Hsp90 in Human Diseases: Molecular Mechanisms to Therapeutic Approaches

The maturation of hemeprotein dictates that they incorporate heme and become active, but knowledge of this essential cellular process remains incomplete. Studies on chaperon Hsp90 has revealed that it drives functional heme maturation of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) hemoglobin (Hb) and myoglobin (Mb) along with other proteins including GAPDH, while globin heme maturations also need an active sGC. In all these cases, Hsp90 interacts with the heme-free or apo-protein and then drives the heme maturation by an ATP dependent process before dissociating from the heme-replete proteins, suggesting that it is a key player in such heme-insertion processes. As the studies on globin maturation also need an active sGC, it connects the globin maturation to the NO-sGC (Nitric oxide-sGC) signal pathway, thereby constituting a novel NO-sGC-Globin axis. Since many aggressive cancer cells make Hbβ/Mb to survive, the dependence of the globin maturation of cancer cells places the NO-sGC signal pathway in a new light for therapeutic intervention. Given the ATPase function of Hsp90 in heme-maturation of client hemeproteins, Hsp90 inhibitors often cause serious side effects and this can encourage the alternate use of sGC activators/stimulators in combination with specific Hsp90 inhibitors for better therapeutic intervention.

Regulation of sGC via hsp90, Cellular Heme, sGC Agonists, and NO: New Pathways and Clinical Perspectives

SIGNIFICANCE

Soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) is an intracellular enzyme that plays a primary role in sensing nitric oxide (NO) and transducing its multiple signaling effects in mammals. Recent Advances: The chaperone heat shock protein 90 (hsp90) associates with signaling proteins in cells, including sGC, where it helps to drive heme insertion into the sGC-β1 subunit. This allows sGC-β1 to associate with a partner sGC-α1 subunit and mature into an NO-responsive active form.

CRITICAL ISSUES

In this article, we review evidence to date regarding the mechanisms that modulate sGC activity by a pathway where binding of hsp90 or sGC agonist to heme-free sGC dictates the assembly and fate of an active sGC heterodimer, both by NO and heme-dependent or heme-independent pathways.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

We discuss some therapeutic implications of the NO-sGC-hsp90 nexus and its potential as a marker of inflammatory disease. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 26, 182-190.

Mitochondrial cytochrome c biogenesis: no longer an enigma

Cytochromes c (cyt c) and c1 are heme proteins that are essential for aerobic respiration. Release of cyt c from mitochondria is an important signal in apoptosis initiation. Biogenesis of c-type cytochromes involves covalent attachment of heme to two cysteines (at a conserved CXXCH sequence) in the apocytochrome. Heme attachment is catalyzed in most mitochondria by holocytochrome c synthase (HCCS), which is also necessary for the import of apocytochrome c (apocyt c). Thus, HCCS affects cellular levels of cyt c, impacting mitochondrial physiology and cell death. Here, we review the mechanisms of HCCS function and the roles of heme and residues in the CXXCH motif. Additionally, we consider concepts emerging within the two prokaryotic cytochrome c biogenesis pathways.

Substrate recognition of holocytochrome c synthase: N-terminal region and CXXCH motif of mitochondrial cytochrome c

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Holocytochrome c synthase (HCCS) does not attach heme to cytochromes lacking the histidine in the CXXCH motif.

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HCCS can recognise C-terminally truncated cytochromes c.

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The aromatic nature of, or possibly shape complementarity to, F15 in cytochrome c is important for recognition by HCCS.

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The spacing of the phenylalanine relative to the CXXCH is a recognition feature.

Holocytochrome c synthase (HCCS) attaches heme covalently to mitochondrial respiratory cytochromes c. Little is known about the reaction of heme attachment to apocytochromes c by HCCS, although recently it has been established that the CXXCH motif and the N-terminus of the apocytochrome polypeptide are important protein–protein recognition motifs. Here, we explore further the important features of the N-terminal sequence and investigate what variations in the CXXCH residues are productively recognised by HCCS in its substrate.

The role of key residues in structure, function, and stability of cytochrome-c

Cytochrome-c (cyt-c), a multi-functional protein, plays a significant role in the electron transport chain, and thus is indispensable in the energy-production process. Besides being an important component in apoptosis, it detoxifies reactive oxygen species. Two hundred and eighty-five complete amino acid sequences of cyt-c from different species are known. Sequence analysis suggests that the number of amino acid residues in most mitochondrial cyts-c is in the range 104 ± 10, and amino acid residues at only few positions are highly conserved throughout evolution. These highly conserved residues are Cys14, Cys17, His18, Gly29, Pro30, Gly41, Asn52, Trp59, Tyr67, Leu68, Pro71, Pro76, Thr78, Met80, and Phe82. These are also known as "key residues", which contribute significantly to the structure, function, folding, and stability of cyt-c. The three-dimensional structure of cyt-c from ten eukaryotic species have been determined using X-ray diffraction studies. Structure analysis suggests that the tertiary structure of cyt-c is almost preserved along the evolutionary scale. Furthermore, residues of N/C-terminal helices Gly6, Phe10, Leu94, and Tyr97 interact with each other in a specific manner, forming an evolutionary conserved interface. To understand the role of evolutionary conserved residues on structure, stability, and function, numerous studies have been performed in which these residues were substituted with different amino acids. In these studies, structure deals with the effect of mutation on secondary and tertiary structure measured by spectroscopic techniques; stability deals with the effect of mutation on T m (midpoint of heat denaturation), ∆G D (Gibbs free energy change on denaturation) and folding; and function deals with the effect of mutation on electron transport, apoptosis, cell growth, and protein expression. In this review, we have compiled all these studies at one place. This compilation will be useful to biochemists and biophysicists interested in understanding the importance of conservation of certain residues throughout the evolution in preserving the structure, function, and stability in proteins.

Mitochondrial protein synthesis, import, and assembly

The mitochondrion is arguably the most complex organelle in the budding yeast cell cytoplasm. It is essential for viability as well as respiratory growth. Its innermost aqueous compartment, the matrix, is bounded by the highly structured inner membrane, which in turn is bounded by the intermembrane space and the outer membrane. Approximately 1000 proteins are present in these organelles, of which eight major constituents are coded and synthesized in the matrix. The import of mitochondrial proteins synthesized in the cytoplasm, and their direction to the correct soluble compartments, correct membranes, and correct membrane surfaces/topologies, involves multiple pathways and macromolecular machines. The targeting of some, but not all, cytoplasmically synthesized mitochondrial proteins begins with translation of messenger RNAs localized to the organelle. Most proteins then pass through the translocase of the outer membrane to the intermembrane space, where divergent pathways sort them to the outer membrane, inner membrane, and matrix or trap them in the intermembrane space. Roughly 25% of mitochondrial proteins participate in maintenance or expression of the organellar genome at the inner surface of the inner membrane, providing 7 membrane proteins whose synthesis nucleates the assembly of three respiratory complexes.

Human mitochondrial holocytochrome c synthase's heme binding, maturation determinants, and complex formation with cytochrome c

Proper functioning of the mitochondrion requires the orchestrated assembly of respiratory complexes with their cofactors. Cytochrome c, an essential electron carrier in mitochondria and a critical component of the apoptotic pathway, contains a heme cofactor covalently attached to the protein at a conserved CXXCH motif. Although it has been known for more than two decades that heme attachment requires the mitochondrial protein holocytochrome c synthase (HCCS), the mechanism remained unknown. We purified membrane-bound human HCCS with endogenous heme and in complex with its cognate human apocytochrome c. Spectroscopic analyses of HCCS alone and complexes of HCCS with site-directed variants of cytochrome c revealed the fundamental steps of heme attachment and maturation. A conserved histidine in HCCS (His154) provided the key ligand to the heme iron. Formation of the HCCS:heme complex served as the platform for interaction with apocytochrome c. Heme was the central molecule mediating contact between HCCS and apocytochrome c. A conserved histidine in apocytochrome c (His19 of CXXCH) supplied the second axial ligand to heme in the trapped HCCS:heme:cytochrome c complex. We also examined the substrate specificity of human HCCS and converted a bacterial cytochrome c into a robust substrate for the HCCS. The results allow us to describe the molecular mechanisms underlying the HCCS reaction.

Cytochrome c biogenesis in mitochondria--Systems III and V

In c-type cytochromes, heme becomes covalently attached to the polypeptide chain by a reaction between the vinyl groups of the heme and cysteine thiols from the protein. There are two such cytochromes in mitochondria: cytochrome c and cytochrome c(1). The heme attachment is a post-translational modification that is catalysed by different biogenesis proteins in different organisms. Three types of biogenesis system are found or predicted in mitochondria: System I (the cytochrome c maturation system); System III (termed holocytochrome c synthase (HCCS) or heme lyase); and System V. This review focuses primarily on cytochrome c maturation in mitochondria containing HCCS (System III). It describes what is known about the enzymology and substrate specificity of HCCS; the role of HCCS in human disease; import of HCCS into mitochondria; import of apocytochromes c and c(1) into mitochondria and the close relationships with HCCS-dependent heme attachment; and the role of the fungal cytochrome c biogenesis accessory protein Cyc2. System V is also discussed; this is the postulated mitochondrial cytochrome c biogenesis system of trypanosomes and related organisms. No cytochrome c biogenesis proteins have been identified in the genomes of these organisms whose c-type cytochromes also have a unique mode of heme attachment.

The mitochondrial cytochrome c N-terminal region is critical for maturation by holocytochrome c synthase

The covalent attachment of heme to mitochondrial cytochrome c is catalysed by holocytochrome c synthase (HCCS, also called heme lyase). How HCCS functions and recognises the substrate apocytochrome is unknown. Here we have examined HCCS recognition of a chimeric substrate comprising a short mitochondrial cytochrome c N-terminal region with the C-terminal sequence, including the CXXCH heme-binding motif, of a bacterial cytochrome c that is not otherwise processed by HCCS. Heme attachment to the chimera demonstrates the importance of the N-terminal region of the cytochrome. A series of variants of a mitochondrial cytochrome c with amino acid replacements in the N-terminal region have narrowed down the specificity determinants, providing insight into HCCS substrate recognition.

Cytochrome c oxidase dysfunction in sepsis

Sepsis, the principal cause of death in critically ill patients, is associated with impaired oxygen extraction by tissues. One possible explanation is the development of mitochondrial dysfunction and ineffective oxygen utilization. This abnormality has been termed cytopathic hypoxia. This may be caused by an abnormality in the transport of electrons down the cytochrome chain on the mitochondrial inner membrane. In this article we review our studies on abnormalities in the function of complex IV (cytochrome oxidase), the final electron acceptor in this chain. In addition, we provide evidence that administration of cytochrome c may overcome these abnormalities and provide a novel therapeutic alternative.

Mitochondrial resuscitation with exogenous cytochrome c in the septic heart

OBJECTIVE

Mitochondrial dysfunction may play a role in the pathogenesis of sepsis-induced organ dysfunction. Respiratory-chain deficiencies that occur in sepsis, however, have never been shown to cause organ failure or to be reversible. Cytochrome oxidase uses electrons donated by its substrate, cytochrome c, to reduce oxygen to H2O. In the septic heart, cytochrome oxidase is competitively inhibited. We hypothesized that cytochrome oxidase inhibition coupled with reduced substrate availability is a reversible cause of sepsis-associated myocardial depression.

DESIGN

Prospective observational study aimed to overcome myocardial cytochrome oxidase inhibition with excess cytochrome c and improve cardiac function.

SETTING

University hospital-based laboratory.

SUBJECTS

Seventy-five C57Bl6 male mice.

INTERVENTIONS

Mice underwent cecal ligation and double puncture, sham operation, or no operation. Exogenous cytochrome c or an equal volume of saline was intravenously injected at the 24-hr time point. All animals were evaluated 30 mins after injection.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Exogenous cytochrome c readily repleted cardiac mitochondria with supranormal levels of substrate (>1.6 times baseline), restored heme c content, and increased cytochrome oxidase kinetic activity. This increased left ventricular pressure and increased pressure development during isovolumic contraction (dP/dtmax) and relaxation (dP/dtmin) by >45% compared with saline injection.

CONCLUSION

Impaired oxidative phosphorylation is a cause of sepsis-associated myocardial depression, and mitochondrial resuscitation with exogenous cytochrome c overcomes cytochrome oxidase inhibition and improves cardiac function.

7 Non-histone protein lysine methyltransferases: Structure and catalytic roles

Non-histone protein lysine methyltransferases (PKMTs) represent an exceptionally diverse and large group of PKMTs. Even accepting the possibility of multiple protein substrates, if the number of different proteins with methylated lysyl residues and the number of residues modified is indicative of individual PKMTs there are well over a hundred uncharacterized PKMTs. Astoundingly, only a handful of PKMTs have been studied, and of these only a few with identifiable and well-characterized structure and biochemical properties. Four representative PKMTs responsible for trimethyllysyl residues in ribosomal protein LI 1, calmodulin, cytochrome c, and Rubisco are herein examined for enzymological properties, polypeptide substrate specificity, functional significance, and structural characteristics. Although representative of non-histone PKMTs, and enzymes for whichcollectively there is a large amount of information, individually each of the PKMTs discussed in this chapter suffers from a lack of at least some critical information. Other than the obvious commonality in the AdoMet substrate cofactor and methyl group transfer, these enzymes do not have common structural features, polypeptide substrate specificity, or protein sequence. However, there may be a commonality that supports the hypothesis that methylated lysyl residues act as global determinants regulating specific protein-protein interactions.

Enhanced mitochondrial degradation of yeast cytochrome c with amphipathic structures

The dispensable N-terminus of iso-1-cytochrome c (iso-1) in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae was replaced by 11 different amphipathic structures. Rapid degradation of the corresponding iso-1 occurred, with the degree of degradation increasing with the amphipathic moments; and this amphipathic-dependent degradation was designated ADD. ADD occurred with the holo-forms in the mitochondria but not as the apo-forms in the cytosol. The extreme mutant type degraded with a half-life of approximately 12 min, whereas the normal iso-1 was stable over hours. ADD was influenced by the rho+/rho- state and by numerous chromosomal genes. Most importantly, ADD appeared to be specifically suppressed to various extents by deletions of any of the YME1, AFG3, or RCA1 genes encoding membrane-associated mitochondrial proteases, probably because the amphipathic structures caused a stronger association with the mitochondrial inner membrane and its associated proteases. The use of ADD assisted in the differentiation of substrates of different mitochondrial degradation pathways.

Overlapping specificities of the mitochondrial cytochrome c and c1 heme lyases

Heme attachment to the apoforms of fungal mitochondrial cytochrome c and c1 requires the activity of cytochrome c and c1 heme lyases (CCHL and CC1HL), which are enzymes with distinct substrate specificity. However, the presence of a single heme lyase in higher eukaryotes is suggestive of broader substrate specificity. Here, we demonstrate that yeast CCHL is active toward the non-cognate substrate apocytochrome c1, i.e. CCHL promotes low levels of apocytochrome c1 conversion to its holoform in the absence of CC1HL. Moreover, that the single human heme lyase also displays a broader cytochrome specificity is evident from its ability to substitute for both yeast CCHL and CC1HL. Multicopy and genetic suppressors of the absence of CC1HL were isolated and their analysis revealed that the activity of CCHL toward cytochrome c1 can be enhanced by: 1) reducing the abundance of the cognate substrate apocytochrome c, 2) increasing the accumulation of CCHL, 3) modifying the substrate-enzyme interaction through point mutations in CCHL or cytochrome c1, or 4) overexpressing Cyc2p, a protein known previously only as a mitochondrial biogenesis factor. Based on the functional interaction of Cyc2p with CCHL and the presence of a putative FAD-binding site in the protein, we hypothesize that Cyc2p controls the redox chemistry of the heme lyase reaction.

Peptide 68-88 of apocytochrome c plays a crucial role in its insertion into membrane and binding to mitochondria

Apocytochrome c (Apocyt. c) is the precursor of cytochrome c. It is synthesized in the cytosol and posttranslationally imported into mitochondria. In order to determine the crucial sequence in apocyt. c translocation, deleted mutant and chemically synthesized peptides with different length were used. Obtained results showed that sequence 68-88 of apocyt. c plays a critical role in its insertion into membrane and binding to mitochondria.

Redundant mitochondrial targeting signals in yeast adenylate kinase

Yeast adenylate kinase (Aky2p, Adk1p) occurs simultaneously in cytoplasm and mitochondrial intermembrane space. It has no cleavable mitochondrial targeting sequence, and the signal for mitochondrial import and submitochondrial sorting is largely unknown. The extreme N terminus of Aky2p is able to direct cytoplasmic passengers to mitochondria. However, an Aky2 mutant lacking this sequence is imported with about the same efficiency as the wild type. To identify possible import-relevant information in the interior, parts of Aky2p were exchanged by homologous in vitro recombination for the respective segments of the purely cytoplasmic isozyme, Ura6p. Import studies revealed an internal region of about 40 amino acids, which was sufficient to direct the chimera to mitochondria but not for correct submitochondrial sorting. The respective Ura6p hybrid was arrested in the mitochondrial membrane at a position where it was inaccessible to protease but was released by alkaline extraction, suggesting that it had entered an import channel and passed the initial steps of recognition and uptake. Site-specific mutations within the presumptive address-specifying segment identified the amphipathic helix 5. A Ura6 mutant protein in which helix 5 had been replaced with the respective sequence from Aky2p was imported, and this address sequence cooperates with the N terminus in the respective double mutant in a synergistic fashion.

A fraction of yeast Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase and its metallochaperone, CCS, localize to the intermembrane space of mitochondria. A physiological role for SOD1 in guarding against mitochondrial oxidative damage

Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase (SOD1) is an abundant, largely cytosolic enzyme that scavenges superoxide anions. The biological role of SOD1 is somewhat controversial because superoxide is thought to arise largely from the mitochondria where a second SOD (manganese SOD) already resides. Using bakers' yeast as a model, we demonstrate that Cu,Zn-SOD1 helps protect mitochondria from oxidative damage, as sod1Delta mutants show elevated protein carbonyls in this organelle. In accordance with this connection to mitochondria, a fraction of active SOD1 localizes within the intermembrane space (IMS) of mitochondria together with its copper chaperone, CCS. Neither CCS nor SOD1 contains typical N-terminal presequences for mitochondrial uptake; however, the mitochondrial accumulation of SOD1 is strongly influenced by CCS. When CCS synthesis is repressed, mitochondrial SOD1 is of low abundance, and conversely IMS SOD1 is very high when CCS is largely mitochondrial. The mitochondrial form of SOD1 is indeed protective against oxidative damage because yeast cells enriched for IMS SOD1 exhibit prolonged survival in the stationary phase, an established marker of mitochondrial oxidative stress. Cu,Zn-SOD1 in the mitochondria appears important for reactive oxygen physiology and may have critical implications for SOD1 mutations linked to the fatal neurodegenerative disorder, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Requirements of Cyc2p and the porin, Por1p, for ionic stability and mitochondrial integrity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

It was previously demonstrated that Cyc2p from Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a mitochondrial protein; that the cyc2-Delta2 deletion lacking the entire gene causes a diminution to only approximately 20% of the normal levels of cytochrome c due to a partial deficiency in mitochondrial import of apo-cytochrome c; that the deletion causes a defective mitochondrial function, as revealed by diminished growth on media containing nonfermentable carbon sources; and that this defect is exacerbated in hyper-ionic KCl media and at higher incubation temperatures, but is suppressed on media containing sorbitol, a nonionic compound. We report that por1-Delta strains lacking the mitochondrial porin, Por1p, but not por2-Delta strains lacking the related porin, share some phenotypes similar to the cyc2-Delta2 strain, including hypersensitivity to KCl in glycerol medium. Moreover, spontaneous swelling in the presence of ATP was detected in mitochondria from the cyc2-Delta2 strain, while swelling could be detected in mitochondria from the other strains only after the addition of KCl. Thus, highly unspecific membrane permeation may be triggered by ATP in the cyc2-Delta2 strain. We suggest that Por1p and Cyc2p, in addition to their own unique functions, serve to maintain the osmotic stability of mitochondria, but by different mechanisms.

The Toxoplasma gondii protein ROP2 mediates host organelle association with the parasitophorous vacuole membrane

Toxoplasma gondii replicates within a specialized vacuole surrounded by the parasitophorous vacuole membrane (PVM). The PVM forms intimate interactions with host mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in a process termed PVM-organelle association. In this study we identify a likely mediator of this process, the parasite protein ROP2. ROP2, which is localized to the PVM, is secreted from anterior organelles termed rhoptries during parasite invasion into host cells. The NH(2)-terminal domain of ROP2 (ROP2hc) within the PVM is exposed to the host cell cytosol, and has characteristics of a mitochondrial targeting signal. In in vitro assays, ROP2hc is partially translocated into the mitochondrial outer membrane and behaves like an integral membrane protein. Although ROP2hc does not translocate across the ER membrane, it does exhibit carbonate-resistant binding to this organelle. In vivo, ROP2hc expressed as a soluble fragment in the cytosol of uninfected cells associates with both mitochondria and ER. The 30-amino acid (aa) NH(2)-terminal sequence of ROP2hc, when fused to green fluorescent protein (GFP), is sufficient for mitochondrial targeting. Deletion of the 30-aa NH(2)-terminal signal from ROP2hc results in robust localization of the truncated protein to the ER. These results demonstrate a new mechanism for tight association of different membrane-bound organelles within the cell cytoplasm.

NatC Nalpha-terminal acetyltransferase of yeast contains three subunits, Mak3p, Mak10p, and Mak31p

The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae contains three types of N(alpha)-terminal acetyltransferases, NatA, NatB, and NatC, with each having a different catalytic subunit, Ard1p, Nat3p, and Mak3p, respectively, and each acetylating different sets of proteins with different N(alpha)-terminal regions. We show that the NatC N(alpha)-terminal acetyltransferases contains Mak10p and Mak31p subunits, in addition to Mak3p, and that all three subunits are associated with each other to form the active complex. Genetic deletion of any one of the three subunits results in identical abnormal phenotypes, including the lack of acetylation of a NatC substrate in vivo, diminished growth at 37 degrees C on media containing nonfermentable carbon sources, and the lack of maintenance or assembly of the L-A dsRNA viral particle.

Subunit II of cytochrome c oxidase in Chlamydomonad algae is a heterodimer encoded by two independent nuclear genes

The mitochondrial genomes of Chlamydomonad algae lack the cox2 gene that encodes the essential subunit COX II of cytochrome c oxidase. COX II is normally a single polypeptide encoded by a single mitochondrial gene. In this work we cloned two nuclear genes encoding COX II from both Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and Polytomella sp. The cox2a gene encodes a protein, COX IIA, corresponding to the N-terminal portion of subunit II of cytochrome c oxidase, and the cox2b gene encodes COX IIB, corresponding to the C-terminal region. The cox2a and cox2b genes are located in the nucleus and are independently transcribed into mRNAs that are translated into separate polypeptides. These two proteins assemble with other cytochrome c oxidase subunits in the inner mitochondrial membrane to form the mature multi-subunit complex. We propose that during the evolution of the Chlorophyte algae, the cox2 gene was divided into two mitochondrial genes that were subsequently transferred to the nucleus. This event was evolutionarily distinct from the transfer of an intact cox2 gene to the nucleus in some members the Leguminosae plant family.

What fuels polypeptide translocation? An energetical view on mitochondrial protein sorting

Protein sorting into mitochondria is achieved by the concerted action of at least four translocation complexes. Vectorial transport of polypeptide chains by these complexes requires different driving forces. In particular, Deltapsi, matrix adenosine triphosphate and the free energy of the binding to other protein components are used in series to achieve sorting of proteins to the various mitochondrial subcompartments. The processes providing the translocation energy are presented in this review and their impact for protein sorting into and within mitochondria is discussed.

Determinants of cytochrome c pro-apoptotic activity. The role of lysine 72 trimethylation

Cytochrome c released from vertebrate mitochondria engages apoptosis by triggering caspase activation. We previously reported that, whereas cytochromes c from higher eukaryotes can activate caspases in Xenopus egg and mammalian cytosols, iso-1 and iso-2 cytochromes c from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae cannot. Here we examine whether the inactivity of the yeast isoforms is related to a post-translational modification of lysine 72, N-epsilon-trimethylation. This modification was found to abrogate pro-apoptotic activity of metazoan cytochrome c expressed in yeast. However, iso-1 cytochrome c lacking the trimethylation modification also was devoid of pro-apoptotic activity. Thus, both lysine 72 trimethylation and other features of the iso-1 sequence preclude pro-apoptotic activity. Competition studies suggest that the lack of pro-apoptotic activity was associated with a low affinity for Apaf-1. As cytochromes c that lack apoptotic function still support respiration, different mechanisms appear to be involved in the two activities.

Translocation of chicken heart apocytochrome c and its mutants (C17S, H18D) across mitochondrial membrane

The dependence of import of chicken heart apocytochrome c on its transformation to holoform by heme attachment was studied. Results showed that there was no difference in the translocation of apocytochrome c across the mitochondrial membrane in the presence or absence of hemin + dithionite. Furthermore, two heme unattached mutants (H18D. C17S) were prepared, which could still be accumulated in mitochondria, but their import velocity was obviously reduced.

The yeast mitochondrial intermembrane space: purification and analysis of two distinct fractions

We have developed a protocol for the sequential release of the intermembrane space (IMS) content of Saccharomyces cerevisiae mitochondria. Two distinct fractions were obtained: a soluble IMS with cytochrome b2 as key marker and a salt-extractable IMS with cytochrome c as key marker. The identity of several proteins was determined by amino-terminal amino acid sequencing. The IMS fractions were devoid of contaminations from cytosol and mitochondrial outer and inner membranes. By subtraction analysis, the protein profiles of soluble and salt-extractable IMS fractions were depleted of contaminating bands derived from matrix proteins. The fractionation method will provide the basis for the further analysis of IMS proteins and characterization of their functions in bioenergetics, mitochondrial biogenesis, and regulatory processes.

Molecular mechanisms of cytochrome c biogenesis: three distinct systems

The past 10 years have heralded remarkable progress in the understanding of the biogenesis of c-type cytochromes. The hallmark of c-type cytochrome synthesis is the covalent ligation of haem vinyl groups to two cysteinyl residues of the apocytochrome (at a Cys-Xxx-Yyy-Cys-His signature motif). From genetic, genomic and biochemical studies, it is clear that three distinct systems have evolved in nature to assemble this ancient protein. In this review, common principles of assembly for all systems and the molecular mechanisms predicted for each system are summarized. Prokaryotes, plant mitochondria and chloroplasts use either system I or II, which are each predicted to use dedicated mechanisms for haem delivery, apocytochrome ushering and thioreduction. Accessory proteins of systems I and II co-ordinate the positioning of these two substrates at the membrane surface for covalent ligation. The third system has evolved specifically in mitochondria of fungi, invertebrates and vertebrates. For system III, a pivotal role is played by an enzyme called cytochrome c haem lyase (CCHL) in the mitochondrial intermembrane space.

Degradation of yeast cytochromes c dependent and independent on its physiological partners

Altered iso-1- and iso-2-cytochromes c, with certain amino acid replacements, occur at diminished levels due to degradation in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. A subclass of the labile isocytochromes c are significantly protected from degradation by the presence of cytochromes a.a3 and c1, the physiological partners of cytochrome c. We have investigated the degradation that is dependent on physiological partners by examining the levels of iso-1-cytochrome c having all or most amino acid replacements at positions 6, 41, 52, and 78, in both rho+ strains and rho- strains, which lacks cytochrome a.a3. In addition, we have examined some of these replacements in strains also having the N52I replacement, which suppresses a variety of abnormal iso-1-cytochromes c, including those whose degradation is either dependent or independent on the physiological partners. Although some degree of preferential rho--dependent reductions was observed for iso-1-cytochromes c having replacements at each of the 6, 41, 52, and 78 sites, prominent effects of rho+/rho- ratios of approximately 100/0 to 30/0 were observed for iso-1-cytochromes c having replacements mainly at the 41, 52, and 78 sites, but not the G6 site. We suggest that prominent degradation dependent on physiological partners may be restricted to certain regions of the cytochrome c molecule. Furthermore, we suggest that the region of the largest confirmational difference between oxidized and reduced cytochrome c appears to be particularly protected by interactions with its physiological partners.

Protein import into mitochondria

Mitochondria import many hundreds of different proteins that are encoded by nuclear genes. These proteins are targeted to the mitochondria, translocated through the mitochondrial membranes, and sorted to the different mitochondrial subcompartments. Separate translocases in the mitochondrial outer membrane (TOM complex) and in the inner membrane (TIM complex) facilitate recognition of preproteins and transport across the two membranes. Factors in the cytosol assist in targeting of preproteins. Protein components in the matrix partake in energetically driving translocation in a reaction that depends on the membrane potential and matrix-ATP. Molecular chaperones in the matrix exert multiple functions in translocation, sorting, folding, and assembly of newly imported proteins.