Nuclear Receptor Nr4a2 Promotes Alternative Polarization of Macrophages and Confers Protection in Sepsis

A Graphene Composite Film Based Wearable Far-Infrared Therapy Apparatus (GRAFT) for Effective Prevention of Postoperative Peritoneal Adhesion

Postoperative peritoneal adhesion (PPA) is the most frequent complication after abdominal surgery. Current anti-adhesion strategies largely rely on the use of physical separating barriers creating an interface blocking peritoneal adhesion, which cannot reduce inflammation and suffers from limited anti-adhesion efficacy with unwanted side effects. Here, by exploiting the alternative activated macrophages to alleviate inflammation in adhesion development, a flexible graphene-composite-film (F-GCF) generating far-infrared (FIR) irradiation that effectively modulates the macrophage phenotype toward the anti-inflammatory M2 type, resulting in reduced PPA formation, is designed. The anti-adhesion effect of the FIR generated by F-GCF is determined in the rat abdominal wall abrasion-cecum defect models, which exhibit reduced incidence and area of PPA by 67.0% and 92.1% after FIR treatment without skin damage, significantly superior to the clinically used chitosan hydrogel. Notably, within peritoneal macrophages, FIR reduces inflammation reaction and promotes tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) level via the polarization of peritoneal macrophages through upregulating Nr4a2 expression. To facilitate clinical use, a wirelessly controlled, wearable, F-GCF-based FIR therapy apparatus (GRAFT) is further developed and its remarkable anti-adhesion ability in the porcine PPA model is revealed. Collectively, the physical, biochemical, and in vivo preclinical data provide compelling evidence demonstrating the clinical-translational value of FIR in PPA prevention.

Inflammatory, metabolic, and sex-dependent gene-regulatory dynamics of microglia and macrophages in neonatal hippocampus after hypoxia-ischemia

Neonatal hypoxia-ischemia (HI) is a major cause of perinatal death and long-term disabilities worldwide. Post-ischemic neuroinflammation plays a pivotal role in HI pathophysiology. In the present study, we investigated the temporal dynamics of microglia (CX3CR1GFP/+) and infiltrating macrophages (CCR2RFP/+) in the hippocampi of mice subjected to HI at postnatal day 9. Using inflammatory pathway and transcription factor (TF) analyses, we identified a distinct post-ischemic response in CCR2RFP/+ cells characterized by differential gene expression in sensome, homeostatic, matrisome, lipid metabolic, and inflammatory molecular signatures. Three days after injury, transcriptomic signatures of CX3CR1GFP/+ and CCR2RFP/+ cells isolated from hippocampi showed a partial convergence. Interestingly, microglia-specific genes in CX3CR1GFP/+ cells showed a sexual dimorphism, where expression returned to control levels in males but not in females during the experimental time frame. These results highlight the importance of further investigations on metabolic rewiring to pave the way for future interventions in asphyxiated neonates.

A role of NR4A2 in Graves' disease: regulation of Th17/Treg

PURPOSE

This study aimed to explore the molecular pathogenesis of Graves' disease (GD).

METHODS

The gene expression profile in CD4+ T cells from GD patients and healthy controls were analyzed through mRNA-sequencing. The expression of NR4A2 was determined by quantitative real-time PCR and western blot. The levels of Th17 and Treg were determined by flow cytometry. ELISA was employed to detect the levels of IL-10, IL-17A, IL-17F and IL-22.

RESULTS

In the CD4+ T cells from GD patients, there were 128 up-regulated and 510 down-regulated genes. Subsequently, we focused on the role of nuclear receptor 4 group A member 2 (NR4A2) in GD. NR4A2 was lowly expressed in the CD4+ T cells from GD patients. Its expression was negatively correlated with free triiodothyronine and tetraiodothyronine, but positively correlated with thyroid stimulating hormone. NR4A2 knockdown decreased the percentage of Treg cells, with a decreased IL-10 level. While its over-expression augmented the Treg differentiation, with an elevated IL-10 level. In addition, knockdown or over-expression of NR4A2 showed no significant influence on Th17 differentiation.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that the low level of NR4A2 in GD patients may suppress Treg differentiation, but have no influence on Th17 differentiation, leading to the imbalance of Th17/Treg and contributing to the development of GD. Revealing the role of NR4A2 in GD provides a novel insight for the treatment of GD.

Expression profiling of cerebrospinal fluid identifies dysregulated antiviral mechanisms in multiple sclerosis

Despite the overwhelming evidence that multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disease, relatively little is known about the precise nature of the immune dysregulation underlying the development of the disease. Reasoning that the CSF from patients might be enriched for cells relevant in pathogenesis, we have completed a high-resolution single-cell analysis of 96 732 CSF cells collected from 33 patients with multiple sclerosis (n = 48 675) and 48 patients with other neurological diseases (n = 48 057). Completing comprehensive cell type annotation, we identified a rare population of CD8+ T cells, characterized by the upregulation of inhibitory receptors, increased in patients with multiple sclerosis. Applying a Multi-Omics Factor Analysis to these single-cell data further revealed that activity in pathways responsible for controlling inflammatory and type 1 interferon responses are altered in multiple sclerosis in both T cells and myeloid cells. We also undertook a systematic search for expression quantitative trait loci in the CSF cells. Of particular interest were two expression quantitative trait loci in CD8+ T cells that were fine mapped to multiple sclerosis susceptibility variants in the viral control genes ZC3HAV1 (rs10271373) and IFITM2 (rs1059091). Further analysis suggests that these associations likely reflect genetic effects on RNA splicing and cell-type specific gene expression respectively. Collectively, our study suggests that alterations in viral control mechanisms might be important in the development of multiple sclerosis.

Angiotensin II type 1 receptor-associated protein in immune cells: a possible key factor in the pathogenesis of visceral obesity

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Dysregulation of angiotensin II type 1 receptor-associated protein (ATRAP) expression in cardiovascular, kidney, and adipose tissues is involved in the pathology of hypertension, cardiac hypertrophy, atherosclerosis, kidney injury, and metabolic disorders. Furthermore, ATRAP is highly expressed in bone marrow-derived immune cells; however, the functional role of immune cell ATRAP in obesity-related pathology remains unclear. Thus, we sought to identify the pathophysiological significance of immune cell ATRAP in the development of visceral obesity and obesity-related metabolic disorders using a mouse model of diet-induced obesity.

METHODS

Initially, we examined the effect of high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity on the expression of immune cell ATRAP in wild-type mice. Subsequently, we conducted bone marrow transplantation to generate two types of chimeric mice: bone marrow wild-type chimeric (BM-WT) and bone marrow ATRAP knockout chimeric (BM-KO) mice. These chimeric mice were provided an HFD to induce visceral obesity, and then the effects of immune cell ATRAP deficiency on physiological parameters and adipose tissue in the chimeric mice were investigated.

RESULTS

In wild-type mice, body weight increase by HFD was associated with increased expression of immune cell ATRAP. In the bone marrow transplantation experiments, BM-KO mice exhibited amelioration of HFD-induced weight gain and visceral fat expansion with small adipocytes compared BM-WT mice. In addition, BM-KO mice on the HFD showed significant improvements in white adipose tissue metabolism, inflammation, glucose tolerance, and insulin resistance, compared with BM-WT mice on the HFD. Detailed analysis of white adipose tissue revealed significant suppression of HFD-induced activation of transforming growth factor-beta signaling, a key contributor to visceral obesity, via amelioration of CD206+ macrophage accumulation in the adipose tissue of BM-KO mice. This finding suggests a relevant mechanism for the anti-obesity phenotype in BM-KO mice on the HFD. Finally, transcriptome analysis of monocytes indicated the possibility of genetic changes, such as the enhancement of interferon-γ response at the monocyte level, affecting macrophage differentiation in BM-KO mice.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, our results indicate that ATRAP in bone marrow-derived immune cells plays a role in the pathogenesis of visceral obesity. The regulation of ATRAP expression in immune cells may be a key factor against visceral adipose obesity with metabolic disorders.

Downregulation of microRNA-145a-5p promotes steatosis-to-NASH progression through upregulation of Nr4a2

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The molecular mechanisms underlying the progression of simple steatosis to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) remain incompletely understood, though the potential role of epigenetic regulation by microRNA (miRNAs) is an area of increasing interest. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the role of miRNAs during steatosis-to-NASH progression, as well as underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

miR-145a-5p was identified as an important checkpoint in steatosis-to-NASH progression. In vivo loss-of-function and gain-of-function studies were performed to explore the role of miR-145a-5p and Nr4a2 in NASH progression. RNA-sequencing and bioinformatic analysis were used to investigate the targets of miR-145a-5p.

RESULTS

Suppression of miR-145a-5p in the liver aggravated lipid accumulation and activated hepatic inflammation, liver injury and fibrosis in steatotic mice, whereas its restoration markedly attenuated diet-induced NASH pathogenesis. Mechanistically, miR-145a-5p was able to downregulate the nuclear receptor Nr4a2 and thus inhibit the expression of NASH-associated genes. Similarly, Nr4a2 overexpression promoted steatosis-to-NASH progression while liver-specific Nr4a2 knockout mice were protected from diet-induced NASH. This role of the miR-145a-5p/Nr4a2 regulatory axis was also confirmed in primary human hepatocytes. Furthermore, the expression of miR-145a-5p was reduced and the expression of Nr4a2 was increased in the livers of patients with NASH, while their expression levels significantly negatively and positively correlated with features of liver pathology, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings highlight the role of the miR-145a-5p/Nr4a2 regulatory axis in steatosis-to-NASH progression, suggesting that either supplementation of miR-145a-5p or pharmacological inhibition of Nr4a2 in hepatocytes may provide a promising therapeutic approach for the treatment of NASH.

IMPACT AND IMPLICATIONS

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a dynamic spectrum of chronic liver diseases ranging from simple steatosis to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). Unfortunately, there are currently no approved drugs for NASH. Our current study identified miR-145a-5p as a novel regulator that inhibits steatosis-to-NASH progression. We found that miR-145a-5p was able to downregulate the nuclear receptor Nr4a2 to suppress the expression of NASH-associated genes. The differential expression of miR-145a-5p and Nr4a2 was further confirmed in patients with NASH, raising the possibility that supplementation of miR-145a-5p or suppression of Nr4a2 in hepatocytes might provide novel strategies for treating NASH.

Whole Transcriptome Analysis of Substantia Nigra in Mice with MPTP-Induced Parkinsonism Bearing Defective Glucocerebrosidase Activity

Mutations in the GBA1 gene represent the major genetic risk factor for Parkinson's disease (PD). The lysosomal enzyme beta-glucocerebrosidase (GCase) encoded by the GBA1 gene participates in both the endolysosomal pathway and the immune response. Disruption of these mechanisms is involved in PD pathogenesis. However, molecular mechanisms of PD associated with GBA1 mutations (GBA-PD) are unknown today in particular due to the partial penetrance of GBA1 variants in PD. The modifiers of GBA1 penetrance have not been elucidated. We characterized the transcriptomic profiles of cells from the substantia nigra (SN) of mice with co-injection with 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) and selective inhibitor of GCase activity (conduritol-β-epoxide, (CBE)) to mimic PD bearing GCase dysfunction (MPTP+CBE), mice treated with MPTP, mice treated with CBE and control mice treated with injection of sodium chloride (NaCl) (vehicle). Differential expression analysis, pathway enrichment analysis, and outlier detection were performed. Functional clustering of differentially represented transcripts revealed more processes associated with the functioning of neurogenesis, inflammation, apoptosis and autophagy in MPTP+CBE and MPTP mice than in vehicle mice, with a more pronounced alteration of autophagy processes in MPTP+CBE mice than in MPTP mice. The PI3K-Akt-mTOR signaling pathway may be considered a potential target for therapy in PD with GCase dysfunction.

Mapping the tumor microenvironment in clear cell renal carcinoma by single-cell transcriptome analysis

Introduction: Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is associated with unfavorable clinical outcomes. To identify viable therapeutic targets, a comprehensive understanding of intratumoral heterogeneity is crucial. In this study, we conducted bioinformatic analysis to scrutinize single-cell RNA sequencing data of ccRCC tumor and para-tumor samples, aiming to elucidate the intratumoral heterogeneity in the ccRCC tumor microenvironment (TME). Methods: A total of 51,780 single cells from seven ccRCC tumors and five para-tumor samples were identified and grouped into 11 cell lineages using bioinformatic analysis. These lineages included tumor cells, myeloid cells, T-cells, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells, indicating a high degree of heterogeneity in the TME. Copy number variation (CNV) analysis was performed to compare CNV frequencies between tumor and normal cells. The myeloid cell population was further re-clustered into three major subgroups: monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells. Differential expression analysis, gene ontology, and gene set enrichment analysis were employed to assess inter-cluster and intra-cluster functional heterogeneity within the ccRCC TME. Results: Our findings revealed that immune cells in the TME predominantly adopted an inflammatory suppression state, promoting tumor cell growth and immune evasion. Additionally, tumor cells exhibited higher CNV frequencies compared to normal cells. The myeloid cell subgroups demonstrated distinct functional properties, with monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells displaying diverse roles in the TME. Certain immune cells exhibited pro-tumor and immunosuppressive effects, while others demonstrated antitumor and immunostimulatory properties. Conclusion: This study contributes to the understanding of intratumoral heterogeneity in the ccRCC TME and provides potential therapeutic targets for ccRCC treatment. The findings emphasize the importance of considering the diverse functional roles of immune cells in the TME for effective therapeutic interventions.

Single-cell analysis identifies Ifi27l2a as a novel gene regulator of microglial inflammation in the context of aging and stroke

Microglia are key mediators of inflammatory responses within the brain, as they regulate pro-inflammatory responses while also limiting neuroinflammation via reparative phagocytosis. Thus, identifying genes that modulate microglial function may reveal novel therapeutic interventions for promoting better outcomes in diseases featuring extensive inflammation, such as stroke. To facilitate identification of potential mediators of inflammation, we performed single-cell RNA sequencing of aged mouse brains following stroke and found that Ifi27l2a was significantly up-regulated, particularly in microglia. The increased Ifi27l2a expression was further validated in microglial culture, stroke models with microglial depletion, and human autopsy samples. Ifi27l2a is known to be induced by interferons for viral host defense, however the role of Ifi27l2a in neurodegeneration is unknown. In vitro studies in cultured microglia demonstrated that Ifi27l2a overexpression causes neuroinflammation via reactive oxygen species. Interestingly, hemizygous deletion of Ifi27l2a significantly reduced gliosis in the thalamus following stroke, while also reducing neuroinflammation, indicating Ifi27l2a gene dosage is a critical mediator of neuroinflammation in ischemic stroke. Collectively, this study demonstrates that a novel gene, Ifi27l2a, regulates microglial function and neuroinflammation in the aged brain and following stroke. These findings suggest that Ifi27l2a may be a novel target for conferring cerebral protection post-stroke.

Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 4A Signaling as a Key Disease Pathway of CD1c+ Dendritic Cell Dysregulation in Systemic Sclerosis

OBJECTIVE

This study was undertaken to identify key disease pathways driving conventional dendritic cell (cDC) alterations in systemic sclerosis (SSc).

METHODS

Transcriptomic profiling was performed on peripheral blood CD1c+ cDCs (cDC2s) isolated from 12 healthy donors and 48 patients with SSc, including all major disease subtypes. We performed differential expression analysis for the different SSc subtypes and healthy donors to uncover genes dysregulated in SSc. To identify biologically relevant pathways, we built a gene coexpression network using weighted gene correlation network analysis. We validated the role of key transcriptional regulators using chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) sequencing and in vitro functional assays.

RESULTS

We identified 17 modules of coexpressed genes in cDCs that correlated with SSc subtypes and key clinical traits, including autoantibodies, skin score, and occurrence of interstitial lung disease. A module of immunoregulatory genes was markedly down-regulated in patients with the diffuse SSc subtype characterized by severe fibrosis. Transcriptional regulatory network analysis performed on this module predicted nuclear receptor 4A (NR4A) subfamily genes (NR4A1, NR4A2, NR4A3) as the key transcriptional regulators of inflammation. Indeed, ChIP-sequencing analysis indicated that these NR4A members target numerous differentially expressed genes in SSc cDC2s. Inclusion of NR4A receptor agonists in culture-based experiments provided functional proof that dysregulation of NR4As affects cytokine production by cDC2s and modulates downstream T cell activation.

CONCLUSION

NR4A1, NR4A2, and NR4A3 are important regulators of immunosuppressive and fibrosis-associated pathways in SSc cDCs. Thus, the NR4A family represents novel potential targets to restore cDC homeostasis in SSc.

The lncRNA LUCAT1 is elevated in inflammatory disease and restrains inflammation by regulating the splicing and stability of NR4A2

The nuclear long non-coding RNA LUCAT1 has previously been identified as a negative feedback regulator of type I interferon and inflammatory cytokine expression in human myeloid cells. Here, we define the mechanistic basis for the suppression of inflammatory gene expression by LUCAT1. Using comprehensive identification of RNA-binding proteins by mass spectrometry as well as RNA immunoprecipitation, we identified proteins important in processing and alternative splicing of mRNAs as LUCAT1-binding proteins. These included heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein C, M, and A2B1. Consistent with this finding, cells lacking LUCAT1 have altered splicing of selected immune genes. In particular, upon lipopolysaccharide stimulation, the splicing of the nuclear receptor 4A2 (NR4A2) gene was particularly affected. As a consequence, expression of NR4A2 was reduced and delayed in cells lacking LUCAT1. NR4A2-deficient cells had elevated expression of immune genes. These observations suggest that LUCAT1 is induced to control the splicing and stability of NR4A2, which is in part responsible for the anti-inflammatory effect of LUCAT1. Furthermore, we analyzed a large cohort of patients with inflammatory bowel disease as well as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. In these patients, LUCAT1 levels were elevated and in both diseases, positively correlated with disease severity. Collectively, these studies define a key molecular mechanism of LUCAT1-dependent immune regulation through post-transcriptional regulation of mRNAs highlighting its role in the regulation of inflammatory disease.

Synovial tissue macrophages in joint homeostasis, rheumatoid arthritis and disease remission

Synovial tissue macrophages (STMs) were principally recognized as having a pro-inflammatory role in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), serving as the main producers of pathogenic tumour necrosis factor (TNF). Recent advances in single-cell omics have facilitated the discovery of distinct STM populations, providing an atlas of discrete phenotypic clusters in the context of healthy and inflamed joints. Interrogation of the functions of distinct STM populations, via ex vivo and experimental mouse models, has re-defined our understanding of STM biology, opening up new opportunities to better understand the pathology of the arthritic joint. These works have identified STM subpopulations that form a protective lining barrier within the synovial membrane and actively participate in the remission of RA. We discuss how distinct functions of STM clusters shape the synovial tissue environment in health, during inflammation and in disease remission, as well as how an increased understanding of STM heterogeneity might aid the prediction of clinical outcomes and inform novel treatments for RA.

Nuclear receptor NOR-1 (Neuron-derived Orphan Receptor-1) in pathological vascular remodelling and vascular remodelling

Vascular cells and their interaction with inflammatory cells and the immune system play a key role in pathological vascular remodeling. A large number of genes and proteins regulated in a coordinated manner by a small number of transcription factors are involved in this process. In recent years, research on a small subfamily of transcription factors, the NR4A subfamily, has had a major impact on our understanding of vascular biology. The NR4A1 (Nur77), NR4A2 (Nurr1) and NR4A3 (NOR-1) receptors are products of early response genes whose expression is induced by multiple pathophysiological and physical stimuli. Their wide distribution in different tissues and cells places them in the control of numerous processes such as cell differentiation, proliferation, survival and apoptosis, as well as inflammation and the metabolism of lipids and carbohydrates. This review analyzes the role of these receptors, particularly NOR-1, in pathological vascular remodeling associated with atherosclerosis, abdominal aortic aneurysm and pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Monocyte Transcriptional Responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis Associate with Resistance to Tuberculin Skin Test and Interferon Gamma Release Assay Conversion

Heavy exposure to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the etiologic agent of tuberculosis (TB) and among the top infectious killers worldwide, results in infection that is cleared, contained, or progresses to disease. Some heavily exposed tuberculosis contacts show no evidence of infection using the tuberculin skin test (TST) and interferon gamma release assay (IGRA); yet the mechanisms underlying this "resister" (RSTR) phenotype are unclear. To identify transcriptional responses that distinguish RSTR monocytes, we performed transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq) on monocytes isolated from heavily exposed household contacts in Uganda and gold miners in South Africa after ex vivo M. tuberculosis infection. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) revealed several gene pathways that were consistently enriched in response to M. tuberculosis among RSTR subjects compared to controls with positive TST/IGRA testing (latent TB infection [LTBI]) across Uganda and South Africa. The most significantly enriched gene set in which expression was increased in RSTR relative to LTBI M. tuberculosis-infected monocytes was the tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) signaling pathway whose core enrichment (leading edge) substantially overlapped across RSTR populations. These leading-edge genes included candidate resistance genes (ABCA1 and DUSP2) with significantly increased expression among Uganda RSTRs (false-discovery rate [FDR], <0.1). The distinct monocyte transcriptional response to M. tuberculosis among RSTR subjects, including increased expression of the TNF signaling pathway, highlights genes and inflammatory pathways that may mediate resistance to TST/IGRA conversion and provides therapeutic targets to enhance host restriction of M. tuberculosis intracellular infection. IMPORTANCE After heavy M. tuberculosis exposure, the events that determine why some individuals resist TST/IGRA conversion are poorly defined. Enrichment of the TNF signaling gene set among RSTR monocytes from multiple distinct cohorts suggests an important role for the monocyte TNF response in determining this alternative immune outcome. These TNF responses to M. tuberculosis among RSTRs may contribute to antimicrobial programs that result in early clearance or the priming of alternative (gamma interferon-independent) cellular responses.

Nuclear receptor Nr1d1 alleviates asthma by abating GATA3 gene expression and Th2 cell differentiation

Nuclear receptors are a unique family of transcription factors that play cardinal roles in physiology and plethora of human diseases. The adopted orphan nuclear receptor Nr1d1 is a constitutive transcriptional repressor known to modulate several biological processes. In this study, we found that Nr1d1 plays a decisive role in T helper (Th)-cell polarization and transcriptionally impedes the formation of Th2 cells by directly binding to the promoter region of GATA binding protein 3 (GATA3) gene. Nr1d1 interacts with its cellular companion, the nuclear receptor corepressor and histone deacetylase 3 to form a stable repression complex on the GATA3 promoter. The presence of Nr1d1 also imparts protection against associated inflammatory responses in murine model of asthma and its ligand SR9011 eased disease severity by suppressing Th2 responses. Moreover, Chip-seq profiling uncovered Nr1d1 interactions with other gene subsets that impedes Th2-linked pathways and regulates metabolism, immunity and brain functions, therefore, providing empirical evidence regarding the genetic link between asthma and other comorbid conditions. Thus, Nr1d1 emerges as a molecular switch that could be targeted to subdue asthma.

Expression Profile of mRNAs and miRNAs Related to the Oxidative-Stress Phenomenon in the Ishikawa Cell Line Treated Either Cisplatin or Salinomycin

The oxidative stress phenomenon is a result of anticancer therapy. The aim of this study was the assessment of gene expression profile changes, and to determine the miRNAs regulating genes’ transcriptional activity in an Ishikawa endometrial cancer culture exposed to cisplatin or salinomycin, compared to a control culture. The molecular analysis comprised the microarray technique (mRNAs and micro RNA (miRNA), the real-time quantitative reverse transcription reaction (RTqPCR), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) reactions, and Western blot. NR4A2, MAP3K8, ICAM1, IL21, CXCL8, CCL7, and SLC7A11 were statistically significantly differentiated depending not only on time, but also on the drug used in the experiment. The conducted assessment indicated that the strongest links were between NR4A2 and hsa-miR-30a-5p and has-miR-302e, MAP3K8 and hsa-miR-144-3p, CXCL8 and hsa-miR-140-3p, and SLC7A11 and hsa-miR-144-3p. The obtained results suggest that four mRNAs—NR4A2, MAP3K8, CXCL8 and SLC7A11—and four miRNAs—hsa-miR-30a-5p, hsa-miR-302e, hsa-miR-144-3p and hsa-miR-140-3—changed their expressions regardless of the chemotherapeutic agent used, which suggests the possibility of their use in monitoring the severity of oxidative stress in endometrial cancer. However, considering the results at both the mRNA and the protein level, it is most likely that the expressions of NR4A2, MAP3K8, CXCL8 and SLC7A11 are regulated by miRNA molecules as well as other epigenetic mechanisms.

NR4A2 alleviates cardiomyocyte loss and myocardial injury in rats by transcriptionally suppressing CCR5 and inducing M2 polarization of macrophages

BACKGROUND

CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) has been demonstrated to be correlated to activation of pro-inflammatory immune cells and tissue injury. This study focused on the role of CCR5 in myocardial injury in rats with diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM) and the mechanism of action.

METHODS

A rat model of DCM was induced by streptozotocin (STZ). CCR5 was knocked down in rats to determine its role in myocardial injury and immune cell infiltration. The upstream regulators of CCR5 were bioinformatically predicted and the binding between nuclear receptor subfamily 4 group A member 2 (NR4A2) and CCR5 was validated. The portion of M1 and M2 macrophages in tissues was determined by flow cytometry or double-labeling immunofluorescence. Rat bone marrow mononuclear cells (BMMCs) were treated with granulocyte/macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF/M-CSF) and co-cultured with H9C2 cells for in vitro experiments.

RESULTS

STZ-treated rats had impaired cardiac function and increased levels of creatine kinase-MB, cardiac troponin I and lactate dehydrogenase. CCR5 inhibition significantly alleviated myocardial injury in rats and reduced the portion of M1 macrophages in rat cardiac tissues. NR4A2, which could suppress CCR5 transcription, was poorly expressed in rats with DCM. NR4A2 overexpression played a similar myocardium-protective role in rats. In vitro, overexpression of NR4A2 induced M2 polarization of macrophages, which protected the co-cultured H9C2 cells from high glucose-induced damage, but the protective role was blocked after CCR5 overexpression.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that NR4A2 suppresses CCR5 expression and promotes M2 polarization of macrophages to alleviate cardiomyocyte loss and myocardial injury.

Role of NR4A family members in myeloid cells and leukemia

The myeloid cellular compartment comprises monocytes, dendritic cells (DCs), macrophages and granulocytes. As diverse as this group of cells may be, they are all an important part of the innate immune system and are therefore linked by the necessity to be acutely sensitive to their environment and to rapidly and appropriately respond to any changes that may occur. The nuclear orphan receptors NR4A1, NR4A2 and NR4A3 are encoded by immediate early genes as their expression is rapidly induced in response to various signals. It is perhaps because of this characteristic that this family of transcription factors has many known roles in myeloid cells. In this review, we will regroup and discuss the diverse roles NR4As have in different myeloid cell subsets, including in differentiation, migration, activation, and metabolism. We will also highlight the importance these molecules have in the development of myeloid leukemia.

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NR4A1-3 have important roles in the different cells of the myeloid compartment.

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These orphan receptors homeostasis, differentiation, and activation.

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NR4A family is important in suppressing the development of myeloid leukemias.

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NR4As have been linked to several diseases and could be pharmacological targets.

The chemotherapeutic drug carboplatin affects macrophage responses to LPS and LPS tolerance via epigenetic modifications

Following re-exposure to lipopolysaccharide (LPS), macrophages exhibit an immunosuppressive state known as LPS tolerance, which is characterized by repressed proinflammatory cytokine production. LPS-induced tolerance in macrophages is mediated in part by epigenetic changes. Carboplatin, an anticancer chemotherapeutic drug, exerts its effect by inhibiting DNA replication and transcription, as well as through epigenetic modifications. Through an unbiased screen, we found that carboplatin rescued TNF-α and IL-6 production in LPS-tolerant macrophages. Transcriptomic analysis and gene set enrichment analyses revealed that p53 was one of the most significantly upregulated hallmarks in both LPS-primed and LPS-tolerant macrophages in the presence of carboplatin, while E2F and G2/M were the most negatively regulated hallmarks. Heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1-α), which is associated with gene silencing, was significantly reduced in carboplatin-treated LPS-tolerant macrophages at the mRNA and protein levels. Dynamic changes in the mRNA level of genes encoding H3K9me3 methyltransferases, setdb2, kdm4d, and suv39h1 were induced in the presence of carboplatin in LPS-tolerant macrophages. Taken together, we provide evidence that carboplatin treatment interferes with proinflammatory cytokine production during the acute LPS response and LPS tolerance in macrophages, possibly via H3K9me3 modification.

NR4A3: A Key Nuclear Receptor in Vascular Biology, Cardiovascular Remodeling, and Beyond

The mechanisms committed in the activation and response of vascular and inflammatory immune cells play a major role in tissue remodeling in cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) such as atherosclerosis, pulmonary arterial hypertension, and abdominal aortic aneurysm. Cardiovascular remodeling entails interrelated cellular processes (proliferation, survival/apoptosis, inflammation, extracellular matrix (ECM) synthesis/degradation, redox homeostasis, etc.) coordinately regulated by a reduced number of transcription factors. Nuclear receptors of the subfamily 4 group A (NR4A) have recently emerged as key master genes in multiple cellular processes and vital functions of different organs, and have been involved in a variety of high-incidence human pathologies including atherosclerosis and other CVDs. This paper reviews the major findings involving NR4A3 (Neuron-derived Orphan Receptor 1, NOR-1) in the cardiovascular remodeling operating in these diseases.

Comparative Transcriptome Analysis in Monocyte-Derived Macrophages of Asymptomatic GBA Mutation Carriers and Patients with GBA-Associated Parkinson's Disease

Mutations of the GBA gene, encoding for lysosomal enzyme glucocerebrosidase (GCase), are the greatest genetic risk factor for Parkinson’s disease (PD) with frequency between 5% and 20% across the world. N370S and L444P are the two most common mutations in the GBA gene. PD carriers of severe mutation L444P in the GBA gene is characterized by the earlier age at onset compared to N370S. Not every carrier of GBA mutations develop PD during one’s lifetime. In the current study we aimed to find common gene expression signatures in PD associated with mutation in the GBA gene (GBA-PD) using RNA-seq. We compared transcriptome of monocyte-derived macrophages of 5 patients with GBA-PD (4 L444P/N, 1 N370S/N) and 4 asymptomatic GBA mutation carriers (GBA-carriers) (3 L444P/N, 1 N370S/N) and 4 controls. We also conducted comparative transcriptome analysis for L444P/N only GBA-PD patients and GBA-carriers. Revealed deregulated genes in GBA-PD independently of GBA mutations (L444P or N370S) were involved in immune response, neuronal function. We found upregulated pathway associated with zinc metabolism in L444P/N GBA-PD patients. The potential important role of DUSP1 in the pathogenesis of GBA-PD was suggested.

Construction of Competing Endogenous RNA Networks Incorporating Transcription Factors to Reveal Differences in Granulosa Cells from Patients with Endometriosis

Purpose: This study aimed to reveal the molecular differences in granulosa cells (GCs) from patients with endometriosis (EM). Methods: RNA sequencing was performed on GCs from patients with EM-related infertility (n = 3) and controls (n = 3). Differentially expressed long noncoding RNAs [differentially expressed lncRNAs (DELs), |log2 FC|>4, false discovery rate (FDR) <0.05] and genes [differentially expressed genes (DEGs), |log2 FC|>1.4, FDR <0.05] in patients with EM-related infertility and controls were screened. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks of the DEGs were constructed. Then, mRNA-miRNA-lncRNA pairs based on DEGs and DELs were constructed by comprehensive bioinformatics analyses. In addition, overlapping genes identified from both the PPI and mRNA-miRNA-lncRNA pairs were selected. Finally, a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network incorporating transcription factors (TFs) was constructed. Results: A total of 25,806 lncRNAs and 19,684 mRNAs were detected, and 7 DELs and 46 DEGs were identified. Five hub genes from the PPI network were also identified. A single overlapping gene, NR4A2, from both the PPI network and mRNA-miRNA-lncRNA pairs was identified. Finally, a ceRNA network incorporating TFs, including one mRNA (NR4A2), one miRNA (hsa-miR-217), three lncRNAs (XIST, MCM3AP-AS1, and C17orf51), and five TFs (SRF, POLR2A, NRF1, MNT, and TCF7L2), was successfully constructed. Conclusions: The proposed ceRNA network and the prediction of TFs in GCs from EM-related infertility revealed differences in GCs from patients with EM. Importantly, the novel TFs, lncRNAs, miRNAs, and mRNAs involved in the ceRNA network might provide new insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms of EM-related infertility.

Transcriptional Profiling of Monocytes Deficient in Nuclear Orphan Receptors NR4A2 and NR4A3 Reveals Distinct Signalling Roles Related to Antigen Presentation and Viral Response

The nuclear receptor sub-family 4 group A (NR4A) family are early response genes that encode proteins that are activated in several tissues/cells in response to a variety of stressors. The NR4A family comprises NR4A1, NR4A2 and NR4A3 of which NR4A2 and NR4A3 are under researched and less understood, particularly in the context of immune cells. NR4A expression is associated with multiple diseases e.g. arthritis and atherosclerosis and the development of NR4A-targetting molecules as therapeutics is a current focus in this research field. Here, we use a combination of RNA-sequencing coupled with strategic bioinformatic analysis to investigate the down-stream effects of NR4A2 and NR4A3 in monocytes and dissect their common and distinct signalling roles. Our data reveals that NR4A2 and NR4A3 depletion has a robust and broad-reaching effect on transcription in both the unstimulated state and in the presence of LPS. Interestingly, many of the genes affected were present in both the unstimulated and stimulated states revealing a previously unappreciated role for the NR4As in unstimulated cells. Strategic clustering and bioinformatic analysis identified both distinct and common transcriptional roles for NR4A2 and NR4A3 in monocytes. NR4A2 notably was linked by both bioinformatic clustering analysis and transcription factor interactome analysis to pathways associated with antigen presentation and regulation of MHC genes. NR4A3 in contrast was more closely linked to pathways associated with viral response. Functional studies further support our data analysis pointing towards preferential/selective roles for NR4A2 in the regulation of antigen processing with common roles for NR4A2 and NR4A3 evident with respect to cell migration. Taken together this study provides novel mechanistic insights into the role of the enigmatic nuclear receptors NR4A2 and NR4A3 in monocytes.

The NR4A agonist, Cytosporone B, attenuates pro-inflammatory mediators in human colorectal cancer tissue ex vivo

Inflammation is a pivotal pathological factor in colorectal cancer (CRC) initiation and progression, and modulating this inflammatory state has the potential to ameliorate disease progression. NR4A receptors have emerged as key regulators of inflammatory pathways that are important in CRC. Here, we have examined the effect of NR4A agonist, Cytosporone B (CsnB), on colorectal tissue integrity and its effect on the inflammatory profile in CRC tissue ex vivo. Here, we demonstrate concentrations up 100 μM CsnB did not adversely affect tissue integrity as measured using transepithelial electrical resistance, histology and crypt height. Subsequently, we reveal through the use of a cytokine/chemokine array, ELISA and qRT-PCR analysis that multiple pro-inflammatory mediators were significantly increased in CRC tissue compared to control tissue, which were then attenuated with the addition of CsnB (such as IL-1β, IL-8 and TNFα). Lastly, stratification of the data revealed that CsnB especially alters the inflammatory profile of tumours derived from males who had not undergone chemoradiotherapy. Thus, this study demonstrates that NR4A agonist CsnB does not adversely affect colon tissue structure or functionality and can attenuate the pro-inflammatory state of human CRC tissue ex vivo.

Attenuated macrophage activation mediated by microRNA-183 knockdown through targeting NR4A2

Atherosclerosis is considered a chronic inflammatory disease, and macrophages function as important mediators in the development of atherogenesis. MicroRNA (miR)-183 is a small non-coding RNA that acts as a novel tumor suppressor and has recently been proposed to affect cardiac hypertrophy. However, the exact role and underlying mechanism of miR-183 in macrophage activation remain unknown. In the present study, miR-183 showed upregulated expression in atheromatous plaques and in bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) subjected to stimulation with oxidized low-density lipoproteins. Using a miR-183 loss-of-function strategy, it was demonstrated that miR-183 knockdown significantly increased resolving M2 macrophage marker expression but decreased proinflammatory M1 macrophage marker expression, as well as attenuated NF-κB activation. Moreover, decreased foam-cell formation accompanied by upregulation of genes involved in cholesterol efflux and downregulation of genes implicated in cholesterol influx was found in BMDMs transfected with a miR-183 inhibitor. Mechanistically, macrophage activation mediated by miR-183 silencing was partially attributed to direct upregulation of NR4A2 expression in BMDMs. Thus, the present study suggests that neutralizing miR-183 may be a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of atherosclerosis.

Activation of MC1R with BMS-470539 attenuates neuroinflammation via cAMP/PKA/Nurr1 pathway after neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in rats

Background

Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of hypoxic-ischemic (HI)-induced brain injury. Activation of melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R) has been shown to exert anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects in several neurological diseases. In the present study, we have explored the role of MC1R activation on neuroinflammation and the potential underlying mechanisms after neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in rats.

Methods

A total of 169 post-natal day 10 unsexed rat pups were used. HI was induced by right common carotid artery ligation followed by 2.5 h of hypoxia. BMS-470539, a specific selective MC1R agonist, was administered intranasally at 1 h after HI induction. To elucidate the potential underlying mechanism, MC1R CRISPR KO plasmid or Nurr1 CRISPR KO plasmid was administered via intracerebroventricular injection at 48 h before HI induction. Percent brain infarct area, short- and long-term neurobehavioral tests, Nissl staining, immunofluorescence staining, and Western blot were conducted.

Results

The expression levels of MC1R and Nurr1 increased over time post-HI. MC1R and Nurr1 were expressed on microglia at 48 h post-HI. Activation of MC1R with BMS-470539 significantly reduced the percent infarct area, brain atrophy, and inflammation, and improved short- and long-term neurological deficits at 48 h and 28 days post-HI. MC1R activation increased the expression of CD206 (a microglial M2 marker) and reduced the expression of MPO. Moreover, activation of MC1R with BMS-470539 significantly increased the expression levels of MC1R, cAMP, p-PKA, and Nurr1, while downregulating the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNFα, IL-6, and IL-1β) at 48 h post-HI. However, knockout of MC1R or Nurr1 by specific CRISPR reversed the neuroprotective effects of MC1R activation post-HI.

Conclusions

Our study demonstrated that activation of MC1R with BMS-470539 attenuated neuroinflammation, and improved neurological deficits after neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in rats. Such anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects were mediated, at least in part, via the cAMP/PKA/Nurr1 signaling pathway. Therefore, MC1R activation might be a promising therapeutic target for infants with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE).

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-021-02078-2.

Nuclear receptors, the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, and macrophage function

Nuclear receptors (NRs) are key regulators of innate immune responses and tissue homeostasis. Evidence indicates that NRs significantly impact steady-state immune regulation, uptake and processing of apoptotic cells, tolerance induction, and control of inflammatory immunity. In this review, we describe our current understanding of the NR activity for balancing inflammation and tolerance, the signaling cascade inducing the NR activation and functional responses, and different mechanisms of the NR-driven immune effects in the context of autoimmune diseases. We further describe the ligand-activated transcription factor the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) that exhibits analogous functionality. Moreover, we will discuss the putative role of NRs and AhR in immune regulation and disease pathogenesis providing a rationale for therapeutic targeting as a unique opportunities in the clinical management of autoimmune diseases.

Transcription cofactor GRIP1 differentially affects myeloid cell-driven neuroinflammation and response to IFN-β therapy

Macrophages (MФ) and microglia (MG) are critical in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) and its mouse model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Glucocorticoids (GCs) and interferon β (IFN-β) are frontline treatments for MS, and disrupting each pathway in mice aggravates EAE. Glucocorticoid receptor-interacting protein 1 (GRIP1) facilitates both GR and type I IFN transcriptional actions; hence, we evaluated the role of GRIP1 in neuroinflammation. Surprisingly, myeloid cell-specific loss of GRIP1 dramatically reduced EAE severity, immune cell infiltration of the CNS, and MG activation and demyelination specifically during the neuroinflammatory phase of the disease, yet also blunted therapeutic properties of IFN-β. MФ/MG transcriptome analyses at the bulk and single-cell levels revealed that GRIP1 deletion attenuated nuclear receptor, inflammatory and, interestingly, type I IFN pathways and promoted the persistence of a homeostatic MG signature. Together, these results uncover the multifaceted function of type I IFN in MS/EAE pathogenesis and therapy, and an unexpectedly permissive role of myeloid cell GRIP1 in neuroinflammation.

Targeting Orphan Nuclear Receptors NR4As for Energy Homeostasis and Diabetes

Orphan nuclear receptors are important members of the nuclear receptor family and may regulate cell proliferation, metabolism, differentiation, and apoptosis. NR4As, a subfamily of orphan nuclear receptors, have been reported to play key roles in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism and energy homeostasis. Popularity of obesity has resulted in a series of metabolic diseases such as diabetes and its complications. While imbalance of energy intake and expenditure is the main cause of obesity, the concrete mechanism of obesity has not been fully understood. It has been reported that NR4As have significant regulatory effects on energy homeostasis and diabetes and are expected to become new targets for discovering drugs for metabolic syndrome. A number of studies have demonstrated that abnormalities in metabolism induced by altered levels of NR4As may contribute to numerous diseases, such as chronic inflammation, tumorigenesis, diabetes and its complications, atherosclerosis, and other cardiovascular diseases. However, systematic reviews focusing on the roles of NR4As in mediating energy homeostasis and diabetes remain limited. Therefore, this article reviews the structure and regulation of NR4As and their critical function in energy homeostasis and diabetes, as well as small molecules that may regulate NR4As. Our work is aimed at providing valuable support for the research and development of drugs targeting NR4As for the treatment of obesity and related metabolic diseases.

Transcriptome Reprogramming of CD11b+ Bone Marrow Cells by Pancreatic Cancer Extracellular Vesicles

Pancreatic cancers (PC) are highly metastatic with poor prognosis, mainly due to delayed detection. We previously showed that PC-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) act on macrophages residing in the liver, eliciting extracellular matrix remodeling in this organ and marked hepatic accumulation of CD11b+ bone marrow (BM) cells, which support PC liver metastasis. We here show that PC-EVs also bind to CD11b+ BM cells and induce the expansion of this cell population. Transcriptomic characterization of these cells shows that PC-EVs upregulate IgG and IgA genes, which have been linked to the presence of monocytes/macrophages in tumor microenvironments. We also report here the transcriptional downregulation of genes linked to monocyte/macrophage activation, trafficking, and expression of inflammatory molecules. Together, these results show for the first time the existence of a PC-BM communication axis mediated by EVs with a potential role in PC tumor microenvironments.

Role of Nurr1 in Carcinogenesis and Tumor Immunology: A State of the Art Review

Simple Summary

Nuclear receptor related-1 protein (Nurr1) emerges as a therapeutic target in multiple malignancies and immunotherapies. Previous studies have highlighted its association with clinicopathological parameters, tumorigenesis and therapeutic resistance in cancers. In addition, recent studies unraveled its contribution to the suppression of antitumor immunity, suggesting that inhibition of Nurr1 is a potential method to repress cancer aggressiveness and disrupt tumor immune tolerance. In line with this evidence, the present review provides the roles of Nurr1 in tumor progression and the associated underlying molecular mechanisms. Moreover, the significance of Nurr1 in promoting immune tolerance and potential strategies for Nurr1 inhibition are highlighted.

Abstract

Nuclear receptor related-1 protein (Nurr1), coded by an early response gene, is involved in multiple cellular and physiological functions, including proliferation, survival, and self-renewal. Dysregulation of Nurr1 has been frequently observed in many cancers and is attributed to multiple transcriptional and post-transcriptional mechanisms. Besides, Nurr1 exhibits extensive crosstalk with many oncogenic and tumor suppressor molecules, which contribute to its potential pro-malignant behaviors. Furthermore, Nurr1 is a key player in attenuating antitumor immune responses. It not only potentiates immunosuppressive functions of regulatory T cells but also dampens the activity of cytotoxic T cells. The selective accessibility of chromatin by Nurr1 in T cells is closely associated with cell exhaustion and poor efficacy of cancer immunotherapy. In this review, we summarize the reported findings of Nurr1 in different malignancies, the mechanisms that regulate Nurr1 expression, and the downstream signaling pathways that Nurr1 employs to promote a wide range of malignant phenotypes. We also give an overview of the association between Nurr1 and antitumor immunity and discuss the inhibition of Nurr1 as a potential immunotherapeutic strategy.

Distinct synovial tissue macrophage subsets regulate inflammation and remission in rheumatoid arthritis

Immune-regulatory mechanisms of drug-free remission in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) are unknown. We hypothesized that synovial tissue macrophages (STM), which persist in remission, contribute to joint homeostasis. We used single-cell transcriptomics to profile 32,000 STMs and identified phenotypic changes in patients with early/active RA, treatment-refractory/active RA and RA in sustained remission. Each clinical state was characterized by different frequencies of nine discrete phenotypic clusters within four distinct STM subpopulations with diverse homeostatic, regulatory and inflammatory functions. This cellular atlas, combined with deep-phenotypic, spatial and functional analyses of synovial biopsy fluorescent activated cell sorted STMs, revealed two STM subpopulations (MerTKposTREM2high and MerTKposLYVE1pos) with unique remission transcriptomic signatures enriched in negative regulators of inflammation. These STMs were potent producers of inflammation-resolving lipid mediators and induced the repair response of synovial fibroblasts in vitro. A low proportion of MerTKpos STMs in remission was associated with increased risk of disease flare after treatment cessation. Therapeutic modulation of MerTKpos STM subpopulations could therefore be a potential treatment strategy for RA.

The Anti-inflammatory Mediator Resolvin E1 Protects Mice Against Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Heart Injury

Background

Sepsis-induced cardiomyopathy (SIC) is a common severe complication of sepsis that contributes to mortality. SIC is closely associated with excessive inflammatory responses, failed inflammation resolution, and apoptotic damage. Resolvin E1 (RvE1), an omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)-derived metabolite, has been reported to exert anti-inflammatory or proresolving activity in multiple animal models of inflammatory disease. However, the therapeutic potential of RvE1 in SIC remains undetermined, which was, therefore, the aim of the present study.

Methods

C57BL/6J mice were randomly divided into three groups: control, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and LPS + RvE1. Echocardiography, Western blotting (WB), quantitative real-time (QRT)-PCR, histological analyses, and flow cytometry were used to evaluate cardiac function, myocardial inflammation, and the underlying mechanisms.

Results

The RvE1-injected group showed improved left ventricular (LV) function and reduced serum lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine kinase myocardial bound (CK-MB) levels. Compared to LPS treatment alone, RvE1 treatment inhibited the infiltration of neutrophils and macrophages into the heart and spleen and suppressed the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, in the heart. We also observed that the activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor (NF)-κB signaling pathways was blocked by RvE1 treatment, and this inhibition contributed to the improvement in the inflammatory response induced by LPS. RvE1 inhibited LPS-induced M1 macrophage polarization and promoted macrophage polarization toward the M2-like phenotype in both the heart and spleen. In addition, LPS administration dysregulated cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) in the heart, which were rectified by RvE1 treatment. RvE1 also reduced myocardial apoptosis rate in response to LPS-induced heart injury.

Conclusion

RvE1 protects the heart against SIC possibly through the inhibition of the MAPK and NF-κB inflammatory signaling pathways, modulation of macrophage polarization, and reduction in myocardial apoptosis. RvE1 may be a novel lipid mediator for the treatment of SIC.

PRRDB 2.0: a comprehensive database of pattern-recognition receptors and their ligands

PRRDB 2.0 is an updated version of PRRDB that maintains comprehensive information about pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) and their ligands. The current version of the database has ~2700 entries, which are nearly five times of the previous version. It contains extensive information about 467 unique PRRs and 827 pathogens-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), manually extracted from ~600 research articles. It possesses information about PRRs and PAMPs that has been extracted manually from research articles and public databases. Each entry provides comprehensive details about PRRs and PAMPs that includes their name, sequence, origin, source, type, etc. We have provided internal and external links to various databases/resources (like Swiss-Prot, PubChem) to obtain further information about PRRs and their ligands. This database also provides links to ~4500 experimentally determined structures in the protein data bank of various PRRs and their complexes. In addition, 110 PRRs with unknown structures have also been predicted, which are important in order to understand the structure-function relationship between receptors and their ligands. Numerous web-based tools have been integrated into PRRDB 2.0 to facilitate users to perform different tasks like (i) extensive searching of the database; (ii) browsing or categorization of data based on receptors, ligands, source, etc. and (iii) similarity search using BLAST and Smith-Waterman algorithm.

MSC-secreted TGF-β regulates lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophage M2-like polarization via the Akt/FoxO1 pathway

BACKGROUND

An uncontrolled inflammatory response is a critical pathophysiological feature of sepsis. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) induce macrophage phenotype polarization and reduce inflammation in sepsis. MSC-secreted transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) participated in the immune modulatory function of MSCs. However, the underlying mechanism of MSC-secreted TGF-β was not fully elucidated in regulation macrophage M2-like polarization.

METHODS

The paracrine effects of MSCs on macrophage polarization were studied using a co-culture protocol with LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells/mouse peritoneal macrophages and MSCs. The effect of TGF-β in the co-culture system was blocked by the TGF-β receptor inhibitor. To determine the role of MSC-secreted TGF-β, we used recombinant TGF-β to culture with LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. In addition, we employed antibody microarray analysis to determine the mechanisms of MSC secreted TGF-β on LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cell/mouse peritoneal macrophage M2-like polarization. Furthermore, we used an Akt inhibitor and a FoxO1 inhibitor to inhibit the Akt/FoxO1 pathway. The nuclear translocation of FoxO1 was detected by Western blot.

RESULTS

MSCs induced LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cell/mouse peritoneal macrophage polarization towards the M2-like phenotype and significantly reduced pro-inflammatory cytokine levels via paracrine, which was inhibited by TGF-β receptor inhibitor. Furthermore, we found that MSC-secreted TGF-β enhanced the macrophage phagocytic ability. The antibody microarray analysis and Western blot verified that TGF-β treatment activated the Akt/FoxO1 pathway in LPS-stimulated macrophages, TGF-β-induced FoxO1 nuclear translocation and obviously expressed in the cytoplasm, the effects of TGF-β regulatory effects on LPS-stimulated macrophage were inhibited by pre-treatment with Akt inhibitor and FoxO1 inhibitor.

CONCLUSIONS

TGF-β secreted by MSCs could skew LPS-stimulated macrophage polarization towards the M2-like phenotype, reduce inflammatory reactions, and improve the phagocytic ability via the Akt/FoxO1 pathway, providing potential therapeutic strategies for sepsis.

Evaluation of changes in expression pattern of oxidative stress genes under the influence of adalimumab

The psoriasis therapy consists of the inhibition of cytokines involved in inducing and development of this disease. The aim of the study was to evaluate the changes in the expression of genes related to the oxidative stress phenomenon in the culture of normal human dermal fibroblasts of Normal Human Dermal Fibroblasts (NHDF) exposed to adalimumab. NHDF culture was exposed to adalimumab for 2-, 8-, and 24-hr periods. The control consisted of the same cells not exposed to adalimumab. The oligonucleotide microarrays HG-U133A 2.0 were used to analyze the changes in gene expression in NHDF culture. Analysis showed that there are 3,881 ID mRNA involved in the induction and development of oxidative stress, the expression of which changes significantly due to the exposure of NHDF cells to adalimumab (p < .05) among 1,369 ID mRNA of them. These include genes associated with apoptosis, the p38 MAPK pathway and the PDGF pathway, and above all with pathways not yet classified. Studies have shown that two genes: NR4A2 and IL1RN, whose expression has changed the most, expressed as Fold Change (FC) seem to be the most promising molecular markers to monitor therapy and loss of cell sensitivity to treatment.

Macrophage nuclear receptors: Emerging key players in infectious diseases

Nuclear receptors (NRs) are ligand-activated transcription factors that are expressed in a variety of cells, including macrophages. For decades, NRs have been therapeutic targets because their activity can be pharmacologically modulated by specific ligands and small molecule inhibitors. NRs regulate a variety of processes, including those intersecting metabolic and immune functions, and have been studied in regard to various autoimmune diseases. However, the complex roles of NRs in host response to infection are only recently being investigated. The NRs peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and liver X receptors (LXRs) have been most studied in the context of infectious diseases; however, recent work has also linked xenobiotic pregnane X receptors (PXRs), vitamin D receptor (VDR), REV-ERBα, the nuclear receptor 4A (NR4A) family, farnesoid X receptors (FXRs), and estrogen-related receptors (ERRs) to macrophage responses to pathogens. Pharmacological inhibition or antagonism of certain NRs can greatly influence overall disease outcome, and NRs that are protective against some diseases can lead to susceptibility to others. Targeting NRs as a novel host-directed treatment approach to infectious diseases appears to be a viable option, considering that these transcription factors play a pivotal role in macrophage lipid metabolism, cholesterol efflux, inflammatory responses, apoptosis, and production of antimicrobial byproducts. In the current review, we discuss recent findings concerning the role of NRs in infectious diseases with an emphasis on PPARγ and LXR, the two most studied. We also highlight newer work on the activity of emerging NRs during infection.

AutophagySMDB: a curated database of small molecules that modulate protein targets regulating autophagy

Macroautophagy/autophagy is a complex self-degradative mechanism responsible for clearance of non functional organelles and proteins. A range of factors influences the autophagic process, and disruptions in autophagy-related mechanisms lead to disease states, and further exacerbation of disease. Despite in-depth research into autophagy and its role in pathophysiological processes, the resources available to use it for therapeutic purposes are currently lacking. Herein we report the Autophagy Small Molecule Database (AutophagySMDB; http://www.autophagysmdb.org/ ) of small molecules and their cognate protein targets that modulate autophagy. Presently, AutophagySMDB enlists ~10,000 small molecules which regulate 71 target proteins. All entries are comprised of information such as EC50 (half maximal effective concentration), IC50 (half maximal inhibitory concentration), Kd (dissociation constant) and Ki (inhibition constant), IUPAC name, canonical SMILE, structure, molecular weight, QSAR (quantitative structure activity relationship) properties such as hydrogen donor and acceptor count, aromatic rings and XlogP. AutophagySMDB is an exhaustive, cross-platform, manually curated database, where either the cognate targets for small molecule or small molecules for a target can be searched. This database is provided with different search options including text search, advanced search and structure search. Various computational tools such as tree tool, cataloging tools, and clustering tools have also been implemented for advanced analysis. Data and the tools provided in this database helps to identify common or unique scaffolds for designing novel drugs or to improve the existing ones for autophagy small molecule therapeutics. The approach to multitarget drug discovery by identifying common scaffolds has been illustrated with experimental validation. Abbreviations: AMPK: AMP-activated protein kinase; ATG: autophagy related; AutophagySMDB: autophagy small molecule database; BCL2: BCL2, apoptosis regulator; BECN1: beclin 1; CAPN: calpain; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; PPARG: peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma; SMILES: simplified molecular input line entry system; SQSTM1: sequestosome 1; STAT3: signal transducer and activator of transcription.

Transcriptome Analyses of Female Somatotropes and Lactotropes Reveal Novel Regulators of Cell Identity in the Pituitary

The differentiation of the hormone-producing cell lineages of the anterior pituitary represents an informative model of mammalian cell fate determination. The generation and maintenance of two of these lineages, the GH-producing somatotropes and prolactin (PRL)-producing lactotropes, are dependent on the pituitary-specific transcription factor POU1F1. Whereas POU1F1 is expressed in both cell types, and plays a direct role in the activation of both the Gh and Prl genes, GH expression is restricted to somatotropes and PRL expression is restricted to lactotropes. These observations imply the existence of additional, cell type-enriched factors that contribute to the somatotrope and lactotrope cell identities. In this study, we use transgenic mouse models to facilitate sorting of somatotrope and lactotrope populations based on the expression of fluorescent markers expressed under Gh and Prl gene transcriptional controls. The transcriptomic analyses reveal a concordance of gene expression profiles in the two populations. The limited number of divergent mRNAs between the two populations includes a set of transcription factors that may have roles in pituitary lineage divergence and/or in regulating expression of cell type-specific genes after differentiation. Four of these factors were validated for lineage enrichment at the level of protein expression, two somatotrope enriched and two lactotrope enriched. Three of these four factors were shown to have corresponding activities in appropriate enhancement or repression of landmark genes in a cell culture model system. These studies identify novel regulators of the somatotropes and lactotropes, and they establish a useful database for further study of these lineages in the anterior pituitary.

AIRE promotes androgen-independent prostate cancer by directly regulating IL-6 and modulating tumor microenvironment

Early stage prostate cancers are dependent on androgens for their growth and survival and androgen withdrawal causes them to regress. Progressive prostate cancers eventually acquire androgen independence rendering anti-androgen therapy ineffective. However, the factors leading to this have not been adequately addressed. This study shows that AIRE finds differential expression in androgen-dependent and -independent prostate cancer cells. AIRE expression is more in androgen-independent cells due to its regulation by transcription factor Elk-1. These enhanced levels of AIRE modulate the prostate tumor microenvironment by transcriptionally activating a malignancy gene IL-6 in androgen-independent cells. Additionally, AIRE prevents the cancer cells from anticancer drug-induced death and enhances their invasiveness. Moreover, AIRE by modulating the cytokine milieu skews the tumor-associated macrophage polarization towards M2 phenotype with increased CD206 and CD163 expression. Subcutaneous mouse model of prostate cancer revealed AIRE^+/+ mice forming a palpable tumor and presents lymphadenopathy however, only a small benign tumor is observed in AIRE^−/− mice and lymph nodes appear normal in size. In conclusion, our findings suggest AIRE as a probable factor in promoting prostate cancer progression.

A human xenobiotic nuclear receptor contributes to nonresponsiveness of Mycobacterium tuberculosis to the antituberculosis drug rifampicin

Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the causative agent of tuberculosis (TB). It acquires phenotypic drug resistance inside macrophages, and this resistance mainly arises from host-induced stress. However, whether cellular drug-efflux mechanisms in macrophages contribute to nonresponsiveness of M. tuberculosis to anti-TB drugs is unclear. Here, we report that xenobiotic nuclear receptors mediate TB drug nonresponsiveness by modulating drug-efflux transporters in macrophages. This was evident from expression analysis of drug-efflux transporters in macrophages isolated from TB patients. Among patients harboring rifampicin-susceptible M. tuberculosis, we observed increased intracellular survival of M. tuberculosis upon rifampicin treatment of macrophages isolated from patients not responding to anti-TB drugs compared with macrophages from patients who did respond. Of note, M. tuberculosis infection and rifampicin exposure synergistically modulated macrophage drug-efflux transporters in vitro We also found that the xenobiotic nuclear receptor pregnane X receptor (PXR) modulates macrophage drug-efflux transporter expression and activity, which compromised the anti-TB efficacy of rifampicin. We further validated this finding in a TB mouse model in which use of the PXR antagonist ketoconazole rescued rifampicin anti-TB activity. We conclude that PXR activation in macrophages compromises the efficacy of the anti-TB drug rifampicin. Alternative therapeutic strategies, such as use of the rifampicin derivatives rifapentine and rifabutin, which do not activate PXR, or of a PXR antagonist, may be effective for tackling drug nonresponsiveness of M. tuberculosis that arises from drug-efflux systems of the host.

Drug screening to target nuclear orphan receptor NR4A2 for cancer therapeutics

Background

Our previous study suggested NR4A2, a subfamily member of orphan nuclear receptors, is essential for survival of human cancer cells such as mucoepidermoid carcinoma (MEC).

Methods

We conducted high throughput drug screening for NR4A2 inhibitors as a novel therapeutic modality. Positive screening was performed using a luciferase reporter vector containing NR4A2 binding sequence, and a CRE-reporter control vector was used to eliminate false positives. In vitro assays for positive hits were conducted.

Results

A total of 23 Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and 43 Life Science Library compounds were identified, including several epidermal growth factor inhibitors and Src inhibitors. Subsequent in vitro assays confirmed that identified compounds were preferentially active in NR4A2+ cancer cells. Several candidate compounds appeared to suppress NR4A2 via inhibition of p-ERK, whereas a novel compound KU0171309 may act as a more direct inhibitor.

Conclusions

Further research should focus on homologue selectivity, in vivo activity, and definitively deciphering the mechanism of action of KU0171309.

Transcriptome using Illumina sequencing reveals the traits of spermatogenesis and developing testes in Eriocheir sinensis

Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis) has the spermatozoa with typical aflagellate, decondensed chromatin, cup-shaped nuclei, and radial arms. However, the mechanism of spermatogenesis during which the specific spermatozoa are generated in this species is yet unclear. Here, the transcriptome of developing testis in E. sinensis was analyzed using the ways of RNA-seq and bioinformatics analysis to identify candidate genes potentially involved in development of testis and spermatogenesis. The Illumina HiSeq2500 sequencing of three replicons of samples produced a total of 145.19 M clean reads representing with a total of 21.34 Gb bases and 45.48% GC content. 56.30% clean reads were mapped to the draft genome of E. sinensis. The assembly of the transcriptome yielded contigs of 5691802 sequences and unigenes of 406527 sequences. Total 24246 and 40793 transcripts were annotated using Swissprot and Nr database, respectively. There were 48213 (70.31%) and 7858 (46.25%) transcripts with identity of more than 99 matching to mature testis unigenes in the databases of Nr and EST, respectively. The analytic results of KOG, GO and KEGG showed wide potential molecular functions of transcripts in the developing testes. KEGG analysis of unigenes yielded total 9422 predicted genes. Those predicted genes were involved in total 216 KEGG pathways related to the physiological activities of developing testis. 1975 predicted genes were involved in cellular and subcellular structural alteration of male germ cells. There were important roles of some pathways in the processes of morphological and structural biogenesis pertaining to testis development and spermatogenesis. Other 583 unigenes encoding the genetic and epigenetic factors also be found, which might contribute to the decondensation and stability of decondensed nuclei in the spermatozoa. These predicted events provide a view of the potential molecular mechanisms of development of testis and spermatogenesis in E. sinensis.

The NR4A subfamily of nuclear receptors: potential new therapeutic targets for the treatment of inflammatory diseases

INTRODUCTION

Prolonged inflammatory response contributes to the pathogenesis of chronic disease-related disturbances. Among nuclear receptors (NRs), the orphan NR4A subfamily, which includes Nur77 (NR4A1), Nurr1 (NR4A2) and NOR1 (NR4A3), has recently emerged as a therapeutic target for the treatment of inflammation. Areas covered: This review focuses on the capacity of NR4A receptors to counter-regulate the development of the inflammatory response, with a special focus on the molecular transrepression mechanisms. Expert opinion: Recent studies have highlighted the role of NR4A receptors as significant regulators of the inflammatory response. NR4A receptors are rapidly induced by inflammatory stimuli, thus suggesting that they are required for the initiation of inflammation. Nevertheless, NR4A anti-inflammatory properties indicate that this acute regulation could be a protective reaction aimed at resolving inflammation in the later stages. Therefore, NR4A receptors are involved in a negative feedback mechanism to maintain the inflammatory balance. However, the underlying mechanisms are not entirely clear. Only a small number of NR4A-target genes have been identified, and the transcriptional repression mechanisms are only beginning to emerge. Despite further research is needed to fully understand the role of NR4A receptors in inflammation, these NRs should be considered as targets for new therapeutic approaches to inflammatory diseases.

Deciphering the molecular mechanisms involved in HIV-associated lipoatrophy by transcriptomics: a pilot study

HIV-associated lipoatrophy (LA) has considerable implications for risk of metabolic diseases, quality of life, and adherence to treatments. Although it has decreased in high-income countries, it is still very common in resource-limited countries. Understanding the pathophysiological mechanisms of LA can open the possibility to explore new ways to treat or prevent this condition. To identify new markers for an accurate and quick diagnosis will be also of interest. Thus, we aimed to examine functional classes of genes implicated in LA and to identify potential new markers for an accurate/quick diagnosis of LA and future complications. Eighteen participants were recruited: seven healthy volunteers, five non-LA-HIV patients, and six LA-HIV subjects. Clinical lipoatrophy was considered when changes in fat volume in the cheeks next to the nose, lateral aspect of the face, legs, arms, and buttocks were observed by the physicians. mRNA was isolated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) to perform a transcriptomic and Gene Ontology analysis. To confirm RNA sequencing results, qPCRs were developed. A total of 55 genes were differentially expressed between LA and non-LA patients. Thirty-seven genes were overexpressed, whereas 18 genes were repressed. Functional analysis showed that overexpressed genes were involved in lymphocyte/neutrophil activation, inflammation, and atherogenesis. Several lymphoma markers and members of the lipocalin and aquaporin families were also found more expressed in LA patients. In contrast, most of the genes found less expressed in LA subjects were involved in angiogenesis and protection against myocardial infarction. Our results demonstrated a distinct transcriptomic signature in PBMCs of LA patients in comparison with non-LA-HIV subjects and, therefore, provided novel insights to the pathogenesis of HIV-associated lipoatrophy. Our study also highlights the potential usage of some of these genes as early markers of future complications.

Glucose regulates the intrinsic inflammatory response of the heart to surgically induced hypothermic ischemic arrest and reperfusion

We investigated the isolated working rat heart as a model to study early transcriptional remodeling induced in the setting of open heart surgery and stress hyperglycemia. Hearts of male Sprague Dawley rats were cold-arrested in Krebs-Henseleit buffer and subjected to 60 min normothermic reperfusion in the working mode with buffer supplemented with noncarbohydrate substrates plus glucose (25 mM) or mannitol (25 mM; osmotic control). Gene expression profiles were determined by microarray analysis and compared with those of nonperfused hearts. Perfused hearts displayed a transcriptional signature independent from the presence of glucose showing a more than twofold increase in expression of 71 genes connected to inflammation, cell proliferation, and apoptosis. These transcriptional alterations were very similar to the ones taking place in the hearts of open heart surgery patients. Prominent among those alterations was the upregulation of the three master regulators of metabolic reprogramming, MYC, NR4A1, and NR4A2. Targeted pathway analysis revealed an upregulation of metabolic processes associated with the proliferation and activation of macrophages and fibroblasts. Glucose potentiated the upregulation of a subset of genes associated with polarization of tissue reparative M2-like macrophages, an effect that was lost in perfused hearts from rats rendered insulin resistant by high-sucrose feeding. The results expose the heart as a significant source of proinflammatory mediators released in response to stress associated with cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass, and suggest a major role for glucose as a signal in the determination of resident cardiac macrophage polarization.

Retinoid acid receptor-related orphan receptor alpha (RORα) regulates macrophage M2 polarization via activation of AMPKα

Macrophages are able to polarize to pro-inflammatory M1 or anti-inflammatory M2 states with distinct phenotypes and physiological functions. RORα is a member of the nuclear receptor super family and plays important roles in lipid, glucose metabolism, as well as the inflammatory response. In this study, we examined the potential function of RORα in the regulation of macrophage polarization. Treatment of RAW264.7 macrophages with RORα agonist cholesterol sulfate (CH-S) and overexpression of RORα increased M2 macrophage markers expressions (Arg1, Ym1 and Fizz1) both on mRNA and protein levels. Conversely, selective antagonism (SR1001) abrogated the induction of M2 macrophage markers which induced by CH-S. In addition, CH-S induced phosphorylation of Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase α (AMPKα), which was accompanied by the activation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 (ACC). However, SR1001 abolished the activation of AMPKα and ACC induced by CH-S. Meanwhile, inactivation of AMPKα by its inhibitor Compound C (CompC) abrogated the mRNA and protein levels of CH-S-induced M2 macrophage markers expressions. Together these findings reveal that RORα regulates macrophage M2 polarization via activation of AMPKα, which may provide a novel beneficial effect of RORα against inflammation.

Emerging roles of orphan nuclear receptors in regulation of innate immunity

Innate immunity constitutes the first line of defense against pathogenic and dangerous insults. However, it is a double-edged sword, as it functions in both clearance of infection and inflammatory damage. It is therefore important that innate immune responses are tightly controlled to prevent harmful excessive inflammation. Nuclear receptors (NRs) are a family of transcription factors that play critical roles in various physiological responses. Orphan NRs are a subset of NRs for which the ligands and functions are unclear. Accumulating evidence has revealed that orphan NRs play essential roles in innate immune responses to prevent pathogenic inflammatory responses and to enhance antimicrobial host defenses. In this review, we describe current knowledge on the roles and mechanisms of orphan NRs in the regulation of innate immune responses. Discovery of new functions of orphan NRs would facilitate development of novel preventive and therapeutic strategies against human inflammatory diseases.