level). Hatching success did not differ between the two treatments. Embryos developing at extreme high elevation had higher heart rates and hatched earlier, resulting in hatchlings that were smaller in body size and slower swimmers compared to their siblings incubated at lower elevation. Furthermore, post‐hatching reciprocal transplant of juveniles showed that snakes which developed at extreme high elevation, when transferred back to low elevation, did not recover full performance compared to their siblings from the low elevation incubation treatment. These results suggest that incubation at extreme high elevation, including the effects of hypoxia, will not prevent oviparous ectotherms from producing viable young, but may pose significant physiological challenges on developing offspring in ovo. These early‐life performance limitations imposed by extreme high elevation could have negative consequences on adult phenotypes, including on fitness‐related traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérémie Souchet
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Moulis, France
| | - Eric J Gangloff
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Moulis, France.,Department of Zoology, Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, Ohio, USA
| | - Gaëlle Micheli
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Moulis, France
| | - Coralie Bossu
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Moulis, France
| | - Audrey Trochet
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Moulis, France
| | - Romain Bertrand
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Moulis, France
| | - Jean Clobert
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Moulis, France
| | - Olivier Calvez
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Moulis, France
| | | | - Elodie Darnet
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Moulis, France
| | - Hugo LE Chevalier
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Moulis, France
| | - Olivier Guillaume
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Moulis, France
| | - Marc Mossoll-Torres
- Bomosa, Pl. Parc de la Mola, Les Escaldes, Andorra.,Pirenalia, Encamp, Andorra
| | | | | | - Hervé Philippe
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Moulis, France.,Département de Biochimie, Centre Robert-Cedergren, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada
| | - Fabien Aubret
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Moulis, France
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8
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Veldsman LM, Kylin H, Bronkhorst P, Engelbrecht I, Bouwman H. A method to determine the combined effects of climate change (temperature and humidity) and eggshell thickness on water loss from bird eggs. ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH 2020; 42:781-793. [PMID: 30864071 DOI: 10.1007/s10653-019-00274-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 02/27/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Differences in bird eggshell thicknesses occur due to numerous factors, including thinning due to persistent organic pollutants. Not only does thinning weaken the shell; weaker shells combined with elevated ambient temperature and changes in humidities may result in changes in water loss rates from the egg contents. Therefore, thinner eggshells raise concern of water being lost faster than normal at lower relative humidities, which may affect hatching. To investigate the combined effects, we developed and tested an effective method that measures water loss through different thickness eggshells at controlled temperatures and relative humidities to assist in ascertaining the combined effects of climate change (temperature and humidity) and changes in eggshell thickness on bird reproduction. The fastest rate of loss was at 40% RH at 40 °C (0.1 mL/cm2/day), and the slowest was at 22 °C at 80% RH (0.02 mL/cm2/day). Eggshell thickness had a significant effect on water loss at all humidity treatments, except at the highest temperature and humidity treatment (80% RH and 40 °C). Temperature explained 40% of the variance, RH explained 20%, and interactions between temperature and humidity explained 15% of the variance (repeated-measures, two-way ANOVA). Generalized linear analyses revealed that both factors temperature and humidity contributed significantly in any two-way combinations. We have laid the ground for a system to test the combined effects of temperature and humidity changes associated with climate change and eggshell thinning associated with pollutants, on water loss across eggshells.
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Affiliation(s)
- L-M Veldsman
- Research Unit: Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - H Kylin
- Research Unit: Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
- Department of Thematic Studies - Environmental Change, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - P Bronkhorst
- Research Unit: Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - I Engelbrecht
- Research Unit: Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - H Bouwman
- Research Unit: Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa.
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9
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Cordero GA, Andersson BA, Souchet J, Micheli G, Noble DW, Gangloff EJ, Uller T, Aubret F. Physiological plasticity in lizard embryos exposed to high-altitude hypoxia. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART 2017; 327:423-432. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.2115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jeremie Souchet
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du CNRS à Moulis; Moulis France
| | - Gaëlle Micheli
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du CNRS à Moulis; Moulis France
| | - Daniel W.A. Noble
- Ecology & Evolution Research Centre; School of Biological; Earth and Environmental Sciences; The University of New South Wales; Sydney NSW Australia
| | - Eric J. Gangloff
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du CNRS à Moulis; Moulis France
- Department of Ecology; Evolution, and Organismal Biology; Iowa State University; Ames Iowa USA
| | - Tobias Uller
- Department of Biology; Lund University; Lund Sweden
| | - Fabien Aubret
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du CNRS à Moulis; Moulis France
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10
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D'Alba L, Torres R, Waterhouse GIN, Eliason C, Hauber ME, Shawkey MD. What Does the Eggshell Cuticle Do? A Functional Comparison of Avian Eggshell Cuticles. Physiol Biochem Zool 2017; 90:588-599. [PMID: 28745930 DOI: 10.1086/693434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The avian eggshell is a highly ordered structure with several layers (mammillae, palisades, and vertical crystal layer) composed of calcium carbonate (∼96%) and minerals within an organic matrix. The cuticle is a noncalcified layer that covers the eggshells of most bird species. Eggshells are multifunctional structures that have evolved in response to diverse embryonic requirements and challenges, including protection from microbial infection, nest flooding, and exposure to solar radiation. However, experimental evidence for these functions across diverse taxa is currently limited. Here we investigated the effects of nanosphere cuticles on (1) bacterial attachment and transshell penetration, (2) eggshell wettability, (3) water vapor conductance, and (4) regulation of ultraviolet (UV) reflectance in seven ground-nesting bird species. We found considerable interspecific variation in ultrastructure and chemical composition of cuticles. Experimental removal of the cuticle confirmed that all nanospheres were highly effective at decreasing attachment of bacteria to shell surfaces and at preventing bacterial penetration. Cuticles also greatly decreased the amount of UV reflected by eggshells. In species with particularly small nanospheres, gas exchange was reduced by the presence of cuticle. Our results support the hypothesis that microbes and solar UV radiation can cause strong selection on bird eggs but also show that we need a greater understanding about the effects of specific nesting conditions (e.g., hydric and gaseous milieu) on embryo well-being and eggshell structure variation.
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11
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Portugal SJ, Maurer G, Thomas GH, Hauber ME, Grim T, Cassey P. Nesting behaviour influences species-specific gas exchange across avian eggshells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 217:3326-32. [PMID: 25232199 PMCID: PMC4179895 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.103291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Carefully controlled gas exchange across the eggshell is essential for the development of the avian embryo. Water vapour conductance (GH2O) across the shell, typically measured as mass loss during incubation, has been demonstrated to optimally ensure the healthy development of the embryo while avoiding desiccation. Accordingly, eggs exposed to sub-optimal gas exchange have reduced hatching success. We tested the association between eggshell GH2O and putative life-history correlates of adult birds, ecological nest parameters and physical characteristics of the egg itself to investigate how variation in GH2O has evolved to maintain optimal water loss across a diverse set of nest environments. We measured gas exchange through eggshell fragments in 151 British breeding bird species and fitted phylogenetically controlled, general linear models to test the relationship between GH2O and potential predictor parameters of each species. Of our 17 life-history traits, only two were retained in the final model: wet-incubating parent and nest type. Eggs of species where the parent habitually returned to the nest with wet plumage had significantly higher GH2O than those of parents that returned to the nest with dry plumage. Eggs of species nesting in ground burrows, cliffs and arboreal cups had significantly higher GH2O than those of species nesting on the ground in open nests or cups, in tree cavities and in shallow arboreal nests. Phylogenetic signal (measured as Pagel's λ) was intermediate in magnitude, suggesting that differences observed in the GH2O are dependent upon a combination of shared ancestry and species-specific life history and ecological traits. Although these data are correlational by nature, they are consistent with the hypothesis that parents constrained to return to the nest with wet plumage will increase the humidity of the nest environment, and the eggs of these species have evolved a higher GH2O to overcome this constraint and still achieve optimal water loss during incubation. We also suggest that eggs laid in cup nests and burrows may require a higher GH2O to overcome the increased humidity as a result from the confined nest microclimate lacking air movements through the nest. Taken together, these comparative data imply that species-specific levels of gas exchange across avian eggshells are variable and evolve in response to ecological and physical variation resulting from parental and nesting behaviours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven J Portugal
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, The Royal Veterinary College, University of London, North Mymms, Hatfield, Herts AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Golo Maurer
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Adelaide, SA 5005 Australia
| | - Gavin H Thomas
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Mark E Hauber
- Department of Psychology, Hunter College and the Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 695 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Tomáš Grim
- Department of Zoology and Laboratory of Ornithology, Palacký University, Olomouc, CZ-771 46 Czech Republic
| | - Phillip Cassey
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Adelaide, SA 5005 Australia
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12
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Riley A, Sturrock CJ, Mooney SJ, Luck MR. Quantification of eggshell microstructure using X-ray micro computed tomography. Br Poult Sci 2015; 55:311-20. [PMID: 24875292 PMCID: PMC4118947 DOI: 10.1080/00071668.2014.924093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
1. X-ray microcomputed tomography can be used to produce rapid, fully analysable, three-dimensional images of biological and other materials without the need for complex or tedious sample preparation and sectioning. We describe the use of this technique to visualise and analyse the microstructure of fragments of shell taken from three regions of chicken eggs (sharp pole, blunt pole and equatorial region). 2. Two- and three-dimensional images and data were obtained at a resolution of 1.5 microns. The images were analysed to provide measurements of shell thickness, the spacial density of mammillary bodies, the frequency, shape, volume and effective diameter of individual pore spaces, and the intrinsic sponginess (proportion of non-X-ray dense material formed by vesicles) of the shell matrix. Measurements of these parameters were comparable with those derived by traditional methods and reported in the literature. 3. The advantages of using this technology for the quantification of eggshell microstructural parameters and its potential application for commercial, research and other purposes are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Riley
- a Divisions of Animal Sciences
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13
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Hille SM, Cooper CB. Elevational trends in life histories: revising the pace-of-life framework. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2014; 90:204-13. [PMID: 24673806 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2013] [Revised: 02/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Life-history traits in birds, such as lifespan, age at maturity, and rate of reproduction, vary across environments and in combinations imposed by trade-offs and limitations of physiological mechanisms. A plethora of studies have described the diversity of traits and hypothesized selection pressures shaping components of the survival-reproduction trade-off. Life-history variation appears to fall along a slow-fast continuum, with slow pace characterized by higher investment in survival over reproduction and fast pace characterized by higher investment in reproduction over survival. The Pace-of-Life Syndrome (POLS) is a framework to describe the slow-fast axis of variation in life-history traits and physiological traits. The POLS corresponds to latitudinal gradients, with tropical birds exhibiting a slow pace of life. We examined four possible ways that the traits of high-elevation birds might correspond to the POLS continuum: (i) rapid pace, (ii) tropical slow pace, (iii) novel elevational pace, or (iv) constrained pace. Recent studies reveal that birds breeding at high elevations in temperate zones exhibit a combination of traits creating a unique elevational pace of life with a central trade-off similar to a slow pace but physiological trade-offs more similar to a fast pace. A paucity of studies prevents consideration of the possibility of a constrained pace of life. We propose extending the POLS framework to include trait variation of elevational clines to help to investigate complexity in global geographic patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine M Hille
- Institute of Wildlife Biology and Game Management, Department of Integrative Biology and Biodiversity Research, University of Natural Resources and Life Science, Gregor Mendel-Strasse 33, A-1180, Vienna, Austria
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14
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Frequently encountered problems during hatching in cold arid high altitude regions such as Ladakh in India: causes and remedies. WORLD POULTRY SCI J 2013. [DOI: 10.1017/s0043933913000895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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15
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Stein LR, Badyaev AV. Evolution of eggshell structure during rapid range expansion in a passerine bird. Funct Ecol 2011. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2435.2011.01887.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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16
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La Sorte FA, Jetz W. Avian distributions under climate change: towards improved projections. J Exp Biol 2010; 213:862-9. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.038356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Birds are responding to recent climate change in a variety of ways including shifting their geographic ranges to cooler climates. There is evidence that northern-temperate birds have shifted their breeding and non-breeding ranges to higher latitudes, and tropical birds have shifted their breeding ranges to higher altitudes. There is further evidence these shifts have affected migration strategies and the composition and structure of communities. Projections based on correlative distributional models suggest many birds will experience substantial pressures under climate change, resulting in range contraction and shifts. Inherent limitations of correlative models, however, make it difficult to develop reliable projections and detailed inference. Incorporating a mechanistic perspective into species distribution models enriches the quality of model inferences but also severely narrows the taxonomic and geographic relevance. Mechanistic distributional models have seen increased applications, but so far primarily in ectotherms. We argue that further development of similar models in birds would complement existing empirical knowledge and theoretical projections. The considerable data already available on birds offer an exciting basis. In particular, information compiled on flight performance and thermal associations across life history stages could be linked to distributional limits and dispersal abilities, which could be used to develop more robust and detailed projections. Yet, only a broadening of taxonomic scale, specifically to appropriately represented tropical diversity, will allow for truly general inference and require the continued use of correlative approaches that may take on increasingly mechanistic components. The trade-off between detail and scale is likely to characterize the future of global change biodiversity research, and birds may be an excellent group to improve, integrate and geographically extend current approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- F. A. La Sorte
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520-8106, USA
| | - W. Jetz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520-8106, USA
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17
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Gas exchange in avian embryos and hatchlings. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2009; 153:359-77. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2009.02.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2008] [Revised: 02/26/2009] [Accepted: 02/28/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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18
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Pérez-Huerta A, Cusack M, McDonald S, Marone F, Stampanoni M, MacKay S. Brachiopod punctae: a complexity in shell biomineralisation. J Struct Biol 2009; 167:62-7. [PMID: 19341799 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2009.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2009] [Revised: 03/24/2009] [Accepted: 03/25/2009] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Perforations ("punctae") are one of the most characteristic morphological shell features in calcite brachiopods. The significance of punctae is that they represent discontinuities in shell biomineralisation and thus add a level of complexity that must be accounted for in any model of brachiopod shell formation. A significant hindrance to understanding punctae growth and formation is the absence of sufficient information on volume, size and density. Here, we use synchrotron-radiation X-ray tomographic microscopy (SRXTM) to obtain three-dimensional information about punctae of five species of calcite brachiopods. X-ray tomography shows that punctae morphology is species-specific and reveals previously unknown levels of complexity for each species. This information is combined with previous data on morphology to discuss the function and growth of punctae. Overall the present study demonstrates the need to increase our understanding of discontinuities and the role of cell biology in the context of biomineralisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Pérez-Huerta
- Dept. of Geographical & Earth Sciences, University of Glasgow, G12 8QQ Glasgow, UK.
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19
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Visschedijk AHJ, Rahn H. Incubation of chicken eggs at altitude theoretical consideration of optimal gas composition. Br Poult Sci 2008. [DOI: 10.1080/00071688108447909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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20
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Arad Z, Marder J. Egg‐shell water Vapour conductance of the domestic fowl: Comparison between two breeds and their crosses. Br Poult Sci 2008. [DOI: 10.1080/00071688208447964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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21
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Beissinger SR, Cook MI, Arendt WJ. THE SHELF LIFE OF BIRD EGGS: TESTING EGG VIABILITY USING A TROPICAL CLIMATE GRADIENT. Ecology 2005. [DOI: 10.1890/04-1624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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22
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León-Velarde F, Monge-C C. Avian embryos in hypoxic environments. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2004; 141:331-43. [PMID: 15288603 DOI: 10.1016/j.resp.2004.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/06/2004] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Avian embryos at high altitude do not benefit of the maternal protection against hypoxia as in mammals. Nevertheless, avian embryos are known to hatch successfully at altitudes between 4,000 and 6,500 m. This review considers some of the processes that bring about the outstanding modifications in the pressure differences between the environment and mitochondria of avian embryos in hypoxic environments. Among species, some maintain normal levels of oxygen consumption ( VO2) have a high oxygen carrying capacity, lower the air cell-arterial pressure difference ( PAO2 - PaO2 ) with a constant pH. Other species decrease VO2, increase only slightly the oxygen carrying capacity, have a higher PAO2 - PaO2 difference than sea-level embryos and lower the PCO2 and pH. High altitude embryos, and those exposed to hypoxia have an accelerated decline of erythrocyte ATP levels during development and an earlier stimulation of 2,3-BPG synthesis. A higher Bohr effect may ensure high tissue PO2 in the presence of the high-affinity hemoglobin. Independently of the strategy used, they serve together to promote suitable rates of development and successful hatching of high altitude birds in hypoxic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- F León-Velarde
- Laboratorio de Transporte de Oxígeno/IIA, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas y Fisiológicas, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Apartado 4314, Lima 100, Peru.
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23
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Kern MD, Cowie RJ. Female Pied Flycatchers fail to respond to variations in nest humidity. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2000; 127:113-9. [PMID: 10996823 DOI: 10.1016/s1095-6433(00)00242-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
We examined the possibility that a cavity-nesting passerine, the Pied Flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca), can modify the permeability of its eggs to water vapor facultatively in response to variations in nest humidity (P(N)). We found no significant relationship between the water-vapor conductance (G(E)) of flycatcher eggs and P(N). In addition, incubating female flycatchers failed to change their patterns of incubation when we modified P(N) experimentally. These data, coupled with large variations that occur in the G(E) of the eggs within individual clutches, suggest that Pied Flycatchers do not alter the structure of their eggs as they lay them and may not be aware of differences in P(N). It is more likely that G(E) is determined genetically and has been established by natural selection for eggs with high degrees of hatchability.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Kern
- Department of Biology, The College of Wooster, OH 44691, USA.
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24
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León-Velarde F, Mejía O, Palacios JA, Monge C. Changes in whole blood oxygen affinity and eggshell permeability in high altitude chickens translocated to sea level. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 1997; 118:53-7. [PMID: 9417992 DOI: 10.1016/s0305-0491(97)00019-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
High altitude (HA; n = 5) chickens (Gallus gallus) with a high oxygen hemoglobin (Hb) affinity were transported from their birthplace (Puno, Perú 4,000 m) down sea level (Lima, Perú). The in vivo whole blood oxygen affinity (P50) and the eggshell permeability (P) were studied after several months living at sea level and in the first (F1) and second (F2) generations born at sea level. Our approach was to analyze changes in Hb affinity and eggshell permeability, considered as indicators of HA adaptation in birds. Our results show an increase of the P50 values (a decrease in Hb affinity) towards sea-level values. The results in P indicate that this variable increases towards sea level values in the F2 generation. We conclude that in the Andean chicken, a relative "newcomer" to high altitude (no more than 500 years), neither the Hb affinity for oxygen nor the eggshell permeability are invariable indicators of HA adaptation, in contrast with other native high altitude mammals and birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- F León-Velarde
- Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Dpto. de Ciencias Fisiológicas/Instituto de Investigaciones de la Altura (IIA), Lima, Peru.
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25
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León-Velarde F, Monge C, Carey C. Physiological Strategies of Oxygen Transport in High Altitude Bird Embryos. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0300-9629(96)00373-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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26
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Carey C, Martin K. Physiological ecology of incubation of ptarmigan eggs at high and low altitudes. WILDLIFE BIOLOGY 1997. [DOI: 10.2981/wlb.1997.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia Carey
- Cynthia Carey, Department of EPO Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309 USA
| | - Kathy Martin
- Kathy Martin, Canadian Wildlife Service, 5421 Robertson Road, Rural Route 1, Delta, British Columbia, Canada V4K 3N2
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27
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Structural and physiological differences between montane and lowland avian eggs and embryos. J Biosci 1994. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02703179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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28
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Monge C, León-Velarde F. Similarity of PO2 and PCO2 values in the air cell of eggs of birds and in the alveolar gas of humans at sea level and at high altitude. J Comp Physiol B 1994; 164:156-8. [PMID: 8056881 DOI: 10.1007/bf00301658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
At the end of incubation, the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air cell of sea-level avian eggs are similar to those in the expiratory air of adult birds. At high altitude, changes in the permeability of the shell and probably in the embryo metabolism partially compensates the increase in the gas diffusion constant resulting from the low barometric pressure. The aim of this study was to test whether--despite of the adaptive responses of the high altitude avian embryo--the air cell values would be similar to those of the alveolar air of high altitude human natives. Air cell O2 (48.3 +/- 1.6 torr) and CO2 (20.9 +/- 0.85 torr) pressure values were obtained by studying naturally incubated eggs of the Andean gull (Larus serranus) at 4650 m. Sea-level chicken (Gallus gallus) air cell pressure values of O2 (102.3 +/- 2.7 torr) and of CO2 (43.3 +/- 1.3 torr) were obtained from the literature for comparison. Both these values were similar to those found in the alveolar air of humans at sea level (O2: 104.4 +/- 0.4 torr, CO2: 40.1 +/- 0.25 torr) and at high altitude (4540 m) (O2: 50.5 +/- 0.53 torr, CO2: 29.1 +/- 0.37 torr). Despite very large evolutionary changes in morphology and physiology of the respiratory organs, the head pressure of O2 that oxygenates the blood keeps a constant value in the pre-pipping avian embryo and in the alveolar air of adult mammals. This constancy holds valid at high altitude.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Monge
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Instituto de Investigaciones de la Altura (IIA), Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
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29
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Variation in eggshell characteristics and gas exchange of montane and lowland coot eggs. J Comp Physiol B 1989. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00692411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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30
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Carey C. Tolerance of Variation in Eggshell Conductance, Water Loss, and Water Content by Red-Winged Blackbird Embryos. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1986. [DOI: 10.1086/physzool.59.1.30156096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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31
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Christensen VL, Bagley RA. Vital gas exchange and hatchability of turkey eggs at high altitude. Poult Sci 1984; 63:1350-6. [PMID: 6473249 DOI: 10.3382/ps.0631350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Conductance of turkey eggshells was observed to be significantly (P less than .01) greater at 2000 than at 200 m elevation. It was concluded that the increased conductance may have been due to the Chapman-Enskog relation. Eggshells of nonhatching eggs from the high altitude were examined, and it was determined that despite the increased conductance rate, eggshells with significantly (P less than .05) less functional pore area hatched poorly in both oxygenated and nonoxygenated environments. When oxygen was not supplemented to the incubators at high altitudes, eggshells required significantly (P less than .01) fewer pore concentrations to allow embryos to survive to late stages of embryonic development than eggs in oxygen supplemented environments. However, greater pore concentrations on the air space were required in both environments to complete hatching. Cuticle removal from eggshells incubated in oxygen supplemented incubators at high altitudes significantly (P less than .05) reduced late embryonic mortality. It was concluded that eggshell cuticle removal may be more advantageous to hatchability at high altitude than oxygen supplementation.
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32
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Leon-Velarde F, Whittembury J, Carey C, Monge C. Shell characteristics of eggs laid at 2,800 M by hens transported from sea level 24 hours after hatching. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1984. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.1402300118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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33
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34
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Diamond JM. How eggs breathe while avoiding desiccation and drowning. Nature 1982. [DOI: 10.1038/295010a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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35
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36
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Birchard GF, Kilgore DL. Conductance of Water Vapor in Eggs of Burrowing and Nonburrowing Birds: Implications for Embryonic Gas Exchange. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1980. [DOI: 10.1086/physzool.53.3.30155791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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37
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Hanka LR, Packard GC, Sotherland PR, Taigen TL, Boardman TJ, Packard MJ. Ontogenetic changes in water-vapor conductance of eggs of yellow-headed blackbirds (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1979. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.1402100121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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