Macrophage colony-stimulating factor promotes cell survival through Akt/protein kinase B

Virion-associated US28 rapidly modulates Akt activity to suppress HCMV lytic replication in monocytes

Establishing a non-productive quiescent/silent infection within monocytes is essential for spread of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV). Yet, how HCMV establishes a quiescent infection in monocytes remains unclear. US28 is a viral G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) essential for silent infections within cells of the myeloid lineage. We found virion-associated US28 was rapidly delivered to monocytes, while de novo synthesized US28 was delayed for several days. A recombinant mutant virus lacking US28 (US28Δ) was unable to establish a quiescent infection, resulting in a fully productive lytic replication cycle. Mechanistically, viral entry of US28Δ phosphorylated Akt at both serine 473 (S473) and threonine 308 (T308), which contrasted with the site-specific phosphorylation of Akt at S473 following WT infection. Preventing Akt bi-phosphorylation prevented lytic replication of US28Δ, and ectopic expression of a constitutively phosphorylated Akt variant triggered lytic replication of WT infection. Our data demonstrate that virion-delivered US28 fine-tunes Akt activity to permit HCMV infection to enter a quiescent state following primary infection of monocytes.

CSF-1 and Notch signaling cooperate in macrophage instruction and tissue repair during peripheral limb ischemia

Ischemia causes an inflammatory response featuring monocyte-derived macrophages (MF) involved in angiogenesis and tissue repair. Angiogenesis and ischemic macrophage differentiation are regulated by Notch signaling via Notch ligand Delta-like 1 (Dll1). Colony stimulating factor 1 (CSF-1) is an essential MF lineage factor, but its role in ischemic macrophage development and the interaction with Notch signaling is so far unclear. Using a mouse model of hind limb ischemia with CSF-1 inhibitor studies and Dll1 heterozygous mice we show that CSF-1 is induced in the ischemic niche by a subpopulation of stromal cells expressing podoplanin, which was paralleled by the development of ischemic macrophages. Inhibition of CSF-1 signaling with small molecules or blocking antibodies impaired macrophage differentiation but prolonged the inflammatory response, resulting in impaired perfusion recovery and tissue regeneration. Yet, despite high levels of CSF-1, macrophage maturation and perfusion recovery were impaired in mice with Dll1 haploinsufficiency, while inflammation was exaggerated. In vitro, CSF-1 was not sufficient to induce full MF differentiation from donor monocytes in the absence of recombinant DLL1, while the presence of DLL1 in a dose-dependent manner stimulated MF differentiation in combination with CSF-1. Thus, CSF-1 is an ischemic niche factor that cooperates with Notch signaling in a non-redundant fashion to instruct macrophage cell fate and maturation, which is required for ischemic perfusion recovery and tissue repair.

Interferon-γ regulates immunosuppression in septic mice by promoting the Warburg effect through the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway

BACKGROUND

The main cause of high mortality from sepsis is that immunosuppression leads to life-threatening organ dysfunction, and reversing immunosuppression is key to sepsis treatment. Interferon γ (IFNγ) is a potential therapy for immunosuppression of sepsis, promoting glycolysis to restore metabolic defects in monocytes, but the mechanism of treatment is unclear.

METHODS

To explore the immunotherapeutic mechanism of IFNγ, this study linked the Warburg effect (aerobic glycolysis) to immunotherapy for sepsis and used cecal ligation perforation (CLP) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to stimulate dendritic cells (DC) to establish in vivo and in vitro sepsis models, Warburg effect inhibitors (2-DG) and PI3K pathway inhibitors (LY294002) were used to explore the mechanism by which IFNγ regulates immunosuppression in mice with sepsis through the Warburg effect.

RESULTS

IFNγ markedly inhibited the reduction in cytokine secretion from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated splenocytes. IFNγ-treated mice had significantly increased the percentages of positive costimulatory receptor CD86 on Dendritic cells expressing and expression of splenic HLA-DR. IFNγ markedly reduced DC-cell apoptosis by upregulating the expression of Bcl-2 and downregulating the expression of Bax. CLP-induced formation of regulatory T cells in the spleen was abolished in IFNγ -treated mice. IFNγ treatment reduced the expression of autophagosomes in DC cells. IFNγ significant reduce the expression of Warburg effector-related proteins PDH, LDH, Glut1, and Glut4, and promote glucose consumption, lactic acid, and intracellular ATP production. After the use of 2-DG to suppress the Warburg effect, the therapeutic effect of IFNγ was suppressed, demonstrating that IFNγ reverses immunosuppression by promoting the Warburg effect. Moreover, IFNγ increased the expression of phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3K), protein kinase B (Akt), rapamycin target protein (mTOR), hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1α), pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK1) protein, the use of 2-DG and LY294002 can inhibit the expression of the above proteins, LY294002 also inhibits the therapeutic effect of IFNγ.

CONCLUSIONS

It was finally proved that IFNγ promoted the Warburg effect through the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway to reverse the immunosuppression caused by sepsis. This study elucidates the potential mechanism of the immunotherapeutic effect of IFNγ in sepsis, providing a new target for the treatment of sepsis.

TLR4 phosphorylation at tyrosine 672 activates the ERK/c-FOS signaling module for LPS-induced cytokine responses in macrophages

TLRs engage numerous adaptor proteins and signaling molecules, enabling a complex series of post-translational modifications (PTMs) to mount inflammatory responses. TLRs themselves are post-translationally modified following ligand-induced activation, with this being required to relay the full spectrum of proinflammatory signaling responses. Here, we reveal indispensable roles for TLR4 Y672 and Y749 phosphorylation in mounting optimal LPS-inducible inflammatory responses in primary mouse macrophages. LPS promotes phosphorylation at both tyrosine residues, with Y749 phosphorylation being required for maintenance of total TLR4 protein levels and Y672 phosphorylation exerting its pro-inflammatory effects more selectively by initiating ERK1/2 and c-FOS phosphorylation. Our data also support a role for the TLR4-interacting membrane proteins SCIMP and the SYK kinase axis in mediating TLR4 Y672 phosphorylation to permit downstream inflammatory responses in murine macrophages. The corresponding residue in human TLR4 (Y674) is also required for optimal LPS signaling responses. Our study, thus, reveals how a single PTM on one of the most widely studied innate immune receptors orchestrates downstream inflammatory responses.

Targeting tumour-associated macrophages in hodgkin lymphoma using engineered extracellular matrix-mimicking cryogels

Tumour-associated macrophages are linked with poor prognosis and resistance to therapy in Hodgkin lymphoma; however, there are no suitable preclinical models to identify macrophage-targeting therapeutics. We used primary human tumours to guide the development of a mimetic cryogel, wherein Hodgkin (but not Non-Hodgkin) lymphoma cells promoted primary human macrophage invasion. In an invasion inhibitor screen, we identified five drug hits that significantly reduced tumour-associated macrophage invasion: marimastat, batimastat, AS1517499, ruxolitinib, and PD-169316. Importantly, ruxolitinib has demonstrated recent success in Hodgkin lymphoma clinical trials. Both ruxolitinib and PD-169316 (a p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) inhibitor) decreased the percent of M2-like macrophages; however, only PD-169316 enhanced the percentage of M1-like macrophages. We validated p38 MAPK as an anti-invasion drug target with five additional drugs using a high-content imaging platform. With our biomimetic cryogel, we modeled macrophage invasion in Hodgkin lymphoma and then used it for target discovery and drug screening, ultimately identifying potential future therapeutics.

Macrophages mobilized by the overexpression of the macrophage-colony stimulating factor promote efficient recovery of the ischemic muscle functionality

AIMS

Narrowing or occlusion of arteries that supply the limbs can evolve to critical limb ischemia. M-CSF promotes proliferation, differentiation and survival of monocytes and macrophages, and polarization of macrophages to M2-subtype, which are essential elements for vessel formation and tissue repair. Based on these properties of M-CSF, we hypothesize that transfection of M-CSF into ischemic limbs may promote vessel formation and repair of ischemic limbs.

MAIN METHODS

Hindlimb ischemia was surgically induced in 10-12 weeks old Balb/c and gene therapy was performed with intramuscular application of either uP-MCSF or uP plasmids (100 μg). Macrophage and monocyte subpopulations were assessed by flow cytometry and blood flow was monitored by Laser Doppler Perfusion Imaging (LDPI). Thirty days after transfection, we assessed gastrocnemius mass and muscle force, subsequently collecting the muscle for histology.

KEY FINDINGS

We successfully developed the uP-MCSF plasmid, which increases M-CSF expression in the muscle transiently. Thirty days after uP-MCSF gene therapy in ischemic muscles, the treated group presented: improved muscle force, reduced fibrosis and increased arteriogenesis, although LDPI analysis did not show any significant difference in blood flow among groups. Noteworthy, we observed a temporary increase in MHCII^highCD206^high macrophages after uP-MCSF transfection.

SIGNIFICANCE

M-CSF gene therapy improved ischemic muscle functionality by promoting arteriogenesis and decreasing fibrosis, likely through increased MHCII^highCD206^high macrophages and not via classically known M2-macrophages.

The generation, activation, and polarization of monocyte-derived macrophages in human malignancies

Macrophages are immune cells that originate from embryogenesis or from the differentiation of monocytes. They can adopt numerous phenotypes depending on their origin, tissue distribution and in response to different stimuli and tissue environment. Thus, in vivo, macrophages are endowed with a continuum of phenotypes that are rarely strictly pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory and exhibit a broad expression profile that sweeps over the whole polarization spectrum. Schematically, three main macrophage subpopulations coexist in human tissues: naïve macrophages also called M0, pro-inflammatory macrophages referred as M1 macrophages, and anti-inflammatory macrophages also known as M2 macrophages. Naïve macrophages display phagocytic functions, recognize pathogenic agents, and rapidly undergo polarization towards pro or anti-inflammatory macrophages to acquire their full panel of functions. Pro-inflammatory macrophages are widely involved in inflammatory response, during which they exert anti-microbial and anti-tumoral functions. By contrast, anti-inflammatory macrophages are implicated in the resolution of inflammation, the phagocytosis of cell debris and tissue reparation following injuries. Macrophages also play important deleterious or beneficial roles in the initiation and progression of different pathophysiological settings including solid and hematopoietic cancers. A better understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in the generation, activation and polarization of macrophages is a prerequisite for the development of new therapeutic strategies to modulate macrophages functions in pathological situations.

Trained immunity in monocyte/macrophage: Novel mechanism of phytochemicals in the treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease

Atherosclerosis (AS) is the pathology of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases (ASCVD), characterized by persistent chronic inflammation in the vessel wall, in which monocytes/macrophages play a key role. It has been reported that innate immune system cells can assume a persistent proinflammatory state after short stimulation with endogenous atherogenic stimuli. The pathogenesis of AS can be influenced by this persistent hyperactivation of the innate immune system, which is termed trained immunity. Trained immunity has also been implicated as a key pathological mechanism, leading to persistent chronic inflammation in AS. Trained immunity is mediated via epigenetic and metabolic reprogramming and occurs in mature innate immune cells and their bone marrow progenitors. Natural products are promising candidates for novel pharmacological agents that can be used to prevent or treat cardiovascular diseases (CVD). A variety of natural products and agents exhibiting antiatherosclerotic abilities have been reported to potentially interfere with the pharmacological targets of trained immunity. This review describes in as much detail as possible the mechanisms involved in trained immunity and how phytochemicals of this process inhibit AS by affecting trained monocytes/macrophages.

Inhibition of colony stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF-1R) as a potential therapeutic strategy for neurodegenerative diseases: opportunities and challenges

Microglia are specialized dynamic immune cells in the central nervous system (CNS) that plays a crucial role in brain homeostasis and in disease states. Persistent neuroinflammation is considered a hallmark of many neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington’s disease (HD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and primary progressive multiple sclerosis (MS). Colony stimulating factor 1-receptor (CSF-1R) is predominantly expressed on microglia and its expression is significantly increased in neurodegenerative diseases. Cumulative findings have indicated that CSF-1R inhibitors can have beneficial effects in preclinical neurodegenerative disease models. Research using CSF-1R inhibitors has now been extended into non-human primates and humans. This review article summarizes the most recent advances using CSF-1R inhibitors in different neurodegenerative conditions including AD, PD, HD, ALS and MS. Potential challenges for translating these findings into clinical practice are presented.

Multistability in Macrophage Activation Pathways and Metabolic Implications

Macrophages are innate immune cells with a dynamic range of reversible activation states including the classical pro-inflammatory (M1) and alternative anti-inflammatory (M2) states. Deciphering how macrophages regulate their transition from one state to the other is key for a deeper understanding of inflammatory diseases and relevant therapies. Common regulatory motifs reported for macrophage transitions, such as positive or double-negative feedback loops, exhibit a switchlike behavior, suggesting the bistability of the system. In this review, we explore the evidence for multistability (including bistability) in macrophage activation pathways at four molecular levels. First, a decision-making module in signal transduction includes mutual inhibitory interactions between M1 (STAT1, NF-KB/p50-p65) and M2 (STAT3, NF-KB/p50-p50) signaling pathways. Second, a switchlike behavior at the gene expression level includes complex network motifs of transcription factors and miRNAs. Third, these changes impact metabolic gene expression, leading to switches in energy production, NADPH and ROS production, TCA cycle functionality, biosynthesis, and nitrogen metabolism. Fourth, metabolic changes are monitored by metabolic sensors coupled to AMPK and mTOR activity to provide stability by maintaining signals promoting M1 or M2 activation. In conclusion, we identify bistability hubs as promising therapeutic targets for reverting or blocking macrophage transitions through modulation of the metabolic environment.

Decoding Cell Death: From a Veritable Library of Babel to Vade Mecum?

Programmed cell death (PCD) is a requisite feature of development and homeostasis but can also be indicative of infections, injuries, and pathologies. In concordance with these heterogeneous contexts, an array of disparate effector responses occur downstream of cell death and its clearance-spanning tissue morphogenesis, homeostatic turnover, host defense, active dampening of inflammation, and tissue repair. This raises a fundamental question of how a single contextually appropriate response ensues after an event of PCD. To explore how complex inputs may together tailor the specificity of the resulting effector response, here we consider (a) the varying contexts during which different cell death modalities are observed, (b) the nature of the information that can be passed on by cell corpses, and (c) the ways by which efferocyte populations synthesize signals from dying cells with those from the surrounding microenvironment.

A blocking antibody against canine CSF-1R maturated by limited CDR mutagenesis

CSF-1R is a receptor mostly associated with the mononuclear phagocytic system. However, its expression within tumors has been linked with poor prognosis in both humans and dogs. Accordingly, several reports have demonstrated the beneficial effects of blocking CSF-1R in model systems of cancer. In this study, we generated a monoclonal antibody that could block CSF-1R in dogs as the first step to develop an anticancer drug for this species. Initially, an antibody was raised by the hybridoma methodology against the fragment responsible for receptor dimerization. mAb3.1, one of the resulting hybridoma clones, was able to bind macrophages in fixed tissues and was shown to inhibit cells of the mononuclear phagocytic line. Nevertheless, mAb 3.1 could not bind to some glycoforms of the receptor in its native form, while also demonstrating cross-reactivity with other proteins. To enhance binding properties of the mAb, five amino acids of the complementarity-determining region 2 of the variable heavy chain of mAb3.1 were mutated by PCR, and the variant scFv clones were screened by phage display. The selected scFv clones demonstrated improved binding to the native receptor as well as increased anti-macrophage activity. The resulting scFv antibody fragment presented here has the potential for use in cancer patients and in inflammatory diseases. Furthermore, this work provides insights into the use of such restricted mutations in antibody engineering.

Human Cytomegalovirus Glycoprotein-Initiated Signaling Mediates the Aberrant Activation of Akt

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality among immunocompromised and immunonaive individuals. HCMV-induced signaling initiated during viral entry stimulates a rapid noncanonical activation of Akt to drive the differentiation of short-lived monocytes into long-lived macrophages, which is essential for viral dissemination and persistence. We found that HCMV glycoproteins gB and gH directly bind and activate cellular epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and integrin β1, respectively, to reshape canonical Akt signaling within monocytes. The remodeling of the Akt signaling network was due to the recruitment of nontraditional Akt activators to either the gB- or gH-generated receptor signaling complexes. Phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) comprised of the p110β catalytic subunit was recruited to the gB/EGFR complex despite p110δ being the primary PI3K isoform found within monocytes. Concomitantly, SH2 domain-containing inositol 5-phosphatase 1 (SHIP1) was recruited to the gH/integrin β1 complex, which is critical to aberrant Akt activation, as SHIP1 diverts PI3K signaling toward a noncanonical pathway. Although integrin β1 was required for SHIP1 recruitment, gB-activated EGFR mediated SHIP1 activation, underscoring the importance of the interplay between gB- and gH-mediated signaling to the unique activation of Akt during HCMV infection. Indeed, SHIP1 activation mediated the increased expression of Mcl-1 and HSP27, two Akt-dependent antiapoptotic proteins specifically upregulated during HCMV infection but not during growth factor treatment. Overall, our data indicate that HCMV glycoproteins gB and gH work in concert to initiate an HCMV-specific signalosome responsible for the atypical activation of Akt required for infected monocyte survival and ultimately viral persistence.IMPORTANCE Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection is endemic throughout the world regardless of socioeconomic conditions and geographic locations with a seroprevalence reaching up to 100% in some developing countries. Although asymptomatic in healthy individuals, HCMV can cause severe multiorgan disease in immunocompromised or immunonaive patients. HCMV disease is a direct consequence of monocyte-mediated systematic spread of the virus following infection. Because monocytes are short-lived cells, HCMV must subvert the natural short life-span of these blood cells by inducing a distinct activation of Akt, a serine/theonine protein kinase. In this work, we demonstrate that HCMV glycoproteins gB and gH work in tandem to reroute classical host cellular receptor signaling to aberrantly activate Akt and drive survival of infected monocytes. Deciphering how HCMV modulates the cellular pathway to induce monocyte survival is important to develop a new class of anti-HCMV drugs that could target and prevent spread of the virus by eliminating infected monocytes.

Control of myeloid cell density in barrier tissues

The interface between the mammalian host and its environment is formed by barrier tissues, for example, of the skin, and the respiratory and the intestinal tracts. On the one hand, barrier tissues are colonized by site-adapted microbial communities, and on the other hand, they contain specific myeloid cell networks comprising macrophages, dendritic cells, and granulocytes. These immune cells are tightly regulated in function and cell number, indicating important roles in maintaining tissue homeostasis and immune balance in the presence of commensal microorganisms. The regulation of myeloid cell density and activation involves cell-autonomous 'single-loop circuits' including autocrine mechanisms. However, an array of microenvironmental factors originating from nonimmune cells and the microbiota, as well as the microanatomical structure, impose additional layers of regulation onto resident myeloid cells. This review discusses models integrating these factors into cell-specific programs to instruct differentiation and proliferation best suited for the maintenance and renewal of immune homeostasis in the tissue-specific environment.

Human Cytomegalovirus Mediates Unique Monocyte-to-Macrophage Differentiation through the PI3K/SHIP1/Akt Signaling Network

Blood monocytes mediate the hematogenous dissemination of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) in the host. However, monocytes have a short 48-hour (h) lifespan and are not permissive for viral replication. We previously established that HCMV infection drives differentiation of monocytes into long-lived macrophages to mediate viral dissemination, though the mechanism was unclear. Here, we found that HCMV infection promoted monocyte polarization into distinct macrophages by inducing select M1 and M2 differentiation markers and that Akt played a central role in driving differentiation. Akt's upstream positive regulators, PI3K and SHIP1, facilitated the expression of the M1/M2 differentiation markers with p110δ being the predominant PI3K isoform inducing differentiation. Downstream of Akt, M1/M2 differentiation was mediated by caspase 3, whose activity was tightly regulated by Akt in a temporal manner. Overall, this study highlights that HCMV employs the PI3K/SHIP1/Akt pathway to regulate caspase 3 activity and drive monocyte differentiation into unique macrophages, which is critical for viral dissemination.

Pharmacological targets of metabolism in disease: Opportunities from macrophages

From advances in the knowledge of the immune system, it is emerging that the specialized functions displayed by macrophages during the course of an immune response are supported by specific and dynamically-connected metabolic programs. The study of immunometabolism is demonstrating that metabolic adaptations play a critical role in modulating inflammation and, conversely, inflammation deeply influences the acquisition of specific metabolic settings.This strict connection has been proven to be crucial for the execution of defined immune functional programs and it is now under investigation with respect to several human disorders, such as diabetes, sepsis, cancer, and autoimmunity. The abnormal remodelling of the metabolic pathways in macrophages is now emerging as both marker of disease and potential target of therapeutic intervention. By focusing on key pathological conditions, namely obesity and diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis and cancer, we will review the metabolic targets suitable for therapeutic intervention in macrophages. In addition, we will discuss the major obstacles and challenges related to the development of therapeutic strategies for a pharmacological targeting of macrophage's metabolism.

The Metabolic Signature of Macrophage Responses

Macrophages are a heterogeneous population of immune cells playing several and diverse functions in homeostatic and immune responses. The broad spectrum of macrophage functions depends on both heterogeneity and plasticity of these cells, which are highly specialized in sensing the microenvironment and modify their properties accordingly. Although it is clear that macrophage phenotypes are difficult to categorize and should be seen as plastic and adaptable, they can be simplified into two extremes: a pro-inflammatory (M1) and an anti-inflammatory/pro-resolving (M2) profile. Based on this definition, M1 macrophages are able to start and sustain inflammatory responses, secreting pro-inflammatory cytokines, activating endothelial cells, and inducing the recruitment of other immune cells into the inflamed tissue; on the other hand, M2 macrophages promote the resolution of inflammation, phagocytose apoptotic cells, drive collagen deposition, coordinate tissue integrity, and release anti-inflammatory mediators. Dramatic switches in cell metabolism accompany these phenotypic and functional changes of macrophages. In particular, M1 macrophages rely mainly on glycolysis and present two breaks on the TCA cycle that result in accumulation of itaconate (a microbicide compound) and succinate. Excess of succinate leads to Hypoxia Inducible Factor 1α (HIF1α) stabilization that, in turn, activates the transcription of glycolytic genes, thus sustaining the glycolytic metabolism of M1 macrophages. On the contrary, M2 cells are more dependent on oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), their TCA cycle is intact and provides the substrates for the complexes of the electron transport chain (ETC). Moreover, pro- and anti-inflammatory macrophages are characterized by specific pathways that regulate the metabolism of lipids and amino acids and affect their responses. All these metabolic adaptations are functional to support macrophage activities as well as to sustain their polarization in specific contexts. The aim of this review is to discuss recent findings linking macrophage functions and metabolism.

Blocking immunoinhibitory receptor LILRB2 reprograms tumor-associated myeloid cells and promotes antitumor immunity

Tumor-associated myeloid cells maintain immunosuppressive microenvironments within tumors. Identification of myeloid-specific receptors to modulate tumor-associated macrophage and myeloid-derived suppressor cell (MDSC) functions remains challenging. The leukocyte immunoglobulin-like receptor B (LILRB) family members are negative regulators of myeloid cell activation. We investigated how LILRB targeting could modulate tumor-associated myeloid cell function. LILRB2 antagonism inhibited receptor-mediated activation of SHP1/2 and enhanced proinflammatory responses. LILRB2 antagonism also inhibited AKT and STAT6 activation in the presence of M-CSF and IL-4. Transcriptome analysis revealed that LILRB2 antagonism altered genes involved in cell cytoskeleton remodeling, lipid/cholesterol metabolism, and endosomal sorting pathways, as well as changed differentiation gene networks associated with inflammatory myeloid cells as opposed to their alternatively activated phenotype. LILRB2 blockade effectively suppressed granulocytic MDSC and Treg infiltration and significantly promoted in vivo antitumor effects of T cell immune checkpoint inhibitors. Furthermore, LILRB2 blockade polarized tumor-infiltrating myeloid cells from non-small cell lung carcinoma tumor tissues toward an inflammatory phenotype. Our studies suggest that LILRB2 can potentially act as a myeloid immune checkpoint by reprogramming tumor-associated myeloid cells and provoking antitumor immunity.

Temporal Manipulation of Mitochondrial Function by Virulent Francisella tularensis To Limit Inflammation and Control Cell Death

Francisella tularensis subsp. tularensis is a highly pathogenic intracellular bacterium that suppresses host inflammation by impairing the metabolic shift from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis. Decreased mitochondrial metabolism is central to initiating a metabolic shift to glycolysis and regulating inflammation, but F. tularensis subsp. tularensis manipulation of host mitochondrial function has not been explored. We demonstrate, using extracellular flux analysis, that F. tularensis subsp. tularensis infection initially improves host macrophage mitochondrial bioenergetics in a capsule-dependent manner. Enhancement of mitochondrial function by F. tularensis subsp. tularensis allowed for modest replication and inhibition of apoptosis early after infection. However, using live cell imaging, we found that F. tularensis subsp. tularensis facilitated the loss of mitochondrial function at later time points during infection in a capsule-independent fashion. This loss of function was paired with oncosis and rapid bacterial replication. Inhibition of oncosis reduced intracellular bacterial numbers, underscoring the requirement for this process during F. tularensis subsp. tularensis infection. These findings establish that temporal mitochondrial manipulation by F. tularensis subsp. tularensis is critical for maintenance of a noninflammatory environment and subsequently aids in optimal replication and dissemination of this pathogenic organism.

Embryonic Intra-Aortic Clusters Undergo Myeloid Differentiation Mediated by Mesonephros-Derived CSF1 in Mouse

The aorta-gonad-mesonephros (AGM) region contains intra-aortic clusters (IACs) thought to have acquired hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) potential in vertebrate embryos. To assess extrinsic regulation of IACs in the AGM region, we employed mouse embryos harboring a Sall1-GFP reporter gene, which allows identification of mesonephros cells based on GFP expression. Analysis of AGM region tissue sections confirmed mesonephros GFP expression. Mesonephric cells sorted at E10.5 expressed mRNA encoding Csf1, a hematopoietic cytokine, and corresponding protein, based on real-time PCR and immunocytochemistry, respectively. Further analysis indicated that some IACs express the CSF1 receptor, CSF1R. Expression of Cebpa and Irf8 mRNAs was higher in CSF1R-positive IACs, whereas that of Cebpε and Gfi1 mRNAs was lower relative to CSF1R-negative IACs, suggesting that CSF1/CSF1R signaling functions in IAC myeloid differentiation by modulating expression of these transcription factors. Colony formation assays using CSF1R-positive IACs revealed increased numbers of myeloid colonies in the presence of CSF1. Analysis using an intra-cellular signaling array indicated the greatest fold increase of Cleaved Caspase-3 in AGM cells in the presence of CSF1. Immunohistochemistry revealed that Cleaved Caspase-3 is primarily expressed in IACs in the AGM region, and incubation of IACs with CSF1 up-regulated Cleaved Caspase-3. Overall, our findings suggest that CSF1 secreted from mesonephros accelerates IAC myeloid differentiation in the AGM region, possibly via Caspase-3 cleavage.

The nonreceptor protein tyrosine kinase Pyk2 promotes the turnover of monocytes at steady state

Monocytes are short-lived myeloid cells that perform functions essential for tissue homeostasis and disease resolution. However, the cellular mechanisms controlling the maintenance and turnover of monocyte populations are largely undefined. Proline-rich tyrosine kinase 2 (Pyk2) is a nonreceptor tyrosine kinase that regulates numerous immune cell functions, but its role in monocytes is currently unknown. In this study, we sought to characterize the expression and function of Pyk2 in lineage-committed monocyte populations. Here, we report that Pyk2 protein expression is increased in the Ly6C^- monocyte population. Using a Pyk2 knockout mouse model (Pyk2^-/-), we show that Pyk2 regulates the relative proportion of monocyte subsets normally represented in the bone marrow (BM) at steady state. In support of this conclusion, a similar phenotype was observed in the peripheral blood and spleen. Data from reciprocal BM chimera experiments indicate that the alterations in monocyte populations exhibited by Pyk2^-/- mice are due to factors intrinsic to the monocytes. Lineage-tracing of monocyte populations suggests that Pyk2 promotes apoptosis in BM monocytes, thereby acting as an important homeostatic regulator of turnover in these short-lived, innate immune cells.

Imatinib and Nilotinib Off-Target Effects on Human NK Cells, Monocytes, and M2 Macrophages

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are used in the clinical management of hematological neoplasms. Moreover, in solid tumors such as stage 4 neuroblastomas (NB), imatinib showed benefits that might depend on both on-target and immunological off-target effects. We investigated the effects of imatinib and nilotinib on human NK cells, monocytes, and macrophages. High numbers of monocytes died upon exposure to TKI concentrations similar to those achieved in patients. Conversely, NK cells were highly resistant to the TKI cytotoxic effect, were properly activated by immunostimulatory cytokines, and degranulated in the presence of NB cells. In NB, neither drug reduced the expression of ligands for activating NK receptors or upregulated that of HLA class I, B7-H3, PD-L1, and PD-L2, molecules that might limit NK cell function. Interestingly, TKIs modulated the chemokine receptor repertoire of immune cells. Acting at the transcriptional level, they increased the surface expression of CXCR4, an effect observed also in NK cells and monocytes of patients receiving imatinib for chronic myeloid leukemia. Moreover, TKIs reduced the expression of CXCR3 (in NK cells) and CCR1 (in monocytes). Monocytes also decreased the expression of M-CSFR, and low numbers of cells underwent differentiation toward macrophages. M0 and M2 macrophages were highly resistant to TKIs and maintained their phenotypic and functional characteristics. Importantly, also in the presence of TKIs, the M2 immunosuppressive polarization was reverted by TLR engagement, and M1-oriented macrophages fully activated autologous NK cells. Our results contribute to better interpreting the off-target efficacy of TKIs in tumors and to envisaging strategies aimed at facilitating antitumor immune responses.

Extracellular Mitochondria and Mitochondrial Components Act as Damage-Associated Molecular Pattern Molecules in the Mouse Brain

Mitochondria and mitochondrial debris are found in the brain's extracellular space, and extracellular mitochondrial components can act as damage associated molecular pattern (DAMP) molecules. To characterize the effects of potential mitochondrial DAMP molecules on neuroinflammation, we injected either isolated mitochondria or mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) into hippocampi of C57BL/6 mice and seven days later measured markers of inflammation. Brains injected with whole mitochondria showed increased Tnfα and decreased Trem2 mRNA, increased GFAP protein, and increased NFκB phosphorylation. Some of these effects were also observed in brains injected with mtDNA (decreased Trem2 mRNA, increased GFAP protein, and increased NFκB phosphorylation), and mtDNA injection also caused several unique changes including increased CSF1R protein and AKT phosphorylation. To further establish the potential relevance of this response to Alzheimer's disease (AD), a brain disorder characterized by neurodegeneration, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuroinflammation we also measured App mRNA, APP protein, and Aβ_1-42 levels. We found mitochondria (but not mtDNA) injections increased these parameters. Our data show that in the mouse brain extracellular mitochondria and its components can induce neuroinflammation, extracellular mtDNA or mtDNA-associated proteins can contribute to this effect, and mitochondria derived-DAMP molecules can influence AD-associated biomarkers.

Colony-Stimulating Factor 1 Receptor Antagonists Sensitize Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1-Infected Macrophages to TRAIL-Mediated Killing

Strategies aimed at eliminating persistent viral reservoirs from HIV-1-infected individuals have focused on CD4(+) T-cell reservoirs. However, very little attention has been given to approaches that could promote elimination of tissue macrophage reservoirs. HIV-1 infection of macrophages induces phosphorylation of colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF-1R), which confers resistance to apoptotic pathways driven by tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL), thereby promoting viral persistence. In this study, we assessed whether CSF-1R antagonists (PLX647, PLX3397, and PLX5622) restored apoptotic sensitivity of HIV-1-infected macrophages in vitro PLX647, PLX3397, and PLX5622 at clinically relevant concentrations blocked the activation of CSF-1R and reduced the viability of infected macrophages, as well as the extent of viral replication. Our data show that strategies targeting monocyte colony-stimulating factor (MCSF) signaling could be used to promote elimination of HIV-1-infected myeloid cells and to contribute to the elimination of persistent viral reservoirs.

IMPORTANCE

As the HIV/AIDS research field explores approaches to eliminate HIV-1 in individuals on suppressive antiviral therapy, those approaches will need to eliminate both CD4(+) T-cell and myeloid cell reservoirs. Most of the attention has focused on CD4(+) T-cell reservoirs, and scant attention has been paid to myeloid cell reservoirs. The distinct nature of the infection in myeloid cells versus CD4(+) T cells will likely dictate different approaches in order to achieve their elimination. For CD4(+) T cells, most strategies focus on promoting virus reactivation to promote immune-mediated clearance and/or elimination by viral cytopathicity. Macrophages resist viral cytopathic effects and CD8(+) T-cell killing. Therefore, we have explored clearance strategies that render macrophages sensitive to viral cytopathicity. This research helps inform the design of strategies to promote clearance of the macrophage reservoir in infected individuals on suppressive antiviral therapy.

Human Cytomegalovirus Induces an Atypical Activation of Akt To Stimulate the Survival of Short-Lived Monocytes

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a pervasive herpesvirus responsible for significant morbidity and mortality among immunodeficient/naive hosts. Following a primary HCMV infection, circulating blood monocytes mediate the systemic spread of the virus. Extending the short 48-h life span of monocytes is critical to the viral dissemination process, as these blood-borne cells are nonpermissive for virus replication until they are fully differentiated into macrophages. Here, we show that HCMV glycoprotein gB binding to cellular epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) during HCMV entry initiated a rapid (within 15 min) activation of the apoptosis suppressor Akt, which was maintained through 72 h. The virus-induced activation of Akt was more robust than that with the normal myeloid growth factor macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) and was essential for infected monocytes to bypass the 48-h viability checkpoint. Activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) following EGFR engagement by HCMV mediated the phosphorylation of Akt. Moreover, HCMV entry drove a switch away from the PI3K p110δ isoform, which was required for the viability of uninfected monocytes, to the p110β isoform in order to facilitate the Akt-dependent prosurvival state within infected cells. Simultaneously, in contrast to M-CSF, HCMV promoted a rapid increase in SH2 domain-containing inositol 5-phosphatase 1 (SHIP1) expression, leading to signaling through a noncanonical Akt activation pathway. To ensure maximum Akt activity, HCMV also induced an early phosphorylation-dependent inactivation of the negative regulator phosphatase and tensin homolog. Overall, our data indicate that HCMV hijacks the upstream Akt signaling network to induce a nontraditional activation of Akt and subsequently a prosurvival decision at the 48-h cell fate checkpoint, a vital step for HCMV's dissemination and persistence strategy.

IMPORTANCE

HCMV is found throughout the world with a prevalence of 55 to 100% within the human population. HCMV infection is generally asymptomatic in immunocompetent or naive individuals but is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality among the immunocompromised. Widespread organ inflammation is associated with symptomatic infections, which is a direct consequence of the viral dissemination strategy. Inflammatory peripheral blood monocytes facilitate the spread of HCMV. However, HCMV must subvert the naturally short life span of monocytes. In this work, we demonstrate that HCMV induces the activation of Akt, an antiapoptotic protein, in a manner distinct from that of normal myeloid growth factors. Moreover, we decipher how HCMV dysregulates the upstream Akt signaling network during viral entry to promote an Akt-dependent prosurvival state following infection. Delineation of the virus-specific mechanisms that regulate cellular prosurvival pathways in order to drive the survival of HCMV-infected monocytes is important to identifying new anti-HCMV therapeutic targets.

Deficiency of Lipocalin-2 Promotes Proliferation and Differentiation of Osteoclast Precursors via Regulation of c-Fms Expression and Nuclear Factor-kappa B Activation

Background

Lipocalin-2 (LCN2), a small glycoprotein, has a pivotal role in diverse biological processes such as cellular proliferation and differentiation. We previously reported that LCN2 is implicated in osteoclast formation induced by receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B ligand (RANKL) and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF). In the present study, we used a knockout mouse model to further investigate the role of LCN2 in osteoclast development.

Methods

Osteoclastogenesis was assessed using primary bone marrow-derived macrophages. RANKL and M-CSF signaling was determined by immunoblotting, cell proliferation by bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and apoptosis by cell death detection ELISA. Bone morphometric parameters were determined using a micro-computed tomography system.

Results

Our results showed that LCN2 deficiency increases tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP)-positive multinucleated osteoclast formation in vitro, a finding that reflects enhanced proliferation and differentiation of osteoclast lineage cells. LCN2 deficiency promotes M-CSF-induced proliferation of bone marrow macrophages (BMMs), osteoclast precursors, without altering their survival. The accelerated proliferation of LCN2-deficient precursors is associated with enhanced expression and activation of the M-CSF receptor, c-Fms. Furthermore, LCN2 deficiency stimulates the induction of c-Fos and nuclear factor of activated T cells c1 (NFATc1), key transcription factors for osteoclastogenesis, and promotes RANKL-induced inhibitor of kappa B (IκBα) phosphorylation. Interestingly, LCN2 deficiency does not affect basal osteoclast formation in vivo, suggesting that LCN2 might play a role in the enhanced osteoclast development that occurs under some pathological conditions.

Conclusions

Our study establishes LCN2 as a negative modulator of osteoclast formation, results that are in accordance with our previous findings.

Cancer Cell-derived Exosomes Induce Mitogen-activated Protein Kinase-dependent Monocyte Survival by Transport of Functional Receptor Tyrosine Kinases

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) play pivotal roles in cancer initiation and progression. Monocytes, the precursors of TAMs, normally undergo spontaneous apoptosis within 2 days, but can subsist in the inflammatory tumor microenvironment for continuous survival and generation of sufficient TAMs. The mechanisms underlying tumor-driving monocyte survival remain obscure. Here we report that cancer cell-derived exosomes were crucial mediators for monocyte survival in the inflammatory niche. Analysis of the survival-promoting molecules in monocytes revealed that cancer cell-derived exosomes activated Ras and extracellular signal-regulated kinases in the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, resulting in the prevention of caspase cleavage. Phosphorylated receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), such as phosphorylated epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER-2), were abundantly expressed in cancer cell-derived exosomes. Knock-out of EGFR or/and HER-2, or alternatively, inhibitors against their phosphorylation significantly disturbed the exosome-mediated activation of the MAPK pathway, inhibition of caspase cleavage, and increase in survival rate in monocytes. Moreover, the deprived survival-stimulating activity of exosomes due to null expression of EGFR and HER-2 could be restored by activation of another RTK, insulin receptor. Overall, our study uncovered a mechanism of tumor-associated monocyte survival and demonstrated that cancer cell-derived exosomes can stimulate the MAPK pathway in monocytes through transport of functional RTKs, leading to inactivation of apoptosis-related caspases. This work provides insights into the long sought question on monocyte survival prior to formation of plentiful TAMs in the tumor microenvironment.

ADP-Ribosylation Factor 1 Regulates Proliferation, Migration, and Fusion in Early Stage of Osteoclast Differentiation

Small G-protein adenosine diphosphate (ADP)-ribosylation factors (ARFs) regulate a variety of cellular functions, including actin cytoskeleton remodeling, plasma membrane reorganization, and vesicular transport. Here, we propose the functional roles of ARF1 in multiple stages of osteoclast differentiation. ARF1 was upregulated during receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL)-induced osteoclast differentiation and transiently activated in an initial stage of their differentiation. Differentiation of ARF1-deficient osteoclast precursors into mature osteoclasts temporarily increased in pre-maturation stage of osteoclasts followed by reduced formation of mature osteoclasts, indicating that ARF1 regulates the osteoclastogenic process. ARF1 deficiency resulted in reduced osteoclast precursor proliferation and migration as well as increasing cell-cell fusion. In addition, ARF1 silencing downregulated c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), Akt, osteopontin, and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF)-receptor c-Fms as well as upregulating several fusion-related genes including CD44, CD47, E-cadherin, and meltrin-α. Collectively, we showed that ARF1 stimulated proliferation and migration of osteoclast precursors while suppressing their fusion, suggesting that ARF1 may be a plausible inter-player that mediates the transition to osteoclast fusion at multiple steps during osteoclast differentiation.

ERK Signaling Is Essential for Macrophage Development

Macrophages depend on colony stimulating factor 1 (also known as M-CSF) for their growth and differentiation, but the requirements for intracellular signals that lead to macrophage differentiation and function remain unclear. M-CSF is known to activate ERK1 and ERK2, but the importance of this signaling pathway in macrophage development is unknown. In these studies, we characterized a novel model of Erk1^-/-Erk2^flox/floxLyz2^Cre/Cre mice in which the ERK2 isoform is deleted from macrophages in the background of global ERK1 deficiency. Cultures of M-CSF-stimulated bone marrow precursors from these mice yielded reduced numbers of macrophages. Whereas macrophages developing from M-CSF-stimulated bone marrow of Erk2^flox/floxLyz2^Cre/Cre mice showed essentially complete loss of ERK2 expression, the reduced number of macrophages that develop from Erk1^-/-Erk2^flox/floxLyz2^Cre/Cre bone marrow show retention of ERK2 expression, indicating selective outgrowth of a small proportion of precursors in which Cre-mediated deletion failed to occur. The bone marrow of Erk1^-/-Erk2^flox/floxLyz2^Cre/Cre mice was enriched for CD11b⁺ myeloid cells, CD11b^hi Gr-1^hi neutrophils, Lin^- c-Kit⁺ Sca–1⁺ hematopoietic stem cells, and Lin^- c-Kit⁺ CD34⁺ CD16/32⁺ granulocyte-macrophage progenitors. Culture of bone marrow Lin^- cells under myeloid-stimulating conditions yielded reduced numbers of monocytes. Collectively, these data indicate that the defect in production of macrophages is not due to a reduced number of progenitors, but rather due to reduced ability of progenitors to proliferate and produce macrophages in response to M-CSF-triggered ERK signaling. Macrophages from Erk1^-/-Erk2^flox/floxLyz2^Cre/Cre bone marrow showed reduced induction of M-CSF-regulated genes that depend on the ERK pathway for their expression. These data demonstrate that ERK1/ERK2 play a critical role in driving M-CSF-dependent proliferation of bone marrow progenitors for production of macrophages.

pGlcNAc Nanofiber Treatment of Cutaneous Wounds Stimulate Increased Tensile Strength and Reduced Scarring via Activation of Akt1

Treatment of cutaneous wounds with poly-N-acetyl-glucosamine containing nanofibers (pGlcNAc), a novel polysaccharide material derived from a marine diatom, results in increased wound closure, antibacterial activities and innate immune responses. We have shown that Akt1 plays a central role in the regulation of these activities. Here, we show that pGlcNAc treatment of cutaneous wounds results in a smaller scar that has increased tensile strength and elasticity. pGlcNAc treated wounds exhibit decreased collagen content, increased collagen organization and decreased myofibroblast content. A fibrin gel assay was used to assess the regulation of fibroblast alignment in vitro. In this assay, fibrin lattice is formed with two pins that provide focal points upon which the gel can exert force as the cells align from pole to pole. pGlcNAc stimulation of embedded fibroblasts results in cellular alignment as compared to untreated controls, by a process that is Akt1 dependent. We show that Akt1 is required in vivo for the pGlcNAc-induced increased tensile strength and elasticity. Taken together, our findings suggest that pGlcNAc nanofibers stimulate an Akt1 dependent pathway that results in the proper alignment of fibroblasts, decreased scarring, and increased tensile strength during cutaneous wound healing.

Distinct contribution of protein kinase Cδ and protein kinase Cε in the lifespan and immune response of human blood monocyte subpopulations

Monocytes, key components of the immune system, are a heterogeneous population comprised of classical monocytes (CD16(-) ) and non-classical monocytes (CD16(+) ). Monocytes are short lived and undergo spontaneous apoptosis, unless stimulated. Dysregulation of monocyte numbers contribute to the pathophysiology of inflammatory diseases, yet the contribution of each subset remains poorly characterized. Protein kinase C (PKC) family members are central to monocyte biology; however, their role in regulating lifespan and immune function of CD16(-) and CD16(+) monocytes has not been studied. Here, we evaluated the contribution of PKCδ and PKCε in the lifespan and immune response of both monocyte subsets. We showed that CD16(+) monocytes are more susceptible to spontaneous apoptosis because of the increased caspase-3, -8 and -9 activities accompanied by higher kinase activity of PKCδ. Silencing of PKCδ reduced apoptosis in both CD16(+) and CD16(-) monocytes. CD16(+) monocytes express significantly higher levels of PKCε and produce more tumour necrosis factor-α in CD16(+) compared with CD16(-) monocytes. Silencing of PKCε affected the survival and tumour necrosis factor-α production. These findings demonstrate a complex network with similar topography, yet unique regulatory characteristics controlling lifespan and immune response in each monocyte subset, helping define subset-specific coordination programmes controlling monocyte function.

mTOR- and HIF-1α-mediated aerobic glycolysis as metabolic basis for trained immunity

Epigenetic reprogramming of myeloid cells, also known as trained immunity, confers nonspecific protection from secondary infections. Using histone modification profiles of human monocytes trained with the Candida albicans cell wall constituent β-glucan, together with a genome-wide transcriptome, we identified the induced expression of genes involved in glucose metabolism. Trained monocytes display high glucose consumption, high lactate production, and a high ratio of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD(+)) to its reduced form (NADH), reflecting a shift in metabolism with an increase in glycolysis dependent on the activation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) through a dectin-1-Akt-HIF-1α (hypoxia-inducible factor-1α) pathway. Inhibition of Akt, mTOR, or HIF-1α blocked monocyte induction of trained immunity, whereas the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase activator metformin inhibited the innate immune response to fungal infection. Mice with a myeloid cell-specific defect in HIF-1α were unable to mount trained immunity against bacterial sepsis. Our results indicate that induction of aerobic glycolysis through an Akt-mTOR-HIF-1α pathway represents the metabolic basis of trained immunity.

Embryonic Stem Cells Promoting Macrophage Survival and Function are Crucial for Teratoma Development

Stem cell therapies have had tremendous potential application for many diseases in recent years. However, the tumorigenic properties of stem cells restrict their potential clinical application; therefore, strategies for reducing the tumorigenic potential of stem cells must be established prior to transplantation. We have demonstrated that syngeneic transplantation of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) provokes an inflammatory response that involves the rapid recruitment of bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs). ESCs are able to prevent mature macrophages from macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) withdrawal-induced apoptosis, and thus prolong macrophage lifespan significantly by blocking various apoptotic pathways in an M-CSF-independent manner. ESCs express and secrete IL-34, which may be responsible for ESC-promoted macrophage survival. This anti-apoptotic effect of ESCs involves activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 and PI3K/Akt pathways and thus, inhibition of ERK1/2 and PI3K/AKT activation decreases ESC-induced macrophage survival. Functionally, ESC-treated macrophages also showed a higher level of phagocytic activity. ESCs further serve to polarize BMDMs into M2-like macrophages that exhibit most tumor-associated macrophage phenotypic and functional features. ESC-educated macrophages produce high levels of arginase-1, Tie-2, and TNF-α, which participate in angiogenesis and contribute to teratoma progression. Our study suggests that induction of M2-like macrophage activation is an important mechanism for teratoma development. Strategies targeting macrophages to inhibit teratoma development would increase the safety of ESC-based therapies, inasmuch as the depletion of macrophages completely inhibits ESC-induced angiogenesis and teratoma development.

Macrophage colony-stimulating factor augments Tie2-expressing monocyte differentiation, angiogenic function, and recruitment in a mouse model of breast cancer

Reports demonstrate the role of M-CSF (CSF1) in tumor progression in mouse models as well as the prognostic value of macrophage numbers in breast cancer patients. Recently, a subset of CD14+ monocytes expressing the Tie2 receptor, once thought to be predominantly expressed on endothelial cells, has been characterized. We hypothesized that increased levels of CSF1 in breast tumors can regulate differentiation of Tie2- monocytes to a Tie2+ phenotype. We treated CD14+ human monocytes with CSF1 and found a significant increase in CD14+/Tie2+ positivity. To understand if CSF1-induced Tie2 expression on these cells improved their migratory ability, we pre-treated CD14+ monocytes with CSF1 and used Boyden chemotaxis chambers to observe enhanced response to angiopoietin-2 (ANG2), the chemotactic ligand for the Tie2 receptor. We found that CSF1 pre-treatment significantly augmented chemotaxis and that Tie2 receptor upregulation was responsible as siRNA targeting Tie2 receptor abrogated this effect. To understand any augmented angiogenic effect produced by treating these cells with CSF1, we cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) with conditioned supernatants from CSF1-pre-treated CD14+ monocytes for a tube formation assay. While supernatants from CSF1-pre-treated TEMs increased HUVEC branching, a neutralizing antibody against the CSF1R abrogated this activity, as did siRNA against the Tie2 receptor. To test our hypothesis in vivo, we treated PyMT tumor-bearing mice with CSF1 and observed an expansion in the TEM population relative to total F4/80+ cells, which resulted in increased angiogenesis. Investigation into the mechanism of Tie2 receptor upregulation on CD14+ monocytes by CSF1 revealed a synergistic contribution from the PI3 kinase and HIF pathways as the PI3 kinase inhibitor LY294002, as well as HIF-1α-deficient macrophages differentiated from the bone marrow of HIF-1αfl/fl/LysMcre mice, diminished CSF1-stimulated Tie2 receptor expression.

CSF-1 receptor signaling in myeloid cells

The CSF-1 receptor (CSF-1R) is activated by the homodimeric growth factors colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1) and interleukin-34 (IL-34). It plays important roles in development and in innate immunity by regulating the development of most tissue macrophages and osteoclasts, of Langerhans cells of the skin, of Paneth cells of the small intestine, and of brain microglia. It also regulates the differentiation of neural progenitor cells and controls functions of oocytes and trophoblastic cells in the female reproductive tract. Owing to this broad tissue expression pattern, it plays a central role in neoplastic, inflammatory, and neurological diseases. In this review we summarize the evolution, structure, and regulation of expression of the CSF-1R gene. We discuss the structures of CSF-1, IL-34, and the CSF-1R and the mechanism of ligand binding to and activation of the receptor. We further describe the pathways regulating macrophage survival, proliferation, differentiation, and chemotaxis downstream from the CSF-1R.

PI3K p110γ deletion attenuates murine atherosclerosis by reducing macrophage proliferation but not polarization or apoptosis in lesions

Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease regulated by infiltrating monocytes and T cells, among other cell types. Macrophage recruitment to atherosclerotic lesions is controlled by monocyte infiltration into plaques. Once in the lesion, macrophage proliferation in situ, apoptosis, and differentiation to an inflammatory (M1) or anti-inflammatory phenotype (M2) are involved in progression to advanced atherosclerotic lesions. We studied the role of phosphoinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) p110γ in the regulation of in situ apoptosis, macrophage proliferation and polarization towards M1 or M2 phenotypes in atherosclerotic lesions. We analyzed atherosclerosis development in LDLR^−/−p110γ^+/− and LDLR^−/−p110γ^−/− mice, and performed expression and functional assays in tissues and primary cells from these and from p110γ^+/− and p110γ^−/− mice. Lack of p110γ in LDLR^−/− mice reduces the atherosclerosis burden. Atherosclerotic lesions in fat-fed LDLR^−/−p110γ^−/− mice were smaller than in LDLR^−/−p110γ^+/− controls, which coincided with decreased macrophage proliferation in LDLR^−/−p110γ^−/− mouse lesions. This proliferation defect was also observed in p110γ^−/− bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMM) stimulated with macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), and was associated with higher intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels. In contrast, T cell proliferation was unaffected in LDLR^−/−p110γ^−/− mice. Moreover, p110γ deficiency did not affect macrophage polarization towards the M1 or M2 phenotypes or apoptosis in atherosclerotic plaques, or polarization in cultured BMM. Our results suggest that higher cAMP levels and the ensuing inhibition of macrophage proliferation contribute to atheroprotection in LDLR^−/− mice lacking p110γ. Nonetheless, p110γ deletion does not appear to be involved in apoptosis, in macrophage polarization or in T cell proliferation.

Hypoxia enhances the proliferative response of macrophages to CSF-1 and their pro-survival response to TNF

In chronic inflammatory lesions there are increased numbers of macrophages with a possible contribution of enhanced survival/proliferation due, for example, to cytokine action; such lesions are often hypoxic. Prior studies have found that culture in low oxygen can promote monocyte/macrophage survival. We show here, using pharmacologic inhibitors, that the hypoxia-induced pro-survival response of macrophages exhibits a dependence on PI3-kinase and mTOR activities but surprisingly is suppressed by Akt and p38 MAPK activities. It was also found that in hypoxia at CSF-1 concentrations, which under normoxic conditions are suboptimal for macrophage proliferation, macrophages can proliferate more strongly with no evidence for alteration in CSF-1 receptor degradation kinetics. TNF promoted macrophage survival in normoxic conditions with an additive effect in hypoxia. The enhanced hypoxia-dependent survival and/or proliferation of macrophages in the presence of CSF-1 or TNF may contribute to their elevated numbers at a site of chronic inflammation.

FAS/FAS-L dependent killing of activated human monocytes and macrophages by CD4+CD25- responder T cells, but not CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells

Conclusive resolution of an immune response is critical for the prevention of autoimmunity and chronic inflammation. We report that following co-culture with autologous CD4+CD25- responder T cells, human CD14+ monocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages become activated but also significantly more prone to apoptosis than monocytes/macrophages cultured alone. In contrast, in the presence of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells (Tregs), monocytes and macrophages survive whilst adopting an anti-inflammatory phenotype. The induction of monocyte death requires responder T cell activation and cell-contact between responder T cells and monocytes. We demonstrate a critical role for FAS/FAS-L ligation in responder T cell-induced monocyte killing since responder T cells, but not Tregs, upregulate FAS-ligand (FAS-L) mRNA, and induce FAS expression on monocytes. Furthermore, responder T cell-induced monocyte apoptosis is blocked by neutralising FAS/FAS-L interaction, and is not observed when monocytes from an autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome (ALPS) patient with complete FAS-deficiency are used as target cells. Finally, we show that responder T cell-induced killing of monocytes is impaired in patients with active rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Our data suggest that resolution of inflammation in the course of a healthy immune response is aided by the unperturbed killing of monocytes with inflammatory potential by responder T cells and the induction of longer-lived, Treg-induced, anti-inflammatory monocytes.

M-CSF induces monocyte survival by activating NF-κB p65 phosphorylation at Ser276 via protein kinase C

Macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) promotes mononuclear phagocyte survival and proliferation. The transcription factor Nuclear Factor-kappaB (NF-κB) is a key regulator of genes involved in M-CSF-induced mononuclear phagocyte survival and this study focused at identifying the mechanism of NF-κB transcriptional activation. Here, we demonstrate that M-CSF stimulated NF-κB transcriptional activity in human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) and the murine macrophage cell line RAW 264.7. The general protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor Ro-31-8220, the conventional PKCα/β inhibitor Gö-6976, overexpression of dominant negative PKCα constructs and PKCα siRNA reduced NF-κB activity in response to M-CSF. Interestingly, Ro-31-8220 reduced Ser276 phosphorylation of NF-κBp65 leading to decreased M-CSF-induced monocyte survival. In this report, we identify conventional PKCs, including PKCα as important upstream kinases for M-CSF-induced NF-κB transcriptional activation, NF-κB-regulated gene expression, NF-κB p65 Ser276 phosphorylation, and macrophage survival. Lastly, we find that NF-κB p65 Ser276 plays an important role in basal and M-CSF-stimulated NF-κB activation in human mononuclear phagocytes.

Inhibitor of PI3Kγ ameliorates TNBS-induced colitis in mice by affecting the functional activity of CD4+CD25+FoxP3+ regulatory T cells

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Phosphoinositide 3-kinase-γ (PI3Kγ) is implicated in many pathophysiological conditions, and recent evidence has suggested its involvement in colitis. In the present study, we investigated the effects of AS605240, a relatively selective PI3Kγ inhibitor, in experimental colitis and its underlying mechanisms.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Acute colitis was induced in mice by treatment with trinitrobenzene sulphonic acid (TNBS), and the effect of AS605240 on colonic injury was assessed. Pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines were measured by immunohistochemistry, elisa, real time-polymerase chain reaction and flow cytometry.

KEY RESULTS

Oral administration of AS605240 significantly attenuated TNBS-induced acute colitis and diminished the expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 and vascular endothelial growth factor. The colonic levels and expression of IL-1β, CXCL-1/KC, MIP-2 and TNF-α were also reduced following therapeutic treatment with AS605240. Moreover, AS605240 reduced MIP-2 levels in a culture of neutrophils stimulated with lipopolysaccharide. The mechanisms underlying these actions of AS605240 are related to nuclear factor-κ (NF-κB) inhibition. Importantly, the PI3Kγ inhibitor also up-regulated IL-10, CD25 and FoxP3 expression. In addition, a significant increase in CD25 and FoxP3 expression was found in isolated lamina propria CD4+ T cells of AS605240-treated mice. The effect of AS605240 on Treg induction was further confirmed by showing that concomitant in vivo blockade of IL-10R significantly attenuated its therapeutic activity.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

These results suggest that AS605240 protects mice against TNBS-induced colitis by inhibiting multiple inflammatory components through the NF-κB pathway while simultaneously inducing an increase in the functional activity of CD4+CD25+ Treg. Thus, AS605240 may offer a promising new therapeutic strategy for the treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases.

Macrophage colony stimulating factor regulation by nuclear factor kappa B: a relevant pathway in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infected macrophages

Macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF) is a cytokine that promotes monocyte differentiation and survival. When overexpressed, M-CSF contributes to pathology in a wide variety of diseases, including osteoporosis, obesity, certain human cancers, and in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection, particularly with respect to monocyte/macrophage infection and the development of HIV-1 associated central nervous system disorders. In this study, our aim was to expand the current knowledge of M-CSF regulation, focusing on nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), a transcription factor playing a prominent role during inflammation and HIV-1 infection. Our results suggest that tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) promotes M-CSF secretion in primary macrophages and activates the -1310/+48 bp M-CSF promoter in Mono-Mac 1 cells. Inhibitors of the NF-κB pathway diminish this response. We identified four putative NF-κB and four CCAAT-enhancer-binding protein beta binding sites within the M-CSF promoter. Our findings, using promoter constructs mutated at individual NF-κB sites within the M-CSF promoter region, suggest that these sites are redundant with respect to NF-κB regulation. TNF-α treatment promoted NF-κB p65 binding to the M-CSF promoter in phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) treated U937 cells chronically infected with HIV-1 (U1 cells), but not in PMA treated uninfected U937 cells, suggesting that the presence of HIV-1 increases the NF-κB response. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that NF-κB induces M-CSF expression on a promoter level via multiple functional NF-κB binding sites and that this pathway is likely relevant in HIV-1 infection of macrophages.

Positive regulators of osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption in rheumatoid arthritis

Bone destruction is a frequent and clinically serious event in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Local joint destruction can cause joint instability and often necessitates reconstructive or replacement surgery. Moreover, inflammation-induced systemic bone loss is associated with an increased fracture risk. Bone resorption is a well-controlled process that is dependent on the differentiation of monocytes to bone-resorbing osteoclasts. Infiltrating as well as resident synovial cells, such as T cells, monocytes and synovial fibroblasts, have been identified as sources of osteoclast differentiation signals in RA patients. Pro-inflammatory cytokines are amongst the most important mechanisms driving this process. In particular, macrophage colony-stimulating factor, RANKL, TNF, IL-1 and IL-17 may play dominant roles in the pathogenesis of arthritis-associated bone loss. These cytokines activate different intracellular pathways to initiate osteoclast differentiation. Thus, over the past years several promising targets for the treatment of arthritic bone destruction have been defined.

Characterization of apoptosis pathways (intrinsic and extrinsic) in lymphoid tissues of calves inoculated with non-cytopathic bovine viral diarrhoea virus genotype-1

Previous studies have shown that activation of effector caspase-3 is associated with the apoptosis of lymphocytes occurring during infection with bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV); however, the regulation of the apoptosis pathways that induce cell death via activation of effector caspase-3 has not yet been clarified. The aim of this study was to examine immunohistochemically the expression of cleaved caspase (CCasp)-8 (initiator caspase of the extrinsic pathway), CCasp9 (initiator caspase of the intrinsic pathway) and Bcl-2 (an anti-apoptotic marker) in gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) of the ileum from calves inoculated with a non-cytopathic strain of BVDV genotype-1. CCasp8 had similar expression to that of CCasp3. In interfollicular T-cell areas there was moderate apoptosis and evidence of moderate activation of initiator caspase-8. In B-cell follicles there was marked lymphocyte apoptosis and evidence of intense caspase-8 activation, highlighting the potentially major role of the extrinsic pathway in lymphocyte apoptosis in the GALT during BVDV infection. Additionally, there was a significant decrease in the number of CCasp9(+) cells from the start of the experiment and this was linked to inactivation of caspase-9. Therefore, the intrinsic pathway may play only a minor role in the induction of lymphocyte apoptosis. Finally, the observed overexpression of Bcl-2 protein could play a major role in protecting lymphocytes in the T-cell areas against apoptosis, while low levels of Bcl-2 expression could be associated with the follicular lymphocyte apoptosis occurring during BVDV infection.

Distinct cell death programs in monocytes regulate innate responses following challenge with common causes of invasive bacterial disease

Peripheral blood monocytes represent the rapid response component of mononuclear phagocyte host defense, generating vigorous but finite antibacterial responses. We investigated the fate of highly purified primary human monocytes following phagocytosis of different bacteria. Exposure to high bacterial loads resulted in rapid loss of cell viability and decreased functional competence. Cell death typically involved classical apoptosis. Exposure to high numbers of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae induced nonapoptotic death with loss of cell membrane integrity, marked disruption of phagolysosomes, and caspase-1 activation, while a subset of cells also released caspase-1-regulated extracellular traps. Classical apoptosis increased if extracellular bacterial replication was reduced and decreased if intracellular ATP levels were reduced during these infections. Both classical apoptosis and the alternative forms of cell death allowed monocytes, whose functional competence was exhausted, to downregulate reactive oxygen species and proinflammatory cytokine responses. In contrast, sustained stimulation of glycolytic metabolism and mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, with associated hypoxia inducible factor-1alpha upregulation, maintained intracellular ATP levels and prolonged monocyte functional longevity, as assessed by maintenance of phagocytosis, reactive oxygen species production, and proinflammatory cytokine generation. Monocyte innate responses to bacteria are short-lived and are limited by an intrinsic program of apoptosis, a response that is subverted by overwhelming infection with E. coli and K. pneumoniae or bacterial stimulation of cell metabolism. In this regard, the fate of monocytes following bacterial challenge more closely resembles neutrophils than macrophages.

Src-like adaptor protein regulates osteoclast generation and survival

Src-like adaptor protein (SLAP) is a hematopoietic adaptor containing Src homology (SH)3 and SH2 motifs and a unique carboxy terminus. Unlike c-Src, SLAP lacks a tyrosine kinase domain. We investigated the role of SLAP in osteoclast development and resorptive function. Employing SLAP-deficient mice, we find lack of the adaptor enhances in vitro proliferation of osteoclast precursors in the form of bone marrow macrophages (BMMs), without altering their survival. Furthermore, osteoclastogenic markers appear more rapidly in SLAP-/- BMMs exposed to RANK ligand (RANKL). The accelerated proliferation of M-CSF-treated, SLAP-deficient precursors is associated with enhanced ERK activation. SLAP's role as a mediator of M-CSF signaling, in osteoclastic cells, is buttressed by complexing of the adaptor protein and c-Fms in lipid rafts. Unlike c-Src, SLAP does not impact resorptive function of mature osteoclasts but induces their early apoptosis. Thus, SLAP negatively regulates differentiation of osteoclasts and proliferation of their precursors. Conversely, SLAP decreases osteoclast death by inhibiting activation of caspase 3. These counterbalancing events yield indistinguishable bones of WT and SLAP-/- mice which contain equal numbers of osteoclasts in basal and stimulated conditions.

sRAGE induces human monocyte survival and differentiation

The receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) is produced either as a transmembrane or soluble form (sRAGE). Substantial evidence supports a role for RAGE and its ligands in disease. sRAGE is reported to be a competitive, negative regulator of membrane RAGE activation, inhibiting ligand binding. However, some reports indicate that sRAGE is associated with inflammatory disease. We sought to define the biological function of sRAGE on inflammatory cell recruitment, survival, and differentiation in vivo and in vitro. To test the in vivo impact of sRAGE, the recombinant protein was intratracheally administered to mice, which demonstrated monocyte- and neutrophil-mediated lung inflammation. We also observed that sRAGE induced human monocyte and neutrophil migration in vitro. Human monocytes treated with sRAGE produced proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Our data demonstrated that sRAGE directly bound human monocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages. Binding of sRAGE to monocytes promoted their survival and differentiation to macrophages. Furthermore, sRAGE binding to cells increased during maturation, which was similar in freshly isolated mouse monocytes compared with mature tissue macrophages. Because sRAGE activated cell survival and differentiation, we examined intracellular pathways that were activated by sRAGE. In primary human monocytes and macrophages, sRAGE treatment activated Akt, Erk, and NF-kappaB, and their activation appeared to be critical for cell survival and differentiation. Our data suggest a novel role for sRAGE in monocyte- and neutrophil-mediated inflammation and mononuclear phagocyte survival and differentiation.

Adaptor protein Lnk inhibits c-Fms-mediated macrophage function

The M-CSFR (c-Fms) participates in proliferation, differentiation, and survival of macrophages and is involved in the regulation of distinct macrophage functions. Interaction with the ligand M-CSF results in phosphorylation of tyrosine residues on c-Fms, thereby creating binding sites for molecules containing SH2 domains. Lnk is a SH2 domain adaptor protein that negatively regulates hematopoietic cytokine receptors. Here, we show that Lnk binds to c-Fms. Biological and functional effects of this interaction were examined in macrophages from Lnk-deficient (KO) and WT mice. Clonogenic assays demonstrated an elevated number of M-CFUs in the bone marrow of Lnk KO mice. Furthermore, the M-CSF-induced phosphorylation of Akt in Lnk KO macrophages was increased and prolonged, whereas phosphorylation of Erk was diminished. Zymosan-stimulated production of ROS was increased dramatically in a M-CSF-dependent manner in Lnk KO macrophages. Lastly, Lnk inhibited M-CSF-induced migration of macrophages. In summary, we show that Lnk binds to c-Fms and can blunt M-CSF stimulation. Modulation of levels of Lnk in macrophages may provide a unique therapeutic approach to increase innate host defenses.