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Krapp C, Jønsson K, Jakobsen MR. STING dependent sensing - Does HIV actually care? Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2018; 40:68-76. [PMID: 29548644 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2018.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Revised: 02/26/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Sensing of DNA is essential for the innate immune system to detect threats, like viruses, intracellular bacteria or cellular DNA damage. At the centre of this conserved mammalian mechanism stands the adaptor protein STING. STING is highly regulated and is part of a complex signalling network. This network depends on the sensors cGAS and IFI16 to detect misplaced DNA in the cytoplasm as well as on the kinase TBK1 and the transcription factor IRF3. The DNA sensing machinery has been implicated in many diseases, among others HIV. Here we present a comprehensive review of current status on the STING pathway with all its components and regulations related to HIV pathogenesis. By this, we try to answer the question if STING-mediated DNA sensing plays a role in HIV infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Krapp
- Department of Biomedicine, Faculty of Health, Aarhus University, Denmark
| | - Kasper Jønsson
- Department of Biomedicine, Faculty of Health, Aarhus University, Denmark
| | - Martin R Jakobsen
- Department of Biomedicine, Faculty of Health, Aarhus University, Denmark.
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2
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Ebner P, Versteeg GA, Ikeda F. Ubiquitin enzymes in the regulation of immune responses. Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 2017; 52:425-460. [PMID: 28524749 PMCID: PMC5490640 DOI: 10.1080/10409238.2017.1325829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2017] [Revised: 04/06/2017] [Accepted: 04/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Ubiquitination plays a central role in the regulation of various biological functions including immune responses. Ubiquitination is induced by a cascade of enzymatic reactions by E1 ubiquitin activating enzyme, E2 ubiquitin conjugating enzyme, and E3 ubiquitin ligase, and reversed by deubiquitinases. Depending on the enzymes, specific linkage types of ubiquitin chains are generated or hydrolyzed. Because different linkage types of ubiquitin chains control the fate of the substrate, understanding the regulatory mechanisms of ubiquitin enzymes is central. In this review, we highlight the most recent knowledge of ubiquitination in the immune signaling cascades including the T cell and B cell signaling cascades as well as the TNF signaling cascade regulated by various ubiquitin enzymes. Furthermore, we highlight the TRIM ubiquitin ligase family as one of the examples of critical E3 ubiquitin ligases in the regulation of immune responses.
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3
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Coiras M, Ambrosioni J, Cervantes F, Miró JM, Alcamí J. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors: potential use and safety considerations in HIV-1 infection. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2017; 16:547-559. [PMID: 28387147 DOI: 10.1080/14740338.2017.1313224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Infection caused by HIV-1 is nowadays a chronic disease due to a highly efficient antiretroviral treatment that is nevertheless, unable to eliminate the virus from the organism. New strategies are necessary in order to impede the formation of the viral reservoirs, responsible for the failure of the antiretroviral treatment to cure the infection. Areas covered: The purpose of this review is to discuss the possibility of using tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) for the treatment of HIV-1 infection. These inhibitors are successfully used in patients with distinct cancers such as chronic myeloid leukemia. The most relevant papers have been selected and commented. Expert opinion: The family of TKIs are directed against the activation of tyrosine kinases from the Src family. Some of these kinases are essential for the activation of CD4 + T cells, the major target of HIV-1. During acute or primary infection the CD4 + T cells are massively activated, which is mostly responsible for the generation of the reservoirs, the spread of the infection and the destruction of activated CD4 + T cells, infected or not. Consequently, we discuss the possibility of using TKIs as adjuvant of the antiretroviral treatment against HIV-1 infection mostly, but not exclusively, during the acute/recent phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayte Coiras
- a AIDS Immunopathology Unit , National Center of Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III , Madrid , Spain
| | - Juan Ambrosioni
- b Infectious Diseases Service , AIDS Research Group, Institut d´Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi I Sunyer (IDIBAPS) , Barcelona , Spain
| | | | - José M Miró
- b Infectious Diseases Service , AIDS Research Group, Institut d´Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi I Sunyer (IDIBAPS) , Barcelona , Spain
| | - José Alcamí
- a AIDS Immunopathology Unit , National Center of Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III , Madrid , Spain
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4
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Nunnari G, Fagone P, Lazzara F, Longo A, Cambria D, Di Stefano G, Palumbo M, Malaguarnera L, Di Rosa M. Vitamin D3 inhibits TNFα-induced latent HIV reactivation in J-LAT cells. Mol Cell Biochem 2016; 418:49-57. [PMID: 27295094 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-016-2732-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3) is known to suppress NF-kB activity by interfering with its pathways. The aim of this study was to investigate the ability of 1,25(OH)2D3 in reducing the reactivation of the HIV virus J-LAT cells, an established model of latently infected cells, which were treated with TNFalpha (100 ng/ml) for 2 h with or without 24 h 1,25(OH)2D3 (100 nM) pretreatment. Reactivation of HIV RNA in J-LAT was evaluated in terms of green fluorescent protein (GFP) expression. The same experimental setting was repeated on T cells from HIV-infected patients. Treatment with TNFalpha was associated with a 16 % increase in GFP+ cells and a five-fold increase in unspliced HIV RNA expression (p < 0.04). Pretreatment of J-LAT cells with 1,25(OH)2D3 for 24 h followed by TNFalpha (100 ng/ml) for 2 h reduced the percentage of GFP+ cells by 8 %; moreover, a 2.4-fold decrease in unspliced HIV RNA expression was observed (p < 0.002). In T cells from patients, treatment with TNFalpha significantly increased unspliced HIV RNA expression (sixfold increase, p < 0.02), whereas prestimulation with 1,25(OH)2D3 reduced its expression (2.5-fold decrease, p < 0.02) compared to controls.1,25(OH)2D3 is able to reduce the ability of TNFalpha to upregulate the transcription of HIV RNA from latently infected cells. These data provide further understanding of the pathogenic mechanisms regulating viral reactivation from latent reservoirs, along with new insight in viral internalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Nunnari
- Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Clinical and Molecular Biomedicine, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - P Fagone
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - F Lazzara
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - A Longo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - D Cambria
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - G Di Stefano
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - M Palumbo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - L Malaguarnera
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Michelino Di Rosa
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.
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5
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Fiume G, Rossi A, de Laurentiis A, Falcone C, Pisano A, Vecchio E, Pontoriero M, Scala I, Scialdone A, Masci FF, Mimmi S, Palmieri C, Scala G, Quinto I. Eukaryotic Initiation Factor 4H Is under Transcriptional Control of p65/NF-κB. PLoS One 2013; 8:e66087. [PMID: 23776612 PMCID: PMC3679033 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0066087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2012] [Accepted: 05/06/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein synthesis is mainly regulated at the initiation step, allowing the fast, reversible and spatial control of gene expression. Initiation of protein synthesis requires at least 13 translation initiation factors to assemble the 80S ribosomal initiation complex. Loss of translation control may result in cell malignant transformation. Here, we asked whether translational initiation factors could be regulated by NF-κB transcription factor, a major regulator of genes involved in cell proliferation, survival, and inflammatory response. We show that the p65 subunit of NF-κB activates the transcription of eIF4H gene, which is the regulatory subunit of eIF4A, the most relevant RNA helicase in translation initiation. The p65-dependent transcriptional activation of eIF4H increased the eIF4H protein content augmenting the rate of global protein synthesis. In this context, our results provide novel insights into protein synthesis regulation in response to NF-κB activation signalling, suggesting a transcription-translation coupled mechanism of control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Fiume
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Catanzaro “Magna Graecia”, Catanzaro, Italy
- * E-mail: (GF); (GS); (IQ)
| | - Annalisa Rossi
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Catanzaro “Magna Graecia”, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Annamaria de Laurentiis
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Catanzaro “Magna Graecia”, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Cristina Falcone
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Catanzaro “Magna Graecia”, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Antonio Pisano
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Catanzaro “Magna Graecia”, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Eleonora Vecchio
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Catanzaro “Magna Graecia”, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Marilena Pontoriero
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Catanzaro “Magna Graecia”, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Iris Scala
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Naples “Federico II”, Naples, Italy
| | - Annarita Scialdone
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Catanzaro “Magna Graecia”, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Francesca Fasanella Masci
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Catanzaro “Magna Graecia”, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Selena Mimmi
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Catanzaro “Magna Graecia”, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Camillo Palmieri
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Catanzaro “Magna Graecia”, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Scala
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Catanzaro “Magna Graecia”, Catanzaro, Italy
- * E-mail: (GF); (GS); (IQ)
| | - Ileana Quinto
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Catanzaro “Magna Graecia”, Catanzaro, Italy
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, University of Naples “Federico II”, Naples, Italy
- * E-mail: (GF); (GS); (IQ)
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6
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Vitagliano L, Fiume G, Scognamiglio PL, Doti N, Cannavò R, Puca A, Pedone C, Scala G, Quinto I, Marasco D. Structural and functional insights into IκB-α/HIV-1 Tat interaction. Biochimie 2011; 93:1592-600. [PMID: 21664225 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2011.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2011] [Accepted: 05/24/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Protein-protein interactions play fundamental roles in physiological and pathological biological processes. The characterization of the structural determinants of protein-protein recognition represents an important step for the development of molecular entities able to modulate these interactions. We have recently found that IκB-α (nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells inhibitor, alpha) blocks the HIV-1 expression and replication in a NF-κB-independent manner by directly binding to the virus-encoded Tat transactivator. Here, we report the evaluation of the entity of binding of IκB-α to Tat through in vitro Surface Plasmon Resonance assay. Moreover, by designing and characterizing a set of peptides of the C-terminus region of IκB-α, we show that the peptide corresponding to the IκB-α sequence 262-287 was able to bind to Tat with high affinity (300 nM). The characterization of a number of IκB-α-based peptides also provided insights into their intrinsic folding properties. These findings have been corroborated by mutagenesis studies on the full-length IκB-α, which unveil that different IκB-α residues are involved in NF-κB or Tat recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Vitagliano
- Institute of Biostructures and Bioimaging, CNR, Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Naples, Italy
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7
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Puca A, Fiume G, Palmieri C, Trimboli F, Olimpico F, Scala G, Quinto I. IκB-α Represses the Transcriptional Activity of the HIV-1 Tat Transactivator by Promoting Its Nuclear Export. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:37146-57. [DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m705815200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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8
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Coiras M, López-Huertas MR, Rullas J, Mittelbrunn M, Alcamí J. Basal shuttle of NF-kappaB/I kappaB alpha in resting T lymphocytes regulates HIV-1 LTR dependent expression. Retrovirology 2007; 4:56. [PMID: 17686171 PMCID: PMC1988826 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4690-4-56] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2007] [Accepted: 08/08/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In HIV-infected T lymphocytes, NF-κB/Rel transcription factors are major elements involved in the activation of LTR-dependent transcription from latency. Most NF-κB heterodimer p65/p50 is sequestered as an inactive form in the cytoplasm of resting T lymphocytes via its interaction with IκB inhibitors. In these cells, both absolute HIV latency and low level ongoing HIV replication have been described. These situations could be related to differences in the balance between NF-κB and IκBα ratio. Actually, control of IκBα by cellular factors such as Murr-1 plays a critical role in maintaining HIV latency in unstimulated T lymphocytes. Formerly, our group demonstrated the presence of nuclear IκBα in T cells after PMA activation. Now we attempt to determine the dynamics of NF-κB/IκBα nucleocytosolic transport in absence of activation as a mechanism to explain both the maintenance of latency and the existence of low level ongoing HIV replication in resting CD4+ T lymphocytes. Results and conclusion We show that the inhibition of the nuclear export by leptomycin B in resting CD4+ T cells resulted in nuclear accumulation of both IκBα and p65/RelA, as well as formation of NF-κB/IκBα complexes. This proves the existence of a rapid shuttling of IκBα between nucleus and cytosol even in absence of cellular activation. The nuclear accumulation of IκBα in resting CD4+ T lymphocytes results in inhibition of HIV-LTR dependent transcription as well as restrains HIV replication in CD4+ T lymphocytes. On the other hand, basal NF-κB activity detected in resting CD4+ T lymphocytes was related to low level HIV replication in these cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayte Coiras
- AIDS Immunopathology Unit, National Center of Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Rosa López-Huertas
- AIDS Immunopathology Unit, National Center of Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Joaquín Rullas
- AIDS Immunopathology Unit, National Center of Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Maria Mittelbrunn
- Immunology Service, Hospital de La Princesa, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - José Alcamí
- AIDS Immunopathology Unit, National Center of Microbiology, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
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9
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Abstract
Nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB is a ubiquitous and essential transcription factor whose dysregulation has been linked to numerous diseases including arthritis and cancer. It is therefore not surprising that the NF-kappaB activation pathway has become a major target for development of novel therapies for inflammatory diseases and cancer. However, the indispensable role played by NF-kappaB in many biological processes has raised concern that a complete shutdown of this pathway would have significant detrimental effects on normal cellular function. Instead, drugs that selectively target the inflammation induced NF-kappaB activity, while sparing the protective functions of basal NF-kappaB activity, would be of greater therapeutic value and would likely display fewer undesired side effects. The recent identification and characterisation of the NF-kappaB essential modulator (NEMO)-binding domain (NBD) peptide that can block the activation of the IkappaB kinase (IKK) complex, have provided an opportunity to selectively abrogate the inflammation induced activation of NF-kappaB by targeting the NBD-NEMO interaction. This peptide is synthesised in tandem with a protein transduction domain sequence from Drosophila antennapedia which facilitates uptake of the inhibitory peptide into the cytosol of target cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Strickland
- Section of Immunology, Department of Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haen, CT, USA
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10
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Hiscott J, Nguyen TLA, Arguello M, Nakhaei P, Paz S. Manipulation of the nuclear factor-kappaB pathway and the innate immune response by viruses. Oncogene 2006; 25:6844-67. [PMID: 17072332 PMCID: PMC7100320 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1209941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Viral and microbial constituents contain specific motifs or pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) that are recognized by cell surface- and endosome-associated Toll-like receptors (TLRs). In addition, intracellular viral double-stranded RNA is detected by two recently characterized DExD/H box RNA helicases, RIG-I and Mda-5. Both TLR-dependent and -independent pathways engage the IkappaB kinase (IKK) complex and related kinases TBK-1 and IKKvarepsilon. Activation of the nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) and interferon regulatory factor (IRF) transcription factor pathways are essential immediate early steps of immune activation; as a result, both pathways represent prime candidates for viral interference. Many viruses have developed strategies to manipulate NF-kappaB signaling through the use of multifunctional viral proteins that target the host innate immune response pathways. This review discusses three rapidly evolving areas of research on viral pathogenesis: the recognition and signaling in response to virus infection through TLR-dependent and -independent mechanisms, the involvement of NF-kappaB in the host innate immune response and the multitude of strategies used by different viruses to short circuit the NF-kappaB pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Hiscott
- Terry Fox Molecular Oncology Group, Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, McGill University, Montreal, Canada.
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11
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Zhou X, Vink M, Klaver B, Verhoef K, Marzio G, Das AT, Berkhout B. The genetic stability of a conditional live HIV-1 variant can be improved by mutations in the Tet-On regulatory system that restrain evolution. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:17084-17091. [PMID: 16627480 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m513400200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Live attenuated human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) vaccines are considered unsafe because more quickly replicating pathogenic virus variants may evolve after vaccination. As an alternative vaccine approach, we have previously presented a doxycycline (dox)-dependent HIV-1 variant that was constructed by incorporating the tetracycline-inducible gene expression system (Tet-On system) into the viral genome. Replication of this HIV-rtTA variant is driven by the dox-inducible transcriptional activator rtTA and can be switched on and off at will. A large scale evolution study was performed to test the genetic stability of this conditional live vaccine candidate. In several long term cultures, we selected for HIV-rtTA variants that no longer required dox for replication. These evolved variants acquired a typical amino acid substitution either at position 19 or 37 in the rtTA protein. Both mutations caused rtTA activity and viral replication in the absence of dox. We designed a novel rtTA variant with a higher genetic barrier toward these undesired evolutionary routes. The corresponding HIV-rtTA variant did not lose dox control in long term cultures, demonstrating its improved genetic stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Zhou
- Department of Human Retrovirology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Monique Vink
- Department of Human Retrovirology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Bep Klaver
- Department of Human Retrovirology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Koen Verhoef
- Department of Human Retrovirology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Giuseppe Marzio
- Department of Human Retrovirology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Atze T Das
- Department of Human Retrovirology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ben Berkhout
- Department of Human Retrovirology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Victoriano AFB, Asamitsu K, Hibi Y, Imai K, Barzaga NG, Okamoto T. Inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication in latently infected cells by a novel IkappaB kinase inhibitor. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50:547-55. [PMID: 16436709 PMCID: PMC1366890 DOI: 10.1128/aac.50.2.547-555.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2005] [Revised: 09/22/2005] [Accepted: 11/04/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) latently infected cells, NF-kappaB plays a major role in the transcriptional induction of HIV-1 replication. Hence, downregulation of NF-kappaB activation has long been sought for effective anti-HIV therapy. Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) stimulates IkappaB kinase (IKK) complex, a critical regulator in the NF-kappaB signaling pathway. A novel IKK inhibitor, ACHP {2-amino-6-[2-(cyclopropylmethoxy)-6-hydroxyphenyl]-4-piperidin-4-yl-nicotinonitrile}, was developed and evaluated as a potent and specific inhibitor for IKK-alpha and IKK-beta. In this study, we examined the ability of this compound to inhibit HIV-1 replication in OM10.1 cells latently infected with HIV. When these cells were pretreated with ACHP, TNF-alpha-induced HIV-1 replication was dramatically inhibited, as measured by the HIV p24 antigen levels in the culture supernatants. Its 50% effective concentration was approximately 0.56 microM, whereas its 50% cytotoxic concentration was about 15 microM. Western blot analysis revealed inhibition of IkappaBalpha phosphorylation, IkappaBalpha degradation, p65 nuclear translocation, and p65 phosphorylation. ACHP was also found to suppress HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR)-driven gene expression through the inhibition of NF-kappaB activation. Furthermore, ACHP inhibited TNF-alpha-induced NF-kappaB (p65) recruitment to the HIV-1 LTR, as assessed by chromatin immunoprecipitation assay. These findings suggest that ACHP acts as a potent suppressor of TNF-alpha-induced HIV replication in latently infected cells and that this inhibition is mediated through suppression of IKK activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann Florence B Victoriano
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagoya, Japan
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13
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Palmieri C, Trimboli F, Puca A, Fiume G, Scala G, Quinto I. Inhibition of HIV-1 replication in primary human monocytes by the IkappaB-alphaS32/36A repressor of NF-kappaB. Retrovirology 2004; 1:45. [PMID: 15613239 PMCID: PMC544834 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4690-1-45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2004] [Accepted: 12/21/2004] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The identification of the molecular mechanisms of human immunodeficiency virus type 1, HIV-1, transcriptional regulation is required to develop novel inhibitors of viral replication. NF-κB transacting factors strongly enhance the HIV/SIV expression in both epithelial and lymphoid cells. Controversial results have been reported on the requirement of NF-κB factors in distinct cell reservoirs, such as CD4-positive T lymphocytes and monocytes. We have previously shown that IκB-αS32/36A, a proteolysis-resistant inhibitor of NF-κB, potently inhibits the growth of HIV-1 and SIVmac239 in cell cultures and in the SIV macaque model of AIDS. To further extend these observations, we have generated NL(AD8)IκB-αS32/36A, a macrophage-tropic HIV-1 recombinant strain endowed to express IκB-αS32/36A. Results In this work, we show that infection with NL(AD8)IκB-αS32/36A down-regulated the NF-κB DNA binding activity in cells. NL(AD8)IκB-αS32/36A was also highly attenuated for replication in cultures of human primary monocytes. Conclusions These results point to a major requirement of NF-κB activation for the optimal replication of HIV-1 in monocytes and suggest that agents which interfere with NF-κB activity could counteract HIV-1 infection of monocytes-macrophages in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camillo Palmieri
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catanzaro "Magna Graecia", Via T. Campanella 115, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Francesca Trimboli
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catanzaro "Magna Graecia", Via T. Campanella 115, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Antimina Puca
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Biotechnology, University of Naples "Federico II", Via S. Pansini 5, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Fiume
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Biotechnology, University of Naples "Federico II", Via S. Pansini 5, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Scala
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catanzaro "Magna Graecia", Via T. Campanella 115, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Biotechnology, University of Naples "Federico II", Via S. Pansini 5, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Ileana Quinto
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catanzaro "Magna Graecia", Via T. Campanella 115, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Biotechnology, University of Naples "Federico II", Via S. Pansini 5, 80131 Naples, Italy
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14
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Kumar A, Takada Y, Boriek AM, Aggarwal BB. Nuclear factor-kappaB: its role in health and disease. J Mol Med (Berl) 2004; 82:434-48. [PMID: 15175863 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-004-0555-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 692] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2003] [Accepted: 04/12/2004] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) is a major transcription factor that plays an essential role in several aspects of human health including the development of innate and adaptive immunity. The dysregulation of NF-kappaB is associated with many disease states such as AIDS, atherosclerosis, asthma, arthritis, cancer, diabetes, inflammatory bowel disease, muscular dystrophy, stroke, and viral infections. Recent evidence also suggests that the dysfunction of NF-kappaB is a major mediator of some human genetic disorders. Appropriate regulation and control of NF-kappaB activity, which can be achieved by gene modification or pharmacological strategies, would provide a potential approach for the management of NF-kappaB related human diseases. This review summarizes the current knowledge of the physiological and pathophysiological functions of NF-kappaB and its possible role as a target of therapeutic intervention
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashok Kumar
- Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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15
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Quinto I, Puca A, Greenhouse J, Silvera P, Yalley-Ogunro J, Lewis MG, Palmieri C, Trimboli F, Byrum R, Adelsberger J, Venzon D, Chen X, Scala G. High Attenuation and Immunogenicity of a Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Expressing a Proteolysis-resistant Inhibitor of NF-κB. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:1720-8. [PMID: 14593121 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m309375200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
NF-kappaB/IkappaB proteins play a major role in the transcriptional regulation of human immunodeficiency virus, type-1 (HIV-1). In the case of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) the cellular factors required for the viral transcriptional activation and replication in vivo remain undefined. Here, we demonstrate that the p50/p65 NF-kappaB transcription factors enhanced the Tat-mediated transcriptional activation of SIVmac239. In addition, IkappaB-alpha S32/36A, a proteolysis-resistant inhibitor of NF-kappaB, strongly inhibited the Tat-mediated transactivation of SIVmac239. Based on this evidence, we have generated a self-regulatory virus by endowing the genome of SIV-mac239 with IkappaB-alpha S32/36A; the resulting virus, SIVIkappaB-alpha S32/36A, was nef-deleted and expressed the NF-kappaB inhibitor. We show that SIVIkappaB-alpha S32/36A was highly and stably attenuated both in cell cultures and in vivo in rhesus macaque as compared with a nef-deleted control virus. Moreover, the high attenuation was associated with a robust immune response as measured by SIV-specific antibody production, tetramer, and intracellular IFN-gamma staining of SIV gag-specific T cells. These results underscore the crucial role of NF-kappaB/IkappaB proteins in the regulation of SIV replication both in cell cultures and in monkeys. Thus, inhibitors of NF-kappaB could efficiently counteract the SIV/HIV replication in vivo and may assist in developing novel approaches for AIDS vaccine and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ileana Quinto
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Medical School, University of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy.
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16
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Haga T, Shimizu Y, Okoba M, Kumabe S, Goto Y, Shinjo T, Ichimura H, Kuwata T, Hayami M, Miura T. Construction and in vitro properties of chimeric simian and human immunodeficiency virus with the human TNF-alpha gene. Microbiol Immunol 2003; 46:849-55. [PMID: 12597359 DOI: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.2002.tb02772.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) has been reported to be involved in the development and progression of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). To study the role of this cytokine in AIDS pathogenesis, we constructed a chimeric simian and human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV) having the human TNF-alpha gene (SHIV-TNF) and characterized its properties in vitro. SHIV-TNF replicated both in M8166, a human T cell line, and in monkey peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Along with SHIV-TNF replication, TNF-alpha was detected in the culture supernatant by ELISA. The maximum expression level of TNF-alpha reached 120 ng/ml in M8166 cells, and 2.5 ng/ml in monkey PBMCs. The expressed TNF was biologically active, as shown by a cytotoxic assay using TNF-sensitive L929 mouse fibroblasts. This activity was detected at least until 10 passages of SHIV-TNF (74 days after the initial infection). In monkey PBMCs, SHIV-TNF replicated much better than the parental SHIV-NI. Flow cytometric analysis showed that the death of monkey PBMCs infected with SHIV-TNF was severer than that caused by the parental SHIV-NI. These results suggest that SHIV-TNF would be useful for inducing the disease in a monkey model, which may contribute to a better understanding of the role of TNF-alpha in AIDS etiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Haga
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Miyazaki University, Kibanadai Nishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan.
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17
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Rich EA, Orenstein JM, Jeang KT. A macrophage-tropic HIV-1 that expresses green fluorescent protein and infects alveolar and blood monocyte-derived macrophages. J Biomed Sci 2002. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02255001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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18
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Takada N, Sanda T, Okamoto H, Yang JP, Asamitsu K, Sarol L, Kimura G, Uranishi H, Tetsuka T, Okamoto T. RelA-associated inhibitor blocks transcription of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by inhibiting NF-kappaB and Sp1 actions. J Virol 2002; 76:8019-30. [PMID: 12134007 PMCID: PMC155123 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.16.8019-8030.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
RelA-associated inhibitor (RAI) is an inhibitor of nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) newly identified by yeast two-hybrid screen as an interacting protein of the p65 (RelA) subunit. In this study, we attempted to examine the effect of RAI on transcription and replication of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). We found that RAI inhibited gene expression from the HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR) even at the basal level. Upon in vitro DNA-binding reactions, RAI could directly block the DNA-binding of p65 subunit of NF-kappaB but not that of the p50 subunit or AP1. We found that RAI could also inhibit the DNA-binding of Sp1 and thus inhibit the basal HIV-1 promoter activity. We further examined the effects of RAI on Sp1 and found that RAI colocalizes with Sp1 in the nucleus and interacts with Sp1 in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, we found that RAI efficiently blocked the HIV-1 replication when cotransfected with a full-length HIV-1 clone. These findings indicate that RAI acts as an efficient inhibitor of HIV-1 gene expression in which both NF-kappaB and Sp1 play major roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norio Takada
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Nagoya City University Medical School, Japan
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19
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Cheng H, Cenciarelli C, Tao M, Parks WP, Cheng-Mayer C. HTLV-1 Tax-associated hTid-1, a human DnaJ protein, is a repressor of Ikappa B kinase beta subunit. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:20605-10. [PMID: 11927590 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m201204200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
hTid-1, a human DnaJ protein, is a novel cellular target for HTLV-1 Tax. Here, we show that hTid-1 represses NF-kappaB activity induced by Tax as well as other activators such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) and Bcl10. hTid-1 specifically suppresses serine phosphorylation of IkappaBalpha by activated IkappaB kinase beta (IKKbeta), but the activities of other serine kinases including p38, ERK2, and JNK1 are not affected. The suppressive activity of hTid-1 on IKKbeta requires a functional J domain that mediates association with heat shock proteins and results in prolonging the half-life of the NF-kappaB inhibitors IkappaBalpha and IkappaBbeta. Collectively, our data suggest that hTid-1, in association with heat shock proteins, exerts a negative regulatory effect on the NF-kappaB activity induced by various extracellular and intracellular activators including HTLV-1 Tax.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Cheng
- Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center, Rockefeller University, New York, New York 10021, USA.
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20
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Smith SM, Khoroshev M, Marx PA, Orenstein J, Jeang KT. Constitutively dead, conditionally live HIV-1 genomes. Ex vivo implications for a live virus vaccine. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:32184-90. [PMID: 11397795 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m101604200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
An effective vaccine against AIDS is unlikely to be available for many years. As we approach two decades since the first identification of human immunodeficiency virus, type 1 (HIV-1), currently, only one subunit vaccine candidate has reached phase 3 of clinical trials. The subunit approach has been criticized for its inability to elicit effectively cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) response, which is felt by many to be needed for protection against HIV-1 infection. In subhuman primates, a live attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) vaccine candidate, capable of inducing CTL, has been found to confer prophylactic immunity sufficient to prevent simian AIDS. Because replication competent (live) attenuated viruses could over time revert to virulence, such a live attenuated approach has largely been dismissed for HIV-1. Here, we describe the creation of constitutively dead conditionally live (CDCL) HIV-1 genomes. These genomes are constitutively defective for the Tat/TAR axis and are conditionally dependent on tetracycline for attenuated replication with robust expression of viral antigens. Our results suggest that CDCL genomes merit consideration as safer "live" attenuated HIV-1 vaccine candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Smith
- Saint Michael's Medical Center and the New Jersey Medical School-University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Newark, New Jersey 07102, USA
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21
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Huang LM, Chao MF, Chen MY, Chiang YP, Chuang CY, Lee CY. Reciprocal regulatory interaction between human herpesvirus 8 and human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:13427-32. [PMID: 11154704 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m011314200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV8) is the primary viral etiologic agent in Kaposi's sarcoma (KS). However, individuals dually infected with both HHV8 and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) show an enhanced prevalence of KS when compared with those singularly infected with HHV8. Host immune suppression conferred by HIV infection cannot wholly explain this increased presentation of KS. To better understand how HHV8 and HIV-1 might interact directly in the pathogenesis of KS, we queried for potential regulatory interactions between the two viruses. Here, we report that HHV8 and HIV-1 reciprocally up-regulate the gene expression of each other. We found that the KIE2 immediate-early gene product of HHV8 interacted synergistically with Tat in activating expression from the HIV-1 long terminal repeat. On the other hand, HIV-1 encoded Tat and Vpr proteins increased intracellular HHV8-specific expression. These results provide molecular insights correlating coinfection with HHV8 and HIV-1 with an unusually high incidence of KS.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M Huang
- Department of Pediatrics, National Taiwan University Hospital, National Health Research Institutes, Taipei 100, Taiwan.
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22
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Rabson AB, Lin HC. NF-kappa B and HIV: linking viral and immune activation. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2001; 48:161-207. [PMID: 10987091 DOI: 10.1016/s1054-3589(00)48006-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A B Rabson
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway 08854, USA
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23
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Hiscott J, Kwon H, Génin P. Hostile takeovers: viral appropriation of the NF-kappaB pathway. J Clin Invest 2001; 107:143-51. [PMID: 11160127 PMCID: PMC199181 DOI: 10.1172/jci11918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 454] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- J Hiscott
- Terry Fox Molecular Oncology Group, Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Jewish General Hospital, 3755 Cote Ste. Catherine, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3T1E2.
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24
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Mills J, Desrosiers R, Rud E, Almond N. Live attenuated HIV vaccines: a proposal for further research and development. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2000; 16:1453-61. [PMID: 11054258 DOI: 10.1089/088922200750005976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- J Mills
- Macfarlane Burnet Centre for Medical Research, Fairfield (Melbourne), Victoria, Australia.
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25
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Haga T, Kuwata T, Kozyrev I, Kwofie TB, Hayami M, Miura T. Construction of an SIV/HIV type 1 chimeric virus with the human interleukin 6 gene and its production of interleukin 6 in monkey and human cells. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2000; 16:577-82. [PMID: 10777148 DOI: 10.1089/088922200308990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The switch from a Th1- to a Th2-type cytokine response is reported to be involved in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease progression. To study the effect of IL-6, one of the Th2-type cytokines, on AIDS pathogenesis, we constructed an SIV/HIV-1 chimeric virus (SHIV) having the human IL-6 gene (SHIV-IL6) SHIV-IL6 could replicate in M8166, a human T cell line, as well as in monkey and human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Along with the SHIV-IL6 replication, IL-6 was detected in the culture supernatant by ELISA. The maximum level of IL-6 was 35, 15, and 8 ng/ml in M8166, human PBMCs, and monkey PBMCs, respectively. The expressed IL-6 was biologically active as shown by the proliferation of IL-6-dependent murine hybridoma (MH-60) cells. The inserted IL-6 gene was stable for at least four passages (45 days after the initial infection) in M8166 cells, suggesting the ability to achieve stable expression of IL-6 in long-term experiments. Therefore, we successfully established an SHIV system expressing IL-6, and this is the first report of an SHIV expressing a Th2-type cytokine. With this system, IL-6 should be expressed in the regions where the virus replicates, and therefore the inoculation of macaque monkeys with SHIV-IL6 is expected to provide further information on the etiology of AIDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Haga
- Laboratory of Viral Pathogenesis, Institute for Virus Research, Kyoto University, Japan
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26
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Tanuri A, Jesus da Costa L, Brindeiro R, Ramos CA, Pau CP, Rayfield MA. Construction of a selectable nef-defective live-attenuated human immunodeficiency virus expressing Escherichia coli gpt gene. Virology 2000; 268:79-86. [PMID: 10683329 DOI: 10.1006/viro.1999.0145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We have developed a replication-competent human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) carrying a selective marker that can be used in vivo. This recombinant virus (Z6 Delta nef gpt) was generated by replacing the 5' half of the HIV nef gene with the Escherichia coli guanine phosphoribosyl transferase gene (gpt). This new vector can express the gpt product on infection and works as a positive selective marker for mycophenolic acid (MPA) resistance, a potent immunosuppressive drug used in organ rejection therapy. Conversely, gpt expression also served as a negative selectable marker, since its intracellular expression induces host-cell susceptibility to 6-thioxantine (6-TX), a nucleotide analog that is toxic to the infected cell under these conditions. In this manner, we could suppress the recombinant virus replication through 6-TX selection in both transformed cells and primary human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), suggesting the vector's potential as a model for a new live-attenuated vaccine approach against HIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Tanuri
- Division of AIDS, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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27
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DeLuca C, Kwon H, Lin R, Wainberg M, Hiscott J. NF-kappaB activation and HIV-1 induced apoptosis. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 1999; 10:235-53. [PMID: 10647779 DOI: 10.1016/s1359-6101(99)00015-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
HIV infection leads to the progressive loss of CD4+ T cells and the near complete destruction of the immune system in the majority of infected individuals. High levels of viral gene expression and replication result in part from the activation of NF-kappaB transcription factors, which in addition to orchestrating the host inflammatory response also activate the HIV-1 long terminal repeat. NF-kappaB induces the expression of numerous cytokine, chemokine, growth factor and immunoregulatory genes, many of which promote HIV-1 replication. Thus, NF-kappaB activation represents a double edged sword in HIV-1 infected cells, since stimuli that induce an NF-kappaB mediated immune response will also lead to enhanced HIV-1 transcription. NF-kappaB has also been implicated in apoptotic signaling, protecting cells from programmed cell death under most circumstances and accelerating apoptosis in others. Therefore, activation of NF-kappaB can impact upon HIV-1 replication and pathogenesis at many levels, making the relationship between HIV-1 expression and NF-kappaB activation multi-faceted. This review will attempt to analyse the many faces and functions of NF-kappaB in the HIV-1 lifecycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- C DeLuca
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Department of Microbiology, McGill AIDS Center, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
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