Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Interacting Protein Targets IRF7 to Suppress Antiviral Signaling and the Induction of Type I Interferon

Antivirotics based on defective interfering particles: emerging concepts and challenges

Viruses are obligate parasites, that use the host's internal metabolic systems for their own reproduction. This complicates the search for molecular targets to prevent the spread of viral infection without disrupting the vital functions of human cells. Defective interfering particles (DIPs) are natural competitors of viruses for important resources of viral reproduction. DIPs emerge during infection, originate from the normal viral replication process and inhibit its progression, making them an interesting candidate for antiviral therapy. Here we describe the biology of DIPs, advances in DIP-based antiviral technology, analyze their therapeutic potential and provide a systemic overview of existing preventive and therapeutic antiviral strategies.

Mapping integral cell-type-specific interferon-induced gene regulatory networks (GRNs) involved in systemic lupus erythematosus using systems and computational analysis

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a systemic autoimmune disorder characterized by the production of autoantibodies, resulting in inflammation and organ damage. Although extensive research has been conducted on SLE pathogenesis, a comprehensive understanding of its molecular landscape in different cell types has not been achieved. This study uncovers the molecular mechanisms of the disease by thoroughly examining gene regulatory networks within neutrophils, dendritic cells, T cells, and B cells. Firstly, we identified genes and ncRNAs with differential expression in SLE patients compared to controls for different cell types. Furthermore, the derived differentially expressed genes were curated based on immune functions using functional enrichment analysis to create a protein-protein interaction network. Topological network analysis of the formed genes revealed key hub genes associated with each of the cell types. To understand the regulatory mechanism through which these hub genes function in the diseased state, their associations with transcription factors, and non-coding RNAs in different immune cell types were investigated through correlation analysis and regression models. Finally, by integrating these findings, distinct gene regulatory networks were constructed, which provide a novel perspective on the molecular, cellular, and immunological landscapes of SLE. Importantly, we reveal the crucial role of IRF3, IRF7, and STAT1 in neutrophils, dendritic cells, and T cells, where their aberrant upregulation in disease states might enhance the production of type I IFN. Furthermore, we found MYB to be a crucial regulator that might activate T cells toward autoimmune responses in SLE. Similarly, in B-cell lymphocytes, we found FOXO1 to be a key player in autophagy and chemokine regulation. These findings were also validated using single-cell RNASeq analysis using an independent dataset. Genotype variations of these genes were also explored using the GWAS central database to ensure their targetability. These findings indicate that IRF3, IRF7, STAT1, MYB, and FOXO1 are promising targets for therapeutic interventions for SLE.

Mutations in the N-domain of aryl hydrocarbon receptor interacting protein affect interactions with heat shock protein 90β and phosphodiesterase 4A5

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor interacting protein (AIP) is a cytoplasmic molecular co-chaperone and tumour suppressor that assists in protein stability and complex formation involving the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. Germline mutations in the AIP gene predispose to pituitary tumourigenesis with patients exhibiting an aggressive clinical phenotype. Full length AIP proteins harbouring N-domain mutations (R9Q, R16H, V49 M and K103R) were purified from E.coli utilizing a methodology that maintained structural integrity and monomeric stability. Mutations did not significantly affect the thermal stability of the protein and caused no overall disruptive effect in the protein structure. The mutations studied lowered the binding affinity of AIP towards two of its binding partners; heat shock protein 90β and phosphodiesterase 4A5 (PDE4A5). The inhibition of phosphodiesterase activity by AIP was also greatly reduced by all mutants. While previously published data has mainly concentrated on the tetratricopeptide repeats of the C-domain of AIP, we present clear evidence that AIP N-domain mutations play a significant role in two protein:protein interactions with partner proteins. The complex interactome of AIP suggests that any observable change in one or more of its binding partners cannot be disregarded as it may have repercussions on other biochemical pathways.

"Dictionary of immune responses" reveals the critical role of monocytes and the core target IRF7 in intervertebral disc degeneration

Background

Intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) is widely regarded as the primary contributor to low back pain(LBP). As an immune-privileged organ, upon the onset of IDD, various components of the nucleus pulposus (NP) are exposed to the host's immune system, accumulating cytokines. Cytokines facilitate intercellular communication within the immune system, induce immune cells polarisation, and exacerbate oxidative stress in IDD.

Methods

Machine learning was used to identify crucial immune cells. Subsequently, Immune Response Enrichment Analysis (IREA) was conducted on the key immune cells to determine their cytokine responses and polarisation states in IDD. "CellChat" package facilitated the analysis of cell-cell communication. Differential gene expression analysis, PPI network, GO and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis, GSVA, co-expressed gene analysis and key gene-related networks were also performed to explore hub genes and their associated functions. Lastly, the differential expression and functions of key genes were validated through in vitro and in vivo experiments.

Results

Through multiple machine learning methods, monocytes were identified as the crucial immune cells in IDD, exhibiting significant differentiation capacity. IREA revealed that monocytes in IDD polarize into an IFN-a1 and IFN-b enriched Mono-a state, potentially intensifying inflammation. Cell-cell communication analysis uncovered alteration in ANNEXIN pathway and a reduction in CXCL signaling between macrophages and monocytes, suggesting immune response dysregulation. Furthermore, ten algorithms identified three hub genes. Both experiments conducted in vitro and in vivo have conclusively shown that IRF7 serves as a crucial target for the treatment of IDD, and its knockdown alleviates IDD. Eight small-molecule drugs were predicted to have therapeutic potential for IDD.

Conclusion

These findings offer a multidimensional understanding of the pathogenesis of IDD, pinpointing monocytes and key genes as potential diagnostic and therapeutic targets. They provide novel insights into potential diagnostic and therapeutic targets for IDD.

Regulation of Type I Interferon and Autophagy in Immunity against Mycobacterium Tuberculosis: Role of CGAS and STING1

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb) is a significant intracellular pathogen responsible for numerous infectious disease-related deaths worldwide. It uses ESX-1 T7SS to damage phagosomes and to enter the cytosol of host cells after phagocytosis. During infection, M. tb and host mitochondria release dsDNA, which activates the CGAS-STING1 pathway. This pathway leads to the production of type I interferons and proinflammatory cytokines and activates autophagy, which targets and degrades bacteria within autophagosomes. However, the role of type I IFNs in immunity against M. tb is controversial. While previous research has suggested a protective role, recent findings from cgas-sting1 knockout mouse studies have contradicted this. Additionally, a study using knockout mice and non-human primate models uncovered a new mechanism by which neutrophils recruited to lung infections form neutrophil extracellular traps. Activating plasmacytoid dendritic cells causes them to produce type I IFNs, which interfere with the function of interstitial macrophages and increase the likelihood of tuberculosis. Notably, M. tb uses its virulence proteins to disrupt the CGAS-STING1 signaling pathway leading to enhanced pathogenesis. Investigating the CGAS-STING1 pathway can help develop new ways to fight tuberculosis.

Hydroquinone impairs trophoblast migration and invasion via AHR-twist-IFITM1 axis

INTRODUCTION

Embryo implantation is a tightly regulated process, critical for a successful pregnancy. After attachment of the blastocyst to the surface epithelium of the endometrium trophoblast migrate from the trophectoderm and invade into the stromal component of endometrium. Alterations on either process will lead to implantation failure or miscarriage. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene induce pregnancy complications, including preterm birth and miscarriages. The mechanism of this effect is unknown. The objective of this study was to elucidate the impact of benzene metabolite, Hydroquinone, on trophoblast function. We tested the hypothesis that Hydroquinone activates the Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) pathway modulating trophoblast migration and invasion.

METHODS

First-trimester trophoblast cells (Sw.71) were treated with hydroquinone (6 and 25 μM). Trophoblast migration and invasion was evaluated using a 3D invasion/migration model. Gene expression was quantified by q-PCR and Western blot analysis.

RESULTS

Hydroquinone impairs trophoblast migration and invasion. This loss is associated with the activation of the AhR pathway which reduced the expression of Twist1and IFITM1. IFITM1 overexpression can rescue impaired trophoblast migration.

DISCUSSION

Our study highlights that hydroquinone treatment induces the activation of the AhR pathway in trophoblast cells, which impairs trophoblast invasion and migration. We postulate that activation of the AhR pathway in trophoblast suppress Twist1 and a subsequent IFITM1. Thus, the AhR-Twist1-IFITM1 axis represent a critical pathway involved in the regulation of trophoblast migration and it is sensitive to benzene exposure. These findings provide crucial insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying pregnancy complications induced by air pollution.

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor-interacting protein in cancer and immunity: Beyond a chaperone protein for the dioxin receptor

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR)-interacting protein (AIP) is a ubiquitously expressed, immunophilin-like protein best known for its role as a co-chaperone in the AhR-AIP-Hsp90 cytoplasmic complex. In addition to regulating AhR and the xenobiotic response, AIP has been linked to various aspects of cancer and immunity that will be the focus of this review article. Loss-of-function AIP mutations are associated with pituitary adenomas, suggesting that AIP acts as a tumor suppressor in the pituitary gland. However, the tumor suppressor mechanisms of AIP remain unclear, and AIP can exert oncogenic functions in other tissues. While global deletion of AIP in mice yields embryonically lethal cardiac malformations, heterozygote, and tissue-specific conditional AIP knockout mice have revealed various physiological roles of AIP. Emerging studies have established the regulatory roles of AIP in both innate and adaptive immunity. AIP interacts with and inhibits the nuclear translocation of the transcription factor IRF7 to inhibit type I interferon production. AIP also interacts with the CARMA1-BCL10-MALT1 complex in T cells to enhance IKK/NF-κB signaling and T cell activation. Taken together, AIP has diverse functions that vary considerably depending on the client protein, the tissue, and the species.

Macrophage Activation Syndrome in Coinciding Pandemics of Obesity and COVID-19: Worse than Bad

Epigenetic changes have long-lasting impacts, which influence the epigenome and are maintained during cell division. Thus, human genome changes have required a very long timescale to become a major contributor to the current obesity pandemic. Whereas bidirectional effects of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and obesity pandemics have given the opportunity to explore, how the viral microribonucleic acids (miRNAs) use the human's transcriptional machinery that regulate gene expression at a posttranscriptional level. Obesity and its related comorbidity, type 2 diabetes (T2D), and new-onset diabetes due to severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) are additional risk factors, which increase the severity of COVID-19 and its related mortality. The higher mortality rate of these patients is dependent on severe cytokine storm, which is the sum of the additional cytokine production by concomitant comorbidities and own cytokine synthesis of COVID-19. Patients with obesity facilitate the SARS-CoV-2 entry to host cell via increasing the host's cell receptor expression and modifying the host cell proteases. After entering the host cells, the SARS-CoV-2 genome directly functions as a messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) and encodes a set of nonstructural proteins via processing by the own proteases, main protease (Mpro), and papain-like protease (PLpro) to initiate viral genome replication and transcription. Following viral invasion, SARS-CoV-2 infection reduces insulin secretion via either inducing β-cell apoptosis or reducing intensity of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors and leads to new-onset diabetes. Since both T2D and severity of COVID-19 are associated with the increased serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, high glucose levels in T2D aggravate SARS-CoV-2 infection. Elevated neopterin (NPT) value due to persistent interferon gamma (IFN-γ)-mediated monocyte-macrophage activation is an indicator of hyperactivated pro-inflammatory phenotype M1 macrophages. Thus, NPT could be a reliable biomarker for the simultaneously occurring COVID-19-, obesity- and T2D-induced cytokine storm. While host miRNAs attack viral RNAs, viral miRNAs target host transcripts. Eventually, the expression rate and type of miRNAs also are different in COVID-19 patients with different viral loads. It is concluded that specific miRNA signatures in macrophage activation phase may provide an opportunity to become aware of the severity of COVID-19 in patients with obesity and obesity-related T2D.

Phosphorylation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor interacting protein by TBK1 negatively regulates IRF7 and the type I interferon response

The innate antiviral response to RNA viruses is initiated by sensing of viral RNAs by RIG-I-like receptors and elicits type I interferon (IFN) production, which stimulates the expression of IFN-stimulated genes that orchestrate the antiviral response to prevent systemic infection. Negative regulation of type I IFN and its master regulator, transcription factor IRF7, is essential to maintain immune homeostasis. We previously demonstrated that AIP (aryl hydrocarbon receptor interacting protein) functions as a negative regulator of the innate antiviral immune response by binding to and sequestering IRF7 in the cytoplasm, thereby preventing IRF7 transcriptional activation and type I IFN production. However, it remains unknown how AIP inhibition of IRF7 is regulated. We show here that the kinase TBK1 phosphorylates AIP and Thr40 serves as the primary target for TBK1 phosphorylation. AIP Thr40 plays critical roles in regulating AIP stability and mediating its interaction with IRF7. The AIP phosphomimetic T40E exhibited increased proteasomal degradation and enhanced interaction with IRF7 compared with wildtype AIP. AIP T40E also blocked IRF7 nuclear translocation, which resulted in reduced type I IFN production and increased viral replication. In sharp contrast, AIP phosphonull mutant T40A had impaired IRF7 binding, and stable expression of AIP T40A in AIP-deficient mouse embryonic fibroblasts elicited a heightened type I IFN response and diminished RNA virus replication. Taken together, these results demonstrate that TBK1-mediated phosphorylation of AIP at Thr40 functions as a molecular switch that enables AIP to interact with and inhibit IRF7, thus preventing overactivation of type I IFN genes by IRF7.

The crucial regulatory role of type I interferon in inflammatory diseases

Type I interferon (IFN-I) plays crucial roles in the regulation of inflammation and it is associated with various inflammatory diseases including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and periodontitis, impacting people's health and quality of life. It is well-established that IFN-Is affect immune responses and inflammatory factors by regulating some signaling. However, currently, there is no comprehensive overview of the crucial regulatory role of IFN-I in distinctive pathways as well as associated inflammatory diseases. This review aims to provide a narrative of the involvement of IFN-I in different signaling pathways, mainly mediating the related key factors with specific targets in the pathways and signaling cascades to influence the progression of inflammatory diseases. As such, we suggested that IFN-Is induce inflammatory regulation through the stimulation of certain factors in signaling pathways, which displays possible efficient treatment methods and provides a reference for the precise control of inflammatory diseases.

MSU crystal deposition contributes to inflammation and immune responses in gout remission

As a prominent feature of gout, monosodium urate (MSU) crystal deposition induces gout flares, but its impact on immune inflammation in gout remission remains unclear. Using single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), we characterize the transcription profiling of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) among intercritical remission gout, advanced remission gout, and normal controls. We find systemic inflammation in gout remission with MSU crystal deposition at the intercritical and advanced stages, evidenced by activated inflammatory pathways, strengthened inflammatory cell-cell interactions, and elevated arachidonic acid metabolic activity. We also find increased HLA-DQA1high classic monocytes and PTGS2high monocytes in advanced gout and overactivated CD8+ T cell subtypes in intercritical and advanced gout. Additionally, the osteoclast differentiation pathway is significantly enriched in monocytes, T cells, and B cells from advanced gout. Overall, we demonstrate systemic inflammation and distinctive immune responses in gout remission with MSU crystal deposition, allowing further exploration of the underlying mechanism and clinical significance in conversion from intercritical to advanced stage.

Dectin-1 signaling coordinates innate and adaptive immunity for potent host defense against viral infection

Background

Most commercial foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) vaccines have various disadvantages, such as low antibody titers, short-lived effects, compromised host defense, and questionable safety.

Objectives

To address these shortcomings, we present a novel FMD vaccine containing Dectin-1 agonist, β-D-glucan, as an immunomodulatory adjuvant. The proposed vaccine was developed to effectively coordinate innate and adaptive immunity for potent host defense against viral infection.

Methods

We demonstrated β-D-glucan mediated innate and adaptive immune responses in mice and pigs in vitro and in vivo. The expressions of pattern recognition receptors, cytokines, transcription factors, and co-stimulatory molecules were promoted via FMD vaccine containing β-D-glucan.

Results

β-D-glucan elicited a robust cellular immune response and early, mid-, and long-term immunity. Moreover, it exhibited potent host defense by modulating host's innate and adaptive immunity.

Conclusion

Our study provides a promising approach to overcoming the limitations of conventional FMD vaccines. Based on the proposed vaccine's safety and efficacy, it represents a breakthrough among next-generation FMD vaccines.

Transcriptomic signatures reveal a shift towards an anti-inflammatory gene expression profile but also the induction of type I and type II interferon signaling networks through aryl hydrocarbon receptor activation in murine macrophages

Introduction

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that regulates a broad range of target genes involved in the xenobiotic response, cell cycle control and circadian rhythm. AhR is constitutively expressed in macrophages (Mϕ), acting as key regulator of cytokine production. While proinflammatory cytokines, i.e., IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12, are suppressed through AhR activation, anti-inflammatory IL-10 is induced. However, the underlying mechanisms of those effects and the importance of the specific ligand structure are not yet completely understood.

Methods

Therefore, we have compared the global gene expression pattern in activated murine bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) subsequently to exposure with either benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) or indole-3-carbinol (I3C), representing high-affinity vs. low-affinity AhR ligands, respectively, by means of mRNA sequencing. AhR dependency of observed effects was proved using BMMs from AhR-knockout (Ahr^-/-) mice.

Results and discussion

In total, more than 1,000 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) could be mapped, covering a plethora of AhR-modulated effects on basal cellular processes, i.e., transcription and translation, but also immune functions, i.e., antigen presentation, cytokine production, and phagocytosis. Among DEGs were genes that are already known to be regulated by AhR, i.e., Irf1, Ido2, and Cd84. However, we identified DEGs not yet described to be AhR-regulated in Mϕ so far, i.e., Slpi, Il12rb1, and Il21r. All six genes likely contribute to shifting the Mϕ phenotype from proinflammatory to anti-inflammatory. The majority of DEGs induced through BaP were not affected through I3C exposure, probably due to higher AhR affinity of BaP in comparison to I3C. Mapping of known aryl hydrocarbon response element (AHRE) sequence motifs in identified DEGs revealed more than 200 genes not possessing any AHRE, and therefore being not eligible for canonical regulation. Bioinformatic approaches modeled a central role of type I and type II interferons in the regulation of those genes. Additionally, RT-qPCR and ELISA confirmed a AhR-dependent expressional induction and AhR-dependent secretion of IFN-γ in response to BaP exposure, suggesting an auto- or paracrine activation pathway of Mϕ.

Innate antiviral immunity: how prior exposures can guide future responses

Innate immunity is an intrinsic baseline defense in cells, with its earliest origins in bacteria, and with key roles in defense against pathogens and in the activation of B and T cell responses. In mammals, the efficacy of innate immunity in initiating the cascades that lead to pathogen control results from the interplay of transcriptomic, epigenomic, and proteomic responses regulating immune activation and long-lived pathogen-specific memory responses. Recent studies suggest that intrinsic innate immunity is modulated by individual exposure histories - prior infections, vaccinations, and metabolites of microbial origin - and this promotes, or impairs, the development of efficacious innate immune responses. Understanding how environmental factors regulate innate immunity and boost protection from infection or response to vaccination could be a valuable tool for pandemic preparedness.

The microenvironment of pituitary adenomas: biological, clinical and therapeutical implications

The microenvironment of pituitary adenomas (PAs) includes a range of non-tumoral cells, such as immune and stromal cells, as well as cell signaling molecules such as cytokines, chemokines and growth factors, which surround pituitary tumor cells and may modulate tumor initiation, progression, invasion, angiogenesis and other tumorigenic processes. The microenvironment of PAs has been actively investigated over the last years, with several immune and stromal cell populations, as well as different cytokines, chemokines and growth factors being recently characterized in PAs. Moreover, key microenvironment-related genes as well as immune-related molecules and pathways have been investigated, with immune check point regulators emerging as promising targets for immunotherapy. Understanding the microenvironment of PAs will contribute to a deeper knowledge of the complex biology of PAs, as well as will provide developments in terms of diagnosis, clinical management and ultimately treatment of patients with aggressive and/or refractory PAs.

Retrogene Duplication and Expression Patterns Shaped by the Evolution of Sex Chromosomes in Malaria Mosquitoes

Genes that originate during evolution are an important source of novel biological functions. Retrogenes are functional copies of genes produced by retroduplication and as such are located in different genomic positions. To investigate retroposition patterns and retrogene expression, we computationally identified interchromosomal retroduplication events in nine portions of the phylogenetic history of malaria mosquitoes, making use of species that do or do not have classical sex chromosomes to test the roles of sex-linkage. We found 40 interchromosomal events and a significant excess of retroduplications from the X chromosome to autosomes among a set of young retrogenes. These young retroposition events occurred within the last 100 million years in lineages where all species possessed differentiated sex chromosomes. An analysis of available microarray and RNA-seq expression data for Anopheles gambiae showed that many of the young retrogenes evolved male-biased expression in the reproductive organs. Young autosomal retrogenes with increased meiotic or postmeiotic expression in the testes tend to be male biased. In contrast, older retrogenes, i.e., in lineages with undifferentiated sex chromosomes, do not show this particular chromosomal bias and are enriched for female-biased expression in reproductive organs. Our reverse-transcription PCR data indicates that most of the youngest retrogenes, which originated within the last 47.6 million years in the subgenus Cellia, evolved non-uniform expression patterns across body parts in the males and females of An. coluzzii. Finally, gene annotation revealed that mitochondrial function is a prominent feature of the young autosomal retrogenes. We conclude that mRNA-mediated gene duplication has produced a set of genes that contribute to mosquito reproductive functions and that different biases are revealed after the sex chromosomes evolve. Overall, these results suggest potential roles for the evolution of meiotic sex chromosome inactivation in males and of sexually antagonistic conflict related to mitochondrial energy function as the main selective pressures for X-to-autosome gene reduplication and testis-biased expression in these mosquito lineages.

Viral and cellular oncogenes promote immune evasion

Thirteen percent of cancers worldwide are associated with viral infections. While many human oncogenic viruses are widely endemic, very few infected individuals develop cancer. This raises the question why oncogenic viruses encode viral oncogenes if they can replicate and spread between human hosts without causing cancer. Interestingly, viral infection triggers innate immune signaling pathways that in turn activate tumor suppressors such as p53, suggesting that tumor suppressors may have evolved not primarily to prevent cancer, but to thwart viral infection. Here, we summarize and compare several major immune evasion strategies used by viral and non-viral cancers, with a focus on oncogenes that play dual roles in promoting tumorigenicity and immune evasion. By highlighting important and illustrative examples of how oncogenic viruses evade the immune system, we aim to shed light on how non-viral cancers avoid immune detection. Further study and understanding of how viral and non-viral oncogenes impact immune function could lead to improved strategies to combine molecular therapies targeting oncoproteins in combination with immunomodulators.

Molecular Pathogenesis and Immune Evasion of Vesicular Stomatitis New Jersey Virus Inferred from Genes Expression Changes in Infected Porcine Macrophages

The molecular mechanisms associated with the pathogenesis of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) in livestock remain poorly understood. Several studies have highlighted the relevant role of macrophages in controlling the systemic dissemination of VSV during infection in different animal models, including mice, cattle, and pigs. To gain more insight into the molecular mechanisms used by VSV to impair the immune response in macrophages, we used microarrays to determine the transcriptomic changes produced by VSV infection in primary cultures of porcine macrophages. The results indicated that VSV infection induced the massive expression of multiple anorexic, pyrogenic, proinflammatory, and immunosuppressive genes. Overall, the interferon (IFN) response appeared to be suppressed, leading to the absence of stimulation of interferon-stimulated genes (ISG). Interestingly, VSV infection promoted the expression of several genes known to downregulate the expression of IFNβ. This represents an alternate mechanism for VSV control of the IFN response, beyond the recognized mechanisms mediated by the matrix protein. Although there was no significant differential gene expression in macrophages infected with a highly virulent epidemic strain compared to a less virulent endemic strain, the endemic strain consistently induced higher expression of all upregulated cytokines and chemokines. Collectively, this study provides novel insights into VSV molecular pathogenesis and immune evasion that warrant further investigation.

Role of toll-like receptor 7/8 pathways in regulation of interferon response and inflammatory mediators during SARS-CoV2 infection and potential therapeutic options

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2) is the causative agent of Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Lower production of type I and III interferons and higher levels of inflammatory mediators upon SARS-CoV2 infection contribute to COVID-19 pathogenesis. Optimal interferon production and controlled inflammation are essential to limit COVID-19 pathogenesis. However, the aggravated inflammatory response observed in COVID-19 patients causes severe damage to the host and frequently advances to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Toll-like receptor 7 and 8 (TLR7/8) signaling pathways play a central role in regulating induction of interferons (IFNs) and inflammatory mediators in dendritic cells. Controlled inflammation is possible through regulation of TLR mediated response without influencing interferon production to reduce COVID-19 pathogenesis. This review focuses on inflammatory mediators that contribute to pathogenic effects and the role of TLR pathways in the induction of interferon and inflammatory mediators and their contribution to COVID-19 pathogenesis. We conclude that potential TLR7/8 agonists inducing antiviral interferon response and controlling inflammation are important therapeutic options to effectively eliminate SARS-CoV2 induced pathogenesis. Ongoing and future studies may provide additional evidence on their safety and efficacy to treat COVID-19 pathogenesis.

Hydrothermotherapy in prevention and treatment of mild to moderate cases of COVID-19

COVID-19 is a new contagious disease caused by a new coronavirus known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). COVID-19 is a disease that has reached every continent in the world; it has overloaded the medical system worldwide and it has been declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization. Currently there is no definite treatment for COVID-19. We realize that host immunity is a critical factor in the outcome of coronavirus 2 infection. Here, however, we review the pathophysiology of the disease with a focus on searching for what we can do to combat this new disease. From this, we find that coronavirus is sensitive to heat. We have thus focused on this area of vulnerability of the virus. The emphasis of this hypothesis is on the action of body heat-internal (fever) and external (heat treatment)-in activating the immune system and its antiviral activities, and specifically related to the coronavirus. We hypothesize from this review that heat treatments has the potential to prevent COVID-19 and to decrease the severity of mild and moderate cases of Coronavirus. We propose heat treatments for this uncontrolled worldwide coronavirus pandemic while studies are being done to test the effectiveness of heat treatments in the prevention and treatment of COVID-19.

The effect of environmental pollution on immune evasion checkpoints of SARS-CoV-2

Many diverse strategies allow and facilitate severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) to evade antiviral innate immune mechanisms. Although the type I interferon (IFN) system has a critical role in restricting the dissemination of viral infection, suppression of IFN receptor signals by SARS-CoV-2 constitutes a checkpoint that plays an important role in the immune escape of the virus. Environmental pollution not only facilitates SARS-CoV-2 infection but also increases infection-associated fatality risk, which arises due to Systemic Aryl hydrocarbon Receptor (AhR) Activation Syndrome. The intracellular accumulation of endogenous kynurenic acid due to overexpression of the indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) by AhR activation induces AhR-interleukin-6 (IL-6)-signal transducers and activators of the transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling pathway. The AhR-IDO1-Kynurenine pathway is an important checkpoint, which leads to fatal consequences in SARS-CoV-2 infection and immune evasion in the context of Treg/Th17 imbalance and cytokine storm.

Intra-tumoral heterogeneity and immune responses predicts prognosis of gastric cancer

Chemotherapy resistance eventually develops in patients with gastric cancer (GC). Intra-tumoral heterogeneity (ITH) refers to the intercellular genetic variations and phenotypic diversity that affect responses to drug therapy. We measured ITH using mutant-allele tumor heterogeneity (MATH) derived from whole-exome sequencing data of patients with GC in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. The study included 385 patients from the TCGA database with available data regarding gastrectomy, survival, and whole-exome sequencing. Further analysis was performed in 171 GC patients with available data regarding adjuvant chemotherapy. Multiple factor analysis showed that MATH was an independent predictor of OS (hazard ratio [HR], 1.432; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.073-1.913; P = 0.015) in patients with GC. Moreover, MATH was also an independent predictor of OS among the 171 GC patients who received adjuvant chemotherapy (HR, 2.016; 95% CI, 1.236-3.289; P = 0.005). Pathway enrichment and immune cell analyses revealed significantly higher infiltration by 20 types of immune cells in the low/intermediate group, compared to the group with high MATH scores. In conclusion, low/intermediate MATH scores predicted longer OS, when compared to those with high MATH scores. The immune response was obviously upregulated in patients with GC and low/intermediate MATH scores.

Interferon Regulatory Factors IRF1 and IRF7 Directly Regulate Gene Expression in Bats in Response to Viral Infection

Bat cells and tissue have elevated basal expression levels of antiviral genes commonly associated with interferon alpha (IFNα) signaling. Here, we show Interferon Regulatory Factor 1 (IRF1), 3, and 7 levels are elevated in most bat tissues and that, basally, IRFs contribute to the expression of type I IFN ligands and high expression of interferon regulated genes (IRGs). CRISPR knockout (KO) of IRF 1/3/7 in cells reveals distinct subsets of genes affected by each IRF in an IFN-ligand signaling-dependent and largely independent manner. As the master regulators of innate immunity, the IRFs control the kinetics and maintenance of the IRG response and play essential roles in response to influenza A virus (IAV), herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1), Melaka virus/Pteropine orthoreovirus 3 Melaka (PRV3M), and Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV) infection. With its differential expression in bats compared to that in humans, this highlights a critical role for basal IRF expression in viral responses and potentially immune cell development in bats with relevance for IRF function in human biology.

AHR is a Zika virus host factor and a candidate target for antiviral therapy

Zika virus (ZIKV) is a flavivirus linked to multiple birth defects including microcephaly, known as congenital ZIKV syndrome. The identification of host factors involved in ZIKV replication may guide efficacious therapeutic interventions. In genome-wide transcriptional studies, we found that ZIKV infection triggers aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) activation. Specifically, ZIKV infection induces kynurenine (Kyn) production, which activates AHR, limiting the production of type I interferons (IFN-I) involved in antiviral immunity. Moreover, ZIKV-triggered AHR activation suppresses intrinsic immunity driven by the promyelocytic leukemia (PML) protein, which limits ZIKV replication. AHR inhibition suppressed the replication of multiple ZIKV strains in vitro and also suppressed replication of the related flavivirus dengue. Finally, AHR inhibition with a nanoparticle-delivered AHR antagonist or an inhibitor developed for human use limited ZIKV replication and ameliorated newborn microcephaly in a murine model. In summary, we identified AHR as a host factor for ZIKV replication and PML protein as a driver of anti-ZIKV intrinsic immunity.

Usp18 Expression in CD169+ Macrophages is Important for Strong Immune Response after Vaccination with VSV-EBOV

Ebola virus epidemics can be effectively limited by the VSV-EBOV vaccine (Ervebo) due to its rapid protection abilities; however, side effects prevent the broad use of VSV-EBOV as vaccine. Mechanisms explaining the efficient immune activation after single injection with the VSV-EBOV vaccine remain mainly unknown. Here, using the clinically available VSV-EBOV vaccine (Ervebo), we show that the cell-intrinsic expression of the interferon-inhibitor Usp18 in CD169⁺ macrophages is one important factor modulating the anti-Ebola virus immune response. The absence of Usp18 in CD169⁺ macrophages led to the reduced local replication of VSV-EBOV followed by a diminished innate as well as adaptive immune response. In line, CD169-Cre^+/ki x Usp18^fl/fl mice showed reduced innate and adaptive immune responses against the VSV wildtype strain and died quickly after infection, suggesting that a lack of Usp18 makes mice more susceptible to the side effects of the VSV vector. In conclusion, our study shows that Usp18 expression in CD169⁺ macrophages is one important surrogate marker for effective vaccination against VSV-EBOV, and probably other VSV-based vaccines also.

Multi-chaperone function modulation and association with cytoskeletal proteins are key features of the function of AIP in the pituitary gland

Despite the well-recognized role of loss-of-function mutations of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor interacting protein gene (AIP) predisposing to pituitary adenomas, the pituitary-specific function of this tumor suppressor remains an enigma. To determine the repertoire of interacting partners for the AIP protein in somatotroph cells, wild-type and variant AIP proteins were used for pull-down/quantitative mass spectrometry experiments against lysates of rat somatotropinoma-derived cells; relevant findings were validated by co-immunoprecipitation and co-localization. Global gene expression was studied in AIP mutation positive and negative pituitary adenomas via RNA microarrays. Direct interaction with AIP was confirmed for three known and six novel partner proteins. Novel interactions with HSPA5 and HSPA9, together with known interactions with HSP90AA1, HSP90AB1 and HSPA8, indicate that the function/stability of multiple chaperone client proteins could be perturbed by a deficient AIP co-chaperone function. Interactions with TUBB, TUBB2A, NME1 and SOD1 were also identified. The AIP variants p.R304* and p.R304Q showed impaired interactions with HSPA8, HSP90AB1, NME1 and SOD1; p.R304* also displayed reduced binding to TUBB and TUBB2A, and AIP-mutated tumors showed reduced TUBB2A expression. Our findings suggest that cytoskeletal organization, cell motility/adhesion, as well as oxidative stress responses, are functions that are likely to be involved in the tumor suppressor activity of AIP.

Cellular FLIP long isoform (cFLIPL)-IKKα interactions inhibit IRF7 activation, representing a new cellular strategy to inhibit IFNα expression

Interferon α (IFNα) is important for antiviral and anticancer defenses. However, overproduction is associated with autoimmune disorders. Thus, the cell must precisely up- and down-regulate IFNα to achieve immune system homeostasis. The cellular FLICE-like inhibitory protein (cFLIP) is reported to inhibit IFNα production. However, the mechanism for this antagonism remained unknown. The goal here was to identify this mechanism. Here we examined the signal transduction events that occur during TLR9-induced IRF7 activation. The cFLIP long isoform (cFLIPL) inhibited the expression of IRF7-controlled natural or synthetic genes in several cell lines, including those with abundant IRF7 protein levels (e.g. dendritic cells). cFLIPL inhibited IRF7 phosphorylation; however, cFLIPL-IRF7 interactions were not detectable, implying that cFLIPL acted upstream of IRF7 dimerization. Interestingly, cFLIPL co-immunoprecipitated with IKKα, and these interactions correlated with a loss of IKKα-IRF7 interactions. Thus, cFLIP appears to bind to IKKα to prevent IKKα from phosphorylating and activating IRF7. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of a cellular protein that uses this approach to inhibit IRF7 activation. Perhaps this cFLIP property could be engineered to minimize the deleterious effects of IFNα expression that occur during certain autoimmune disorders.

Environmental exposures are hidden modifiers of anti-viral immunity

Significant advances have been made recent years elucidating antiviral immune mechanisms that protect the host from viral infection. Similarly, our understanding of how viruses bind, enter, and replicate within host cells has continued to grow. Yet, viruses continue to take a toll on human health. The influence of chemicals in the environment is among key factors that influence outcomes of viral infection. There is a growing appreciation of the effects that exogenous environmental chemical exposures have on the immune system and antiviral immunity. Epidemiological studies have linked a variety of chemical exposures to poorer health, increased incidence of infection, and worsened vaccine responses. However, the mechanisms that govern these associations are not well understood, limiting our ability to predict or mitigate the effects of environmental exposures on public health. This brief review focuses on recent advances in the field, highlighting novel in vitro and in vivo findings informed by past foundational studies. Furthermore, current information suggests avenues of investigation that have yet to be explored, but which will significantly impact on our understanding about how environmental exposures impact viral defenses, vaccine efficacy, and the spread of contemporary and emerging viral pathogens.

cFLIPL Interrupts IRF3-CBP-DNA Interactions To Inhibit IRF3-Driven Transcription

Type I IFN induction is critical for antiviral and anticancer defenses. Proper downregulation of type I IFN is equally important to avoid deleterious imbalances in the immune response. The cellular FLIP long isoform protein (cFLIPL) controls type I IFN production, but opposing publications show it as either an inhibitor or inducer of type I IFN synthesis. Regardless, the mechanistic basis for cFLIPL regulation is unknown. Because cFLIPL is important in immune cell development and proliferation, and is a target for cancer therapies, it is important to identify how cFLIPL regulates type I IFN production. Data in this study show that cFLIPL inhibits IFN regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), a transcription factor central for IFN-β and IFN-stimulated gene expression. This inhibition occurs during virus infection, cellular exposure to polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid, or TBK1 overexpression. This inhibition is independent of capase-8 activity. cFLIPL binds to IRF3 and disrupts IRF3 interaction with its IFN-β promoter and its coactivator protein (CREB-binding protein). Mutational analyses reveal that cFLIPL nuclear localization is necessary and sufficient for inhibitory function. This suggests that nuclear cFLIPL prevents IRF3 enhanceosome formation. Unlike other cellular IRF3 inhibitors, cFLIPL did not degrade or dephosphorylate IRF3. Thus, cFLIPL represents a different cellular strategy to inhibit type I IFN production. This new cFLIPL function must be considered to accurately understand how cFLIPL affects immune system development and regulation.

Hemagglutinin of Influenza A Virus Antagonizes Type I Interferon (IFN) Responses by Inducing Degradation of Type I IFN Receptor 1

Influenza A virus (IAV) employs diverse strategies to circumvent type I interferon (IFN) responses, particularly by inhibiting the synthesis of type I IFNs. However, it is poorly understood if and how IAV regulates the type I IFN receptor (IFNAR)-mediated signaling mode. In this study, we demonstrate that IAV induces the degradation of IFNAR subunit 1 (IFNAR1) to attenuate the type I IFN-induced antiviral signaling pathway. Following infection, the level of IFNAR1 protein, but not mRNA, decreased. Indeed, IFNAR1 was phosphorylated and ubiquitinated by IAV infection, which resulted in IFNAR1 elimination. The transiently overexpressed IFNAR1 displayed antiviral activity by inhibiting virus replication. Importantly, the hemagglutinin (HA) protein of IAV was proved to trigger the ubiquitination of IFNAR1, diminishing the levels of IFNAR1. Further, influenza A viral HA1 subunit, but not HA2 subunit, downregulated IFNAR1. However, viral HA-mediated degradation of IFNAR1 was not caused by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response. IAV HA robustly reduced cellular sensitivity to type I IFNs, suppressing the activation of STAT1/STAT2 and induction of IFN-stimulated antiviral proteins. Taken together, our findings suggest that IAV HA causes IFNAR1 degradation, which in turn helps the virus escape the powerful innate immune system. Thus, the research elucidated an influenza viral mechanism for eluding the IFNAR signaling pathway, which could provide new insights into the interplay between influenza virus and host innate immunity.

IMPORTANCE

Influenza A virus (IAV) infection causes significant morbidity and mortality worldwide and remains a major health concern. When triggered by influenza viral infection, host cells produce type I interferon (IFN) to block viral replication. Although IAV was shown to have diverse strategies to evade this powerful, IFN-mediated antiviral response, it is not well-defined if IAV manipulates the IFN receptor-mediated signaling pathway. Here, we uncovered that influenza viral hemagglutinin (HA) protein causes the degradation of type I IFN receptor subunit 1 (IFNAR1). HA promoted phosphorylation and polyubiquitination of IFNAR1, which facilitated the degradation of this receptor. The HA-mediated elimination of IFNAR1 notably decreased the cells' sensitivities to type I IFNs, as demonstrated by the diminished expression of IFN-induced antiviral genes. This discovery could help us understand how IAV regulates the host innate immune response to create an environment optimized for viral survival in host cells.