Cell cycle regulation by galectin-12, a new member of the galectin superfamily

Expression and secretion of galectin-12 in the context of neutrophilic differentiation of human promyeloblastic HL-60 cells

Galectin-12 is a tissue-specific galectin that has been largely defined by its role in the regulation of adipocyte differentiation and lipogenesis. This study aimed to evaluate the role of galectin-12 in the differentiation and polarization of neutrophils within a model of acute myeloid leukemia HL-60 cells. All-trans retinoic acid and dimethyl sulfoxide were used to induce differentiation of HL-60 cells which led to the generation of two phenotypes of neutrophil-like cells with opposite changes in galectin-12 gene (LGALS12) expression and different functional responses to N-formyl- l-methionyl- l-leucyl- l-phenylalanine. These phenotypes showed significant differences of differentially expressed genes on a global scale based on bioinformatics analysis of available Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) data sets. We also demonstrated that HL-60 cells could secrete and accumulate galectin-12 in cell culture medium under normal growth conditions. This secretion was found to be entirely inhibited upon neutrophilic differentiation and was accompanied by an increase in intracellular lipid droplet content and significant enrichment of 22 lipid gene ontology terms related to lipid metabolism in differentiated cells. These findings suggest that galectin-12 could serve as a marker of neutrophilic plasticity or polarization into different phenotypes and that galectin-12 secretion may be influenced by lipid droplet biogenesis.

Impaired Remodeling of White Adipose Tissue in Obesity and Aging: From Defective Adipogenesis to Adipose Organ Dysfunction

The adipose organ adapts and responds to internal and environmental stimuli by remodeling both its cellular and extracellular components. Under conditions of energy surplus, the subcutaneous white adipose tissue (WAT) is capable of expanding through the enlargement of existing adipocytes (hypertrophy), followed by de novo adipogenesis (hyperplasia), which is impaired in hypertrophic obesity. However, an impaired hyperplastic response may result from various defects in adipogenesis, leading to different WAT features and metabolic consequences, as discussed here by reviewing the results of the studies in animal models with either overexpression or knockdown of the main molecular regulators of the two steps of the adipogenesis process. Moreover, impaired WAT remodeling with aging has been associated with various age-related conditions and reduced lifespan expectancy. Here, we delve into the latest advancements in comprehending the molecular and cellular processes underlying age-related changes in WAT function, their involvement in common aging pathologies, and their potential as therapeutic targets to influence both the health of elderly people and longevity. Overall, this review aims to encourage research on the mechanisms of WAT maladaptation common to conditions of both excessive and insufficient fat tissue. The goal is to devise adipocyte-targeted therapies that are effective against both obesity- and age-related disorders.

CRISPR/Cas9-meditated gene knockout in pigs proves that LGALS12 deficiency suppresses the proliferation and differentiation of porcine adipocytes

LGALS12, also known as galectin12, belongs to the galectin family with β-galactoside-binding activity. We previously reported that LGALS12 is an important regulator of adipogenesis in porcine adipocytes in vitro, but its value in pig breeding needed to be explored in vivo. In this study, we used CRISPR/Cas9 to construct porcine fetal fibroblasts (PFFs) with a 43 bp deletion in LGALS12 exon 2. Using these PFFs as donor cells, a LGALS12 knockout pig model was generated via somatic cell nuclear transfer. Primary cultures of porcine intramuscular (IM) and subcutaneous (SC) adipocytes were established using cells from LGALS12 knockout pigs and wild-type pigs. A comparison of these cells proved that LGALS12 deficiency suppresses cell proliferation via the RAS-p38MAPK pathway and promotes lipolysis via the PKA pathway in both IM and SC adipocytes. In addition, we observed AKT activation only in IM adipocytes and suppression of the Wnt/β-catenin only in SC adipocytes. Our findings suggest that LGALS12 deficiency affects the adipogenesis of IM and SC adipocytes through different mechanisms.

Insights into cAMP-dependent molecular mechanisms regulating expression and function of LGALS16 gene in choriocarcinoma JEG-3 cells

The human choriocarcinoma cell line JEG-3 offers a valuable model to study galectin-16 gene (LGALS16) expression and functions in the context of placental cell differentiation and cancer cell biology. Recent evidence indicates that cAMP-mediated signaling pathways might be responsible for the upregulation of LGALS16; however, the underlying mechanisms are unknown. Here, we employed biochemical inhibitors of the cAMP cascade and CRISPR/Cas9 engineered cells to assess regulatory patterns and associations between cAMP-induced trophoblast differentiation and LGALS16 expression in JEG-3 cells. The expression of LGALS16 was significantly upregulated in parallel with human chorionic gonadotropin beta (CGB), a biomarker of syncytiotrophoblast differentiation, in response to 8-Br-cAMP. Inhibition of p38 MAPK and EPAC significantly altered LGALS16 expression during differentiation, while PKA inhibition failed to change LGALS16 and CGB3/5 expression in our cell model. The CRISPR/Cas9 LGALS16 knockout cell pool expressed a significantly lower amount of CGB3/5, a reduced level of CGB protein, and an unaltered cell growth rate in response to 8-Br-cAMP in comparison with wild-type JEG-3 cells. Collectively, these findings suggest that LGALS16 is required for the trophoblast-like differentiation of JEG-3 cells, and its expression is mediated through p38 MAPK and EPAC signaling pathway branches.

Promoter methylation might shift the balance of Galectin-3 & 12 expression in de novo adult acute myeloid leukemia patients

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) was reported as the most common type of leukemia among adults. Galectins constitute a family of galactose-binding proteins reported to play a critical role in many malignancies including AML. Galectin-3 and -12 are members of the mammalian galectin family. To understand the contribution of galectin-3 and -12 promoter methylation to their expression, we performed bisulfite methylation-specific (MSP)-PCR and bisulfite genomic sequencing (BGS) of primary leukemic cells in patients with de novo AML before receiving any therapy. Here, we show a significant loss of LGALS12 gene expression in association with promoter methylation. The lowest degree of expression was found in the methylated (M) group while the highest degree was in the unmethylated (U) group and the partially methylated (P) group expression lies in between. This was not the case with galectin-3 in our cohort unless the CpG sites analyzed were outside the frame of the studied fragment. We were also able to identify four CpG sites (CpG number 1, 5, 7& 8) in the promoter region of galectin-12; these sites must be unmethylated so that expression can be induced. As far as the authors know, these findings were not previously concluded in earlier studies.

Inhibition of galectins in cancer: Biological challenges for their clinical application

Galectins play relevant roles in tumor development, progression and metastasis. Accordingly, galectins are certainly enticing targets for medical intervention in cancer. To date, however, clinical trials based on galectin inhibitors reported inconclusive results. This review summarizes the galectin inhibitors currently being evaluated and discusses some of the biological challenges that need to be addressed to improve these strategies for the benefit of cancer patients.

Galectin functions in cancer-associated inflammation and thrombosis

Galectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins that regulate many cellular functions including proliferation, adhesion, migration, and phagocytosis. Increasing experimental and clinical evidence indicates that galectins influence many steps of cancer development by inducing the recruitment of immune cells to the inflammatory sites and modulating the effector function of neutrophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes. Recent studies described that different isoforms of galectins can induce platelet adhesion, aggregation, and granule release through the interaction with platelet-specific glycoproteins and integrins. Patients with cancer and/or deep-venous thrombosis have increased levels of galectins in the vasculature, suggesting that these proteins could be important contributors to cancer-associated inflammation and thrombosis. In this review, we summarize the pathological role of galectins in inflammatory and thrombotic events, influencing tumor progression and metastasis. We also discuss the potential of anti-cancer therapies targeting galectins in the pathological context of cancer-associated inflammation and thrombosis.

The Critical Role of Galectin-12 in Modulating Lipid Metabolism in Sebaceous Glands

Sebaceous glands play an important role in maintaining the skin barrier function by producing lipids. Dysregulated lipid production in these glands may contribute to the pathogenesis of human skin diseases. Galectin-12, a member of the β-galactoside‒binding lectin family, is preferentially expressed in adipocytes, where it regulates adipogenesis and functions as an intrinsic negative regulator of lipolysis. It is also expressed by sebocytes and contributes to the proliferation of this cell type. In this study, we show the association between galectin-12 expression and sebocyte differentiation. Galectin-12 knockdown in a human sebocyte cell line reduced lipogenesis and decreased the production of cholesteryl esters, triglycerides, free fatty acids, and cholesterol. Metabolomic analysis of skin surface lipids showed that the levels of the lipids mentioned earlier decreased in sebaceous gland‒specific galectin-12‒knockout mice compared with that in wild-type mice. In addition, galectin-12 positively regulated peroxisome proliferator‒activated receptor-γ transcriptional activity in sebocytes stimulated with fatty acids. Downregulating galectin-12 suppressed the expression of peroxisome proliferator‒activated receptor-γ target genes-acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase 2 gene ACS2 and diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase 1 gene DGAT1-that are required for fatty acid activation and cholesterol and triglyceride biosynthesis. In conclusion, galectin-12 is a positive regulator of sebaceous lipid metabolism with a potential role in the maintenance of skin homeostasis.

Cloning and functional verification of a porcine adipose tissue-specific promoter

Background

Fat deposition is an important economic trait in pigs. In the past decades, many genes regulating porcine fat deposition were identified by Omics technology and verified by cell biology studies. Using genetically modified pigs to investigate the function of these genes in vivo is necessary before applying in breeding. However, lack of tissue-specific promoters of pigs hinders the generation of adipose tissue-specific genetically modified pigs.

Results

In order to identify a porcine adipose tissue-specific promoter, we used the software Digital Differential Display (DDD) to screen 99 genes highly expressed in porcine adipose tissue. GO and KEGG enrichment analysis indicated that the 99 genes were mainly related to lipid metabolism. Q-PCR proved that LGALS12 was an adipose tissue-specific gene. Five truncated fragments of the LGALS12 promoter were cloned and the 4 kb fragment (L-4 kb) exhibited a high level of promoter activity in adipocytes and no promoter activity in non-adipocytes. Following co-transfection with adipogenic transcription factors, the promoter activity of L-4 kb was enhanced by PPARγ, C/EBPβ, and KLF15, whereas it was suppressed by KLF4. Finally, we demonstrated that L-4 kb can drive APOR gene expression to exert its function in adipocytes.

Conclusions

This study demonstrates that porcine LGALS12 is an adipose tissue-specific gene, and identified the 4 kb fragment of LGALS12 promoter that exhibited adipocyte-specific promoter activity. These results provide new evidence for understanding porcine fat deposition and a promoter element for adipose tissue-specific genetic modification in pigs.

Highlights

Identified porcine LGALS12 as an adipose tissue-specific gene.

Truncated LGALS12 promoter (L-4 kb) showed adipose tissue-specific promoter activity.

Identified transcription factors involved in the regulation of L-4 kb promoter activity.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12864-022-08627-0.

An Evaluation of the Mechanisms of Galacto-Oligosaccharide (GOS)-Induced IgE Cross-Linking on Basophils in GOS Allergy

The prebiotics, galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS), are small carbohydrate molecules with 1–7 galactose units linked to glucose and have been shown to trigger IgE-mediated anaphylaxis in some cases following ingestion. It is still an unresolved question of how GOS cross-links IgE on basophils. In this study, we examined whether human galectins, a class of lectins that bind specifically to β-galactoside carbohydrates, are involved in GOS-induced basophil activation. Basophil activation test to GOS and control allergen, Blomia tropicalis (Blo t) extract were performed in the presence or absence of four sugar-based galectin inhibitors (lactose, thiodigalactoside [TDG], TD139, and GB1107) and one peptide-based inhibitor, G3-C12. Results showed that TD139, GB1107, and G3-C12 did not display a specific inhibitory effect on GOS-induced basophil activation as compared to control allergen. An inhibitory effect of lactose and TDG on GOS-induced basophil activation was observed and varied between subjects with up to 100% inhibition at low doses of GOS. The results of competitive ELISA suggest that the inhibitory effects of high dose lactose and TDG on the basophil activation is likely due to the cross-reactivity of GOS-specific IgE to lactose and TDG. Basophil activation is performed using purified basophils suggested that cell surface receptors on other blood cells were not required to induce basophil activation. In conclusion, our results suggest that GOS, a low molecular weight sugar, is able to cross-link IgE independently.

Modulation of the Gal-9/TIM-3 Immune Checkpoint with α-Lactose. Does Anomery of Lactose Matter?

Simple Summary

The disaccharide lactose is a common excipient in pharmaceutical products. In addition, the two anomers α- and β-lactose can exert immuno-modulatory effects. α-Lactose functions as a major regulator of the T-cell immunoglobulin mucin-3 (Tim-3)/Galectin-9 (Gal-9) immune checkpoint, through direct binding to the β-galactoside-binding lectin galectin-9. The blockade of TIM-3 with monoclonal antibodies or small molecules represents a promising approach to combat onco-hematological diseases, in particular myelodysplastic syndromes, and acute myeloid leukemia. Alternatively, the activity of the checkpoint can be modulated via targeting of Gal-9 with both α- and β-lactose. In fact, lactose is a quasi-pan-galectin ligand, capable of modulating the functions of most of the 16 galectin molecules. This review discusses the capacity of lactose and Gal-9 to modulate the TIM-3/Gal-9 and PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoints in oncology. The immuno-regulatory roles of lactose and Gal-9 are highlighted.

Abstract

The disaccharide lactose is an excipient commonly used in pharmaceutical products. The two anomers, α- and β-lactose (α-L/β-L), differ by the orientation of the C-1 hydroxyl group on the glucose unit. In aqueous solution, a mutarotation process leads to an equilibrium of about 40% α-L and 60% β-L at room temperature. Beyond a pharmaceutical excipient in solid products, α-L has immuno-modulatory effects and functions as a major regulator of TIM-3/Gal-9 immune checkpoint, through direct binding to the β-galactoside-binding lectin galectin-9. The blockade of the co-inhibitory checkpoint TIM-3 expressed on T cells with anti-TIM-3 antibodies represents a promising approach to combat different onco-hematological diseases, in particular myelodysplastic syndromes and acute myeloid leukemia. In parallel, the discovery and development of anti-TIM-3 small molecule ligands is emerging, including peptides, RNA aptamers and a few specifically designed heterocyclic molecules. An alternative option consists of targeting the different ligands of TIM-3, notably Gal-9 recognized by α-lactose. Modulation of the TIM-3/Gal-9 checkpoint can be achieved with both α- and β-lactose. Moreover, lactose is a quasi-pan-galectin ligand, capable of modulating the functions of most of the 16 galectin molecules. The present review provides a complete analysis of the pharmaceutical and galectin-related biological functions of (α/β)-lactose. A focus is made on the capacity of lactose and Gal-9 to modulate both the TIM-3/Gal-9 and PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoints in oncology. Modulation of the TIM-3/Gal-9 checkpoint is a promising approach for the treatment of cancers and the role of lactose in this context is discussed. The review highlights the immuno-regulatory functions of lactose, and the benefit of the molecule well beyond its use as a pharmaceutical excipient.

Galectin-12 modulates sebocyte proliferation and cell cycle progression by regulating cyclin A1 and CDK2

Enhanced sebocyte proliferation is associated with the pathogenesis of human skin diseases related to sebaceous gland hyperfunction and androgens, which are known to induce sebocyte proliferation, are key mediators of this process. Galectin-12, a member of the β-galactoside-binding lectin family that is preferentially expressed by adipocytes and functions as an intrinsic negative regulator of lipolysis, has been shown to be expressed by human sebocytes. In this study, we identified galectin-12 as an important intracellular regulator of sebocyte proliferation. Galectin-12 knockdown in the human SZ95 sebocyte line suppressed cell proliferation, and its overexpression promoted cell cycle progression. Inhibition of galectin-12 expression reduced the androgen-induced SZ95 sebocyte proliferation and growth of sebaceous glands in mice, respectively. The mRNA expression of the key cell cycle regulators cyclin A1 (CCNA1) and cyclin-dependent kinase 2CDK2 was reduced in galectin-12 knockdown SZ95 sebocytes, suggesting a pathway of galectin-12 regulation of sebocyte proliferation. Further, galectin-12 enhanced peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) expression and transcriptional activity in SZ95 sebocytes, consistent with our previous studies in adipocytes. Rosiglitazone, a PPARγ ligand, induced CCNA1 levels, suggesting that galectin-12 may upregulate CCNA1 expression via PPARγ. Our findings suggest the possibility of targeting galectin-12 to treat human sebaceous gland hyperfunction and androgen-associated skin diseases.

The interaction of host and nematode galectins influences the outcome of gastrointestinal nematode infections

Galectins are a family of proteins that bind β-galactosides and play key roles in a variety of cellular processes including host defence. They have been well studied in hosts but less so in gastrointestinal nematodes. Both host and parasite galectins are present in the gastrointestinal tract following infection. Parasite galectins can both bind antibody, especially highly glycosylated IgE and be bound by antibody. Parasite galectins may act as molecular sponges that soak up antibody. Host galectins promote mast cell degranulation while parasite galectins inhibit degranulation. Host and parasite galectins can also bind mucins and influence mucus viscosity. As the protective response against gastrointestinal nematode infection is partly dependent on IgE mediated mast cell degranulation and mucus, the interactions between host and parasite galectins play key roles in determining the outcome of infection.

Human Lectins, Their Carbohydrate Affinities and Where to Find Them

Lectins are a class of proteins responsible for several biological roles such as cell-cell interactions, signaling pathways, and several innate immune responses against pathogens. Since lectins are able to bind to carbohydrates, they can be a viable target for targeted drug delivery systems. In fact, several lectins were approved by Food and Drug Administration for that purpose. Information about specific carbohydrate recognition by lectin receptors was gathered herein, plus the specific organs where those lectins can be found within the human body.

Ablation of Galectin-12 Inhibits Atherosclerosis through Enhancement of M2 Macrophage Polarization

The formation of foam cells, which are macrophages that have engulfed oxidized low-density lipoprotein (OxLDL), constitutes the first stage in the development of atherosclerosis. Previously, we found that knocking down galectin-12, a negative regulator of lipolysis, leads to reduced secretion of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), a chemokine that plays an important role in atherosclerosis. This prompted us to study the role of galectin-12 in atherosclerosis. With that aim, we examined foam cell formation in Gal12^‒/‒ murine macrophages exposed to OxLDL and acetylated LDL (AcLDL). Then, we generated an LDL receptor and galectin-12 double knockout (DKO) mice and studied the effect of galectin-12 on macrophage function and atherosclerosis. Lastly, we evaluated the role of galectin-12 in human THP-1 macrophages using a doxycycline-inducible conditional knockdown system. Galectin-12 knockout significantly inhibited foam cell formation in murine macrophages through the downregulation of cluster of differentiation 36 (CD36), and the upregulation of ATP Binding Cassette Subfamily A Member 1 (ABCA1), ATP Binding Cassette Subfamily G Member 1 (ABCG1), and scavenger receptor class B type 1 (SRB1). Consistent with this, galectin-12 knockdown inhibited foam cell formation in human macrophages. In addition, the ablation of galectin-12 promoted M2 macrophage polarization in human and murine macrophages as evidenced by the upregulation of the M2 marker genes, CD206 and CD163, and downregulation of the M1 cytokines, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF- α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and MCP-1. Moreover, the ablation of galectin-12 decreased atherosclerosis formation in DKO mice. Based on these results, we propose galectin-12 as a potential therapeutic target for atherosclerosis.

The Emerging Role of Galectins and O-GlcNAc Homeostasis in Processes of Cellular Differentiation

Galectins are a family of soluble β-galactoside-binding proteins with diverse glycan-dependent and glycan-independent functions outside and inside the cell. Human cells express twelve out of sixteen recognized mammalian galectin genes and their expression profiles are very different between cell types and tissues. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the changes in the expression of individual galectins at mRNA and protein levels in different types of differentiating cells and the effects of recombinant galectins on cellular differentiation. A new model of galectin regulation is proposed considering the change in O-GlcNAc homeostasis between progenitor/stem cells and mature differentiated cells. The recognition of galectins as regulatory factors controlling cell differentiation and self-renewal is essential for developmental and cancer biology to develop innovative strategies for prevention and targeted treatment of proliferative diseases, tissue regeneration, and stem-cell therapy.

Galectin-9 Is a Novel Regulator of Epithelial Restitution

Increasingly, the ß-galactoside binding lectins, termed galectins, are being recognized as critical regulators of cell function and organismal homeostasis. Within the context of the mucosal surface, galectins are established regulators of innate and adaptive immune responses, microbial populations, and several critical epithelial functions, including cell migration, proliferation, and response to injury. However, given their complex tissue distribution and expression patterns, their role within specific processes remains poorly understood. We took a genetic approach to understand the role of endogenous galectin-9 (Gal-9), a mucosal galectin that has been linked to inflammatory bowel disease, within the context of the murine intestine. Gal-9-deficient (Gal9^-/-, also known as Lgals9^-/-) animals show increased sensitivity to chemically induced colitis and impaired proliferation in the setting of acute injury. Moreover, Gal9^-/--derived enteroids showed impaired growth ex vivo. Consistent with a model in which endogenous Gal-9 controls epithelial growth and repair, Gal9^-/- animals showed increased sensitivity to intestinal challenge in multiple models of epithelial injury, including acute irradiation injury and ectopic wound biopsies. Finally, regenerating crypts from patient biopsies showed increased expression of Gal-9, indicating these processes may be conserved in humans. Taken together, these studies implicate Gal-9 in the regulation of cellular proliferation and epithelial restitution after intestinal epithelial injury.

An adipose tissue galectin controls endothelial cell function via preferential recognition of 3-fucosylated glycans

Upon overnutrition, adipocytes activate a homeostatic program to adjust anabolic pressure. An inflammatory response enables adipose tissue (AT) expansion with concomitant enlargement of its capillary network, and reduces energy storage by increasing insulin resistance. Galectin-12 (Gal-12), an endogenous lectin preferentially expressed in AT, plays a key role in adipocyte differentiation, lipolysis, and glucose homeostasis. Here, we reveal biochemical and biophysical determinants of Gal-12 structure, including its preferential recognition of 3-fucosylated structures, a unique feature among members of the galectin family. Furthermore, we identify a previously unanticipated role for this lectin in the regulation of angiogenesis within AT. Gal-12 showed preferential localization within the inner side of lipid droplets, and its expression was upregulated under hypoxic conditions. Through glycosylation-dependent binding to endothelial cells, Gal-12 promoted in vitro angiogenesis. Moreover, analysis of in vivo AT vasculature showed reduced vascular networks in Gal-12-deficient (Lgals12^-/-) compared to wild-type mice, supporting a role for this lectin in AT angiogenesis. In conclusion, this study unveils biochemical, topological, and functional features of a hypoxia-regulated galectin in AT, which modulates endothelial cell function through recognition of 3-fucosylated glycans. Thus, glycosylation-dependent programs may control AT homeostasis by modulating endothelial cell biology with critical implications in metabolic disorders and inflammation.

Deciphering the galectin-12 protein interactome reveals a major impact of galectin-12 on glutamine anaplerosis in colon cancer cells

Galectins are β-galactoside binding proteins which possess a variety of functions including modulation of apoptosis, growth and differentiation. Hence, alterations in the expression profile have been associated with loss of cellular homeostasis contributing to tumor growth and progression. Though galectin-12 is significantly downregulated in several tumor entities, including colon cancer, its impact on cellular homeostasis as well as galectin-12 specific binding partners have not been identified so far. We therefore established an experimental strategy which is based on reversible cross-link immunoprecipitation to capture the galectin-12 protein interactome in colon cancer cells. By applying this approach, we identified 10 novel candidates of galectin-12 interacting proteins including the neutral amino acid exchanger SLC1A5. Remarkably, we uncovered that binding of galectin-12 to SLC1A5 significantly reduced glutamine uptake in our model cell line. Consequently, utilization of glutamine carbon for biomass synthesis was profoundly affected, suggesting galectin-12 as a novel inhibitor of glutamine anaplerosis in colon cancer cells. More detailed analysis revealed that colon cancer cells can counteract galectin-12 mediated glutamine deprivation by induction of compensatory mechanisms which facilitate adaption to low-glutamine conditions and thus survival.

Galectins as potential emerging key targets in different types of leukemia

Galectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins and these have very high affinity for β-galactoside containing glycoproteins and glycolipids. Amongst sixteen types of galectin, the role of galectin 1, 3, 9 and 12 is defined in the development and progression of different types of leukemia including acute myeloid leukemia, acute promyelocytic leukemia, B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia, adult T cell leukemia and chronic lymphocytic leukemia. There are multiple mechanisms through which these galectins may affect tumor proliferation. These may include increased production of tumor resistance conferring proteins such as multidrug resistance (MDR-1) and myeloid cell leukemia (MCL-1). Moreover, galectin-9 may act on Tim-3 receptors present on the circulating CD8⁺ T cells to impair immune system function and the latter provide an ideal environment for the proliferation of leukemic cells. The present review describes the role and mechanisms involved in galectin-mediated development and progression of different types of leukemia.

Knockdown of LGALS12 inhibits porcine adipocyte adipogenesis via PKA-Erk1/2 signaling pathway

Increasing intramuscular (IM) fat while concomitantly decreasing subcutaneous (SC) fat content is one major goal of pig breeding. Identifying genes involved in lipid metabolism is critical for this goal. Galectin-12 (LGALS12) has been proven to be an important regulator of fat deposition in mouse models; however, the effect and regulatory mechanisms of LGALS12 on porcine adipogenesis are still unknown. In this study, the effects of LGALS12 on fat deposition were explored with primary culture of porcine SC and IM adipocytes. Analysis of LGALS12 expression across different tissues revealed that LGALS12 was predominantly expressed in adipose tissue. The LGALS12 expression patterns across stages of adipocyte differentiation were also evaluated, with differences observed between SC and IM fat. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) of LGALS12 was designed and transfected into porcine adipocytes derived from SC and IM fat. After transfection, the expression level of LGALS12 was significantly reduced, and the number of lipid droplets was reduced in adipocytes from both SC and IM fat. Simultaneously, the levels of adipogenic markers, including PPARγ and aP2, were decreased, whereas hydrolysis markers, including adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL) and hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL), were increased. Furthermore, the activation of lipolysis signals, such as the phosphorylation of PKA and Erk1/2, were observed with LGALS12 knockdown in terminally differentiated adipocytes from both SC and IM sources. Taken together, these results suggest that LGALS12 knockdown can inhibit adipogenesis of porcine adipocytes by downregulating lipogenic genes and activating the PKA-Erk1/2 signaling pathway.

The Role of Galectins as Modulators of Metabolism and Inflammation

Galectins are β-galcotosid-binding lectins. The function of galectins varies with their tissue-specific and subcellular location, and their binding to carbohydrates makes them key players in several intra- and extracellular processes where they bind to glycosylated proteins and lipids. In humans, there are 12 identified galectins, some with tissue-specific distribution. Galectins are found inside cells and in the nucleus, cytosol, and organelles, as well as extracellularly. Galectin-1, -2, -3, -4, -7, -8, -9, and -12 can all induce T-cell apoptosis and modulate inflammation. In the context of metabolic control and loss of the same in, for example, diabetes, galectin-1, -2, -3, -9, and -12 are especially interesting. This review presents information on galectins relevant to the control of inflammation and metabolism and the potential to target galectins for therapeutic purposes.

Allyl Isothiocyanate Ameliorates Obesity by Inhibiting Galectin-12

SCOPE

The aim of this study is to investigate the signaling pathways by which allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) reduces adipocyte differentiation and the efficacy of AITC in suppressing galectin-12 levels as a therapeutic for high fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity.

METHODS AND RESULTS

AITC presents anti-adipogenic effects on 3T3-L1 cells by decreasing lipid droplet accumulation in a dose-dependent manner. AITC suppresses 3T3-L1 differentiation into adipocytes by decreasing galectin-12 expression and by downregulating key adipogenic transcription factors. AITC influences the expression of 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes by modulating adipokine expression (leptin and resistin) and by regulating the protein kinase B (PKB/Akt)/cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) pathway. In HFD-fed mice, oral administration of AITC reduces the body weight, accumulation of lipid droplets in the liver, and white adipocyte size.

CONCLUSION

In summary, the results indicate that AITC inhibits adipocyte differentiation by suppressing galectin-12 levels in 3T3L1 cells and has antiobesity effects in HFD-fed mice.

Galectin-12 in Cellular Differentiation, Apoptosis and Polarization

Galectin-12 is a member of a family of mammalian lectins characterized by their affinity for β-galactosides and consensus amino acid sequences. The protein structure consists of a single polypeptide chain containing two carbohydrate-recognition domains joined by a linker region. Galectin-12 is predominantly expressed in adipose tissue, but is also detected in macrophages and other leukocytes. Downregulation of galectin-12 in mouse 3T3-L1 cells impairs their differentiation into adipocytes. Conversely, overexpression of galectin-12 in vitro induces cell cycle arrest in G1 and apoptosis. Upregulation of galectin-12 and initiation of G1 cell cycle arrest are associated with driving pre-adipocytes toward terminal differentiation. Galectin-12 deficiency increases insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance in obese animals. Galectin-12 inhibits macrophage polarization to the M2 population, enhancing inflammation and decreasing insulin sensitivity in adipocytes. Galectin-12 also affects myeloid differentiation, which is associated with chemotherapy resistance. In addition to highlighting the above-mentioned aspects, this review also discusses the potential clinical applications of modulating the function of galectin-12.

Analyzing epigenetic control of galectin expression indicates silencing of galectin-12 by promoter methylation in colorectal cancer

Galectins, a class of lectins with specificity for ß-galactoside containing glycoconjugates, modulate several cellular processes that are involved in the control of normal cell growth, differentiation, cell-cell, and cell matrix interactions. Pathological alterations of the galectin expression pattern have been implicated in the development and progression of cancer. We therefore analyzed epigenetic mechanisms for control of galectin expression in 9 colorectal cancer (CRC) cell lines. Our data demonstrate that expression of galectins-1, -2, -7, -8, and -9 can be regulated by histone acetylation in CRC cell lines. In addition, the same set of galectins was also found to be modulated by DNA methylation. Of particular note, galectin-12 is silenced in all tested CRC cell lines but known to be re-expressed upon butyrate-induced differentiation and present in normal colonic mucosa. Loss of galectin-12 expression in undifferentiated CRC cells is associated with promoter hypermethylation and for the first time we provide detailed methylation analysis of the promoter region. In CRC tumor tissue, galectin-12 expression was downregulated in 66% of CRC tissue specimens as compared to adjacent normal tissue hinting to a possible tumor-suppressing function in CRC. © 2017 IUBMB Life, 69(12):962-970, 2017.

Galectin-12 inhibits granulocytic differentiation of human NB4 promyelocytic leukemia cells while promoting lipogenesis

As a member of the galectin family of animal lectins, galectin-12 is preferentially expressed in adipocytes and leukocytes. In adipocytes, galectin-12 is associated with lipid droplets and regulates lipid metabolism and energy balance, whereas its role in leukocytes is not clear. Analysis of galectin-12 expression in a public data set of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) samples revealed that it is selectively overexpressed in the M3 subtype, which is also known as acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL). To investigate the role of galectin-12 in APL cells, we manipulated its expression in the APL cell line, NB4, and measured resultant effects on all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA)-induced granulocytic differentiation. With a doxycycline-inducible gene knockdown system, we found that suppression of galectin-12 promoted ATRA-induced neutrophil differentiation but inhibited lipid droplet formation. Our results indicate that overexpression of galectin-12 contributes to a differentiation block in APL cells, and suppression of galectin-12 facilitates granulocytic differentiation. Furthermore, these data suggest that lipogenesis and other aspects of myeloid differentiation can be differentially regulated. Taken together, these findings suggest that galectin-12 may be a target for treatment of the ATRA-resistant subset of APL.

Identification of VPS13C as a Galectin-12-Binding Protein That Regulates Galectin-12 Protein Stability and Adipogenesis

Galectin-12, a member of the galectin family of β-galactoside-binding animal lectins, is preferentially expressed in adipocytes and required for adipocyte differentiation in vitro. This protein was recently found to regulate lipolysis, whole body adiposity, and glucose homeostasis in vivo. Here we identify VPS13C, a member of the VPS13 family of vacuolar protein sorting-associated proteins highly conserved throughout eukaryotic evolution, as a major galectin-12-binding protein. VPS13C is upregulated during adipocyte differentiation, and is required for galectin-12 protein stability. Knockdown of Vps13c markedly reduces the steady-state levels of galectin-12 by promoting its degradation through primarily the lysosomal pathway, and impairs adipocyte differentiation. Our studies also suggest that VPS13C may have a broader role in protein quality control. The regulation of galectin-12 stability by VPS13C could potentially be exploited for therapeutic intervention of obesity and related metabolic diseases.

Galectin-12 enhances inflammation by promoting M1 polarization of macrophages and reduces insulin sensitivity in adipocytes

Galectin-12 is a member of an animal lectin family with affinity for β-galactosides and containing consensus amino acid sequences. Here, we found that galectin-12 was expressed in macrophages and thus aimed to determine how galectin-12 affects inflammation and macrophage polarization and activation. The ablation of galectin-12 did not affect bone marrow cells to differentiate into macrophages, but reduced phagocytic activity against Escherichia coli and lowered the secretion of nitric oxide. The ablation of galectin-12 also resulted in the polarization of macrophages into the M2 direction, as indicated by increases in the levels of M2 markers, namely, resistin-like β (FIZZ1) and chitinase 3-like 3 (Ym1), as well as a reduction in the expression levels of a number of M1 pro-inflammatory cytokines. We found that the diminished expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in macrophages resulting from galectin-12 deletion was due to reduced activation of IKKα/β, Akt and ERK, which in turn caused decreased activation of NF-κB and activator protein 1. The activation of STAT3 was much higher in Gal12(-/-) macrophages activated by lipopolysaccharide, which was correlated with higher levels of IL-10. Adipocytes showed higher insulin sensitivity when treated with Gal12(-/-) macrophage-conditioned media than those treated with Gal12(+/+) macrophages. We conclude galectin-12 negatively regulates macrophage polarization into the M2 population, resulting in enhanced inflammatory responses and also in turn causing decreased insulin sensitivity in adipocytes. This has implications in the treatment of a wide spectrum of metabolic disorders.

Towards molecular mechanisms regulating the expression of galectins in cancer cells under microenvironmental stress conditions

Galectins, a family of soluble β-galactoside-binding proteins, serve as mediators of fundamental biological processes, such as cell growth, differentiation, adhesion, migration, survival, and death. The purpose of this review is to summarize the current knowledge regarding the ways in which the expression of individual galectins differs in normal and transformed human cells exposed to various stimuli mimicking physiological and pathological microenvironmental stress conditions. A conceptual point is being made and grounded that the modulation of galectin expression profiles is a key aspect of cellular stress responses. Moreover, this modulation might be precisely regulated at transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels in the context of non-overlapping transcription factors and miRNAs specific to galectins.

Fetal gender specific expression of tandem-repeat galectins in placental tissue from normally progressed human pregnancies and intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR)

INTRODUCTION

The tandem-repeat type galectins, which comprise of gal-4, -6, -8, -9, and -12, form a sub-family of galectins. Gal-6 is expressed only in rodents, whereas the other four galectins, tandem-repeat galectins, are also detectable in human tissue. The placental expression of individual members of the tandem-repeat gal family is increasingly known, however, systematic, comparative analysis especially in the human placenta from normal or pathological pregnancies is still lacking.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Within this study, third trimester placentas obtained at delivery (n = 14 IUGR, n = 15 controls, equally divided in placentas from male and female fetuses) were analyzed for the expression of gal-4, -8, -9 and -12 by immunohistology and immunofluorescence, data were obtained by using a semiquantitative scoring system. Double immune-fluorescence with trophoblast specific markers was used to identify co-expression in the decidua.

RESULTS

We identified dysregulation of tandem repeat galectins in IUGR placentas with a strong connection to the fetal gender. We identified a significantly lower expression of gal-4 and gal-9 in villous trophoblast tissue of IUGR placentas with male fetuses and a downregulation of gal-4 and gal-8 in extravillous trophoblast (EVT) from IUGR and male fetuses. Conversely, expression of gal-9 and gal-12 was higher in EVT of IUGR cases in placentas with female fetuses. Double immunofluorescence using cytokeratin-7 confirmed the expression of tandem-repeat galectins in EVT.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The human placenta expresses tandem-repeat type galectins in villous trophoblasts, EVT, endothelial cells and decidual stromal cells. Summarizing all effects, there is significant down-regulation of gal-4, -8 and gal-9 in the IUGR trophoblast of male fetuses. In contrast, in IUGR pregnancies with female fetus gal-9 and gal-12 are upregulated in the EVT and in endothelial cells in the cases of gal-12. Therefore we propose a fetal-gender specific action of tandem repeat galectins in IUGR placentas.

Role of downregulation of galectin-9 in the tumorigenesis of gastric cancer

Galectin-9 (Gal-9), a member of the β-galactoside-binding galectin family, plays a role in immune response, apoptosis, cell proliferation and cell death. Recent studies have shown that abnormal expression of Gal-9 is involved in certain primary cancers. The present study is the first investigation of the role of Gal-9 gene expression in clinically diagnosed primary gastric cancer tissues. Gal-9 mRNA expression was assessed in 44 clinically diagnosed frozen primary cancer tissue samples using quantitative PCR (qPCR). Analysis of the qPCR data revealed a significant reduction (>2-fold decreased) of Gal-9 gene expression in gastric cancer tissues in 77% (34/44) of patients. In patients with gastric cancer, although no statistically significant difference was found between adjacent (<2 cm away from the cancer tissue) and normal tissues (>5 cm away from the cancer tissue), a >2-fold reduction in Gal-9 expression was observed in the adjacent tissues of 34% of the patients. Compared to matched normal or adjacent tissues, the gene expression of Gal-9 was significantly decreased in tumor tissues (p<0.001). The correlation of Gal-9 expression and clinicopathological features in gastric cancer was analyzed according to the TNM classification system using AJCC stage grouping. In patients with gastric cancer, clinical staging, tumor pathological stage (pT stage), tumor cell differentiation, lymph node metastasis and survival rate were found to be associated with Gal-9 expression. However, no significant association was found between Gal-9 expression and distant metastasis (p>0.05). No significant difference was found between patients of different genders, levels of cell differentiation, distant metastasis status or different survival time of patients. Compared to normal tissues, >2-fold reduction of Tim-3 expression in gastric cancer tissues occurred in 59% of patients, but no correlation was found between Gal-9 and Tim-3 in gastric cancer. These results strongly suggest that Gal-9 is involved in tumorigenesis of gastric cancer.

Anti-galectin-3 therapy: a new chance for multiple myeloma and ovarian cancer?

Here we review the role of Galectins in the molecular pathogenesis of multiple myeloma and ovarian cancer, with a special focus on Glectin-3. Multiple myeloma is the second most common hematologic malignancy worldwide. Because the pathogenesis of multiple myeloma is still incompletely understood, there is no ultimately effective cure, and this cancer results fatal. Ovarian cancer is the most lethal gynecologic malignancy worldwide. Due to the lack of screening techniques for early detection, patients are mostly diagnosed with advanced disease, which results ultimately fatal. Multiple myeloma and ovarian cancer have different biologies, but they share a strong dependence on adhesion with extracellular matrix and other cells. Galectin-3 plays a key role in regulating such adhesive abilities of tumor cells. Here we discuss the outcomes and possible mechanism of action of a truncated, dominant negative form of Galectin-3, Galectin-3C, in these malignancies. Overall, we report that Galectin-3C is a promising new compound for effective adjuvant therapies in advanced, refractory multiple myeloma and ovarian cancer.

Intracellular galectins in cancer cells: potential new targets for therapy (Review)

Dysregulation of galectin expression is frequently observed in cancer tissues. Such an abnormal expression pattern often correlates with aggressiveness and relapse in many types of cancer. Because galectins have the ability to modulate functions that are important for cell survival, migration and metastasis, they also represent attractive targets for cancer therapy. This has been well-exploited for extracellular galectins, which bind glycoconjugates expressed on the surface of cancer cells. Although the existence of intracellular functions of galectins has been known for many years, an increasing number of studies indicate that these proteins can also alter tumor progression through their interaction with intracellular ligands. In fact, in some instances, the interactions of galectins with their intracellular ligands seem to occur independently of their carbohydrate recognition domain. Such findings call for a change in the basic assumptions, or paradigms, concerning the activity of galectins in cancer and may force us to revisit our strategies to develop galectin antagonists for the treatment of cancer.

Expression and function of galectins in the endometrium and at the human feto-maternal interface

Galectins are classified as lectins that share structural similarities and bind β-galactosides via a conserved carbohydrate recognition domain. So far 16 out of 19 identified galectins were shown to be present in humans and numerous studies revealed galectins as pivotal modulators of cell death, differentiation and growth. Galectins were highlighted to interact with both the adaptive and innate immune response. In the field of reproductive medicine and placenta research different roles for galectins have been proposed. Several galectins, being abundantly present at the human feto-maternal interphase and endometrium, were hypothesized to significantly contribute to endometrial receptivity and pregnancy physiology. Hence, this review outlines selected aspects of galectin action within endometrial function and at the feto-maternal interphase. Further current knowledge on galectins in reproductive and pregnancy disorders like endometriosis, abortion or preeclampsia is summarized.

Galectin-1 as a potent target for cancer therapy: role in the tumor microenvironment

The microenvironment of a tumor is a highly complex milieu, primarily characterized by immunosuppression, abnormal angiogenesis, and hypoxic regions. These features promote tumor progression and metastasis, resulting in poor prognosis and greater resistance to existing cancer therapies. Galectin-1 is a β-galactoside binding protein that is abundantly secreted by almost all types of malignant tumor cells. The expression of galectin-1 is regulated by hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) and it plays vital pro-tumorigenic roles within the tumor microenvironment. In particular, galectin-1 suppresses T cell-mediated cytotoxic immune responses and promotes tumor angiogenesis. However, since galectin-1 displays many different activities by binding to a number of diverse N- or O-glycan modified target proteins, it has been difficult to fully understand how galectin-1 supports tumor growth and metastasis. This review explores the importance of galectin-1 and glycan expression patterns in the tumor microenvironment and the potential effects of inhibiting galectin-1 as a therapeutic target for cancer treatment.

Galectins in the Pathogenesis of Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a complex and common systemic autoimmune disease characterized by synovial inflammation and hyperplasia. Multiple proteins, cells, and pathways have been identified to contribute to the pathogenesis of RA. Galectins are a group of lectins that bind to β-galactoside carbohydrates on the cell surface and in the extracellular matrix. They are expressed in a wide variety of tissues and organs with the highest expression in the immune system. Galectins are potent immune regulators and modulate a range of pathological processes, such as inflammation, autoimmunity, and cancer. Accumulated evidence shows that several family members of galectins play positive or negative roles in the disease development of RA, through their effects on T and B lymphocytes, myeloid lineage cells, and fibroblast-like synoviocytes. In this review, we will summarize the function of different galectins in immune modulation and their distinct roles in RA pathogenesis.

Identification of lineage relationships and novel markers of blood and skin human dendritic cells

The lineage relationships and fate of human dendritic cells (DCs) have significance for a number of diseases including HIV where both blood and tissue DCs may be infected. We used gene expression profiling of human monocyte and DC subpopulations sorted directly from blood and skin to define the lineage relationships. We also compared these with monocyte-derived DCs (MDDCs) and MUTZ3 Langerhans cells (LCs) to investigate their relevance as model skin DCs. Hierarchical clustering analysis showed that myeloid DCs clustered according to anatomical origin rather than putative lineage. Plasmacytoid DCs formed the most discrete cluster, but ex vivo myeloid cells formed separate clusters of cells both in blood and in skin. Separate and specific DC populations could be determined within skin, and the proportion of CD14(+) dermal DCs (DDCs) was reduced and CD1a(+) DDCs increased during culture, suggesting conversion to CD1a(+)-expressing cells in situ. This is consistent with origin of the CD1a(+) DDCs from a local precursor rather than directly from circulating blood DCs or monocyte precursors. Consistent with their use as model skin DCs, the in vitro-derived MDDC and MUTZ3 LC populations grouped within the skin DC cluster. MDDCs clustered most closely to CD14(+) DDCs; furthermore, common unique patterns of C-type lectin receptor expression were identified between these two cell types. MUTZ3 LCs, however, did not cluster closely with ex vivo-derived LCs. We identified differential expression of novel genes in monocyte and DC subsets including genes related to DC surface receptors (including C-type lectin receptors, TLRs, and galectins).

Carbohydrate biomarker recognition using synthetic lectin mimics

Carbohydrate biomarkers play very important roles in a wide range of biological and pathological processes. Compounds that can specifically recognize a carbohydrate biomarker are useful for targeted delivery of imaging agents and for development of new diagnostics. Furthermore, such compounds could also be candidates for the development of therapeutic agents. A tremendous amount of active work on synthetic lectin mimics has been reported in recent years. Amongst all the synthetic lectins, boronic-acid-based lectins (boronolectins) have shown great promise. Along this line, four classes of boronolectins including peptide-, nucleic-acid-, polymer-, and small-molecule-based ones are discussed with a focus on the design principles and recent advances. We hope that by presenting the potentials of this field, this review will stimulate more research in this area.

Methylation markers of early-stage non-small cell lung cancer

Background

Despite of intense research in early cancer detection, there is a lack of biomarkers for the reliable detection of malignant tumors, including non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). DNA methylation changes are common and relatively stable in various types of cancers, and may be used as diagnostic or prognostic biomarkers.

Methods

We performed DNA methylation profiling of samples from 48 patients with stage I NSCLC and 18 matching cancer-free lung samples using microarrays that cover the promoter regions of more than 14,500 genes. We correlated DNA methylation changes with gene expression levels and performed survival analysis.

Results

We observed hypermethylation of 496 CpGs in 379 genes and hypomethylation of 373 CpGs in 335 genes in NSCLC. Compared to adenocarcinoma samples, squamous cell carcinoma samples had 263 CpGs in 223 hypermethylated genes and 513 CpGs in 436 hypomethylated genes. 378 of 869 (43.5%) CpG sites discriminating the NSCLC and control samples showed an inverse correlation between CpG site methylation and gene expression levels. As a result of a survival analysis, we found 10 CpGs in 10 genes, in which the methylation level differs in different survival groups.

Conclusions

We have identified a set of genes with altered methylation in NSCLC and found that a minority of them showed an inverse correlation with gene expression levels. We also found a set of genes that associated with the survival of the patients. These newly-identified marker candidates for the molecular screening of NSCLC will need further analysis in order to determine their clinical utility.

Galectin-12: A protein associated with lipid droplets that regulates lipid metabolism and energy balance

Galectin-12, a member of the galectin family of animal lectins, is preferentially expressed in adipocytes. We recently reported that this galectin is localized on lipid droplets, specialized organelles for fat storage. Galectin-12 regulates lipid degradation (lipolysis) by modulating lipolytic protein kinase A (PKA) signaling. Mice deficient in galectin-12 exhibit enhanced adipocyte lipolysis, increased mitochondria respiration, reduced adiposity and ameliorated insulin resistance associated with weight gain. The results suggest that galectin-12 may be a useful target for treatment of obesity-related metabolic conditions, such as insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes. Most previously described galectins largely reside in the cytosol, although they can also be induced to become associated with membrane-containing structures. Along with an in-depth characterization of galectin-12, this mini-review comments on this first report of a galectin normally localized specifically in an organelle that performs an important intracellular function. Further studies will help shed light on how this protein regulates cellular homeostasis, especially energy homeostasis, and provide additional insight into the intracellular functions of galectins.

Ablation of a galectin preferentially expressed in adipocytes increases lipolysis, reduces adiposity, and improves insulin sensitivity in mice

The breakdown of triglycerides, or lipolysis, is a tightly controlled process that regulates fat mobilization in accord with an animal's energy needs. It is well established that lipolysis is stimulated by hormones that signal energy demand and is suppressed by the antilipolytic hormone insulin. However, much still remains to be learned about regulation of lipolysis by intracellular signaling pathways in adipocytes. Here we show that galectin-12, a member of a β-galactoside-binding lectin family preferentially expressed by adipocytes, functions as an intrinsic negative regulator of lipolysis. Galectin-12 is primarily localized on lipid droplets and regulates lipolytic protein kinase A signaling by acting upstream of phosphodiesterase activity to control cAMP levels. Ablation of galectin-12 in mice results in increased adipocyte mitochondrial respiration, reduced adiposity, and ameliorated insulin resistance/glucose intolerance. This study identifies unique properties of this intracellular galectin that is localized to an organelle and performs a critical function in lipid metabolism. These findings add to the significant functions exhibited by intracellular galectins, and have important therapeutic implications for human metabolic disorders.

Decreased galectin-8 is a strong marker for recurrence in urothelial carcinoma of the bladder

OBJECTIVE

To investigate galectin-8 expression patterns in normal urothelium and bladder cancer specimens and to elucidate its prognostic value.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

162 samples of non-muscle-invasive transitional cell carcinoma, 25 samples of muscle-invasive transitional cell carcinoma and 10 samples of normal urothelium were investigated by immunohistochemistry using tissue microarrays. Complete patient and tumor characteristics were compared with galectin-8 staining patterns. The likelihood of tumor recurrence and progression was analyzed based on a 3-year follow-up.

RESULTS

Loss of galectin-8 was associated with the likelihood of tumor recurrence in univariate (p < 0.05) and multivariate analyses (p < 0.01). No significance was observed for tumor progression. Patients whose specimens showed weak galectin-8 expression had a shorter recurrence-free interval (42 vs. 12 months; p < 0.01, log-rank test). All of the 10 normal urothelium samples showed high galectin-8 expression. Decreased staining was found to be associated with higher tumor stages and grades (p < 0.0001, one-way ANOVA). A significant difference was found comparing normal urothelium with any tumor stage (p < 0.01), pTa vs. pT1 tumors (p < 0.05) and non-muscle-invasive vs. muscle-invasive tumors (p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

Loss of galectin-8 might be an early step in the development of malignant lesions of the bladder and is a significant independent predictor of recurrence.

Dissecting the signal transduction pathways triggered by galectin-glycan interactions in physiological and pathological settings

Galectins are a family of evolutionarily conserved animal lectins with pleiotropic functions and widespread distribution. Fifteen members have been identified in a wide variety of cells and tissues. Through recognition of cell surface glycoproteins and glycolipids, these endogenous lectins can trigger a cascade of intracellular signaling pathways capable of modulating cell differentiation, proliferation, survival, and migration. These cellular events are critical in a variety of biological processes including embryogenesis, angiogenesis, neurogenesis, and immunity and are substantially altered during tumorigenesis, neurodegeneration, and inflammation. In addition, galectins can modulate intracellular functions and this effect involves direct interactions with distinct signaling pathways. In this review, we discuss current knowledge on the intracellular signaling pathways triggered by this multifunctional family of beta-galactoside-binding proteins in selected physiological and pathological settings. Understanding the "galectin signalosome" will be essential to delineate rational therapeutic strategies based on the specific control of galectin expression and function.