Recruitment of CD40 and tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factors 2 and 3 to membrane microdomains during CD40 signaling

Scaffold Proteins in Autoimmune Disorders

Cells transmit information to the external environment and within themselves through signaling molecules that modulate cellular activities. Aberrant cell signaling disturbs cellular homeostasis causing a number of different diseases, including autoimmunity. Scaffold proteins, as the name suggests, serve as the anchor for binding and stabilizing signaling proteins at a particular locale, allowing both intra and intercellular signal amplification and effective signal transmission. Scaffold proteins play a critical role in the functioning of tight junctions present at the intersection of two cells. In addition, they also participate in cleavage formation during cytokinesis, and in the organization of neural synapses, and modulate receptor management outcomes. In autoimmune settings such as lupus, scaffold proteins can lower the cell activation threshold resulting in uncontrolled signaling and hyperactivity. Scaffold proteins, through their binding domains, mediate protein- protein interaction and play numerous roles in cellular communication and homeostasis. This review presents an overview of scaffold proteins, their influence on the different signaling pathways, and their role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune and auto inflammatory diseases. Since these proteins participate in many roles and interact with several other signaling pathways, it is necessary to gain a thorough understanding of these proteins and their nuances to facilitate effective target identification and therapeutic design for the treatment of autoimmune disorders.

The E3 Ubiquitin Ligase TRAF6 Interacts with the Cellular Prion Protein and Modulates Its Solubility and Recruitment to Cytoplasmic p62/SQSTM1-Positive Aggresome-Like Structures

The cellular prion protein (PrP^C) is a ubiquitous glycoprotein highly expressed in the brain where it is involved in neurite outgrowth, copper homeostasis, NMDA receptor regulation, cell adhesion, and cell signaling. Conformational conversion of PrP^C into its insoluble and aggregation-prone scrapie form (PrP^Sc) is the trigger for several rare devastating neurodegenerative disorders, collectively referred to as prion diseases. Recent work indicates that the ubiquitin-proteasome system is involved in quality control of PrP^C. To better dissect the role of ubiquitination in PrP^C physiology, we focused on the E3 RING ubiquitin ligase tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR)-associated factor 6 (TRAF6). Here, we report that PrP^C interacts with TRAF6 both in vitro, in cells, and in vivo, in the mouse brain. Transient overexpression of TRAF6 indirectly modulates PrP^C ubiquitination and triggers redistribution of PrP^C into the insoluble fraction. Importantly, in the presence of wild-type TRAF6, but not a mutant lacking E3 ligase activity, PrP^C accumulates into cytoplasmic aggresome-like inclusions containing TRAF6 and p62/SQSTM1. Our results suggest that TRAF6 ligase activity could exert a role in the regulation of PrP^C redistribution in cells under physiological conditions. This novel interaction may uncover possible mechanisms of cell clearance/reorganization in prion diseases.

The Implementation of TNFRSF Co-Stimulatory Domains in CAR-T Cells for Optimal Functional Activity

The Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Superfamily (TNFRSF) is a large and important immunoregulatory family that provides crucial co-stimulatory signals to many if not all immune effector cells. Each co-stimulatory TNFRSF member has a distinct expression profile and a unique functional impact on various types of cells and at different stages of the immune response. Correspondingly, exploiting TNFRSF-mediated signaling for cancer immunotherapy has been a major field of interest, with various therapeutic TNFRSF-exploiting anti-cancer approaches such as 4-1BB and CD27 agonistic antibodies being evaluated (pre)clinically. A further application of TNFRSF signaling is the incorporation of the intracellular co-stimulatory domain of a TNFRSF into so-called Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) constructs for CAR-T cell therapy, the most prominent example of which is the 4-1BB co-stimulatory domain included in the clinically approved product Kymriah. In fact, CAR-T cell function can be clearly influenced by the unique co-stimulatory features of members of the TNFRSF. Here, we review a select group of TNFRSF members (4-1BB, OX40, CD27, CD40, HVEM, and GITR) that have gained prominence as co-stimulatory domains in CAR-T cell therapy and illustrate the unique features that each confers to CAR-T cells.

Mitochondrial Fission Factor Is a Novel Interacting Protein of the Critical B Cell Survival Regulator TRAF3 in B Lymphocytes

Proteins controlling mitochondrial fission have been recognized as essential regulators of mitochondrial functions, mitochondrial quality control and cell apoptosis. In the present study, we identified the critical B cell survival regulator TRAF3 as a novel binding partner of the key mitochondrial fission factor, MFF, in B lymphocytes. Elicited by our unexpected finding that the majority of cytoplasmic TRAF3 proteins were localized at the mitochondria in resting splenic B cells after ex vivo culture for 2 days, we found that TRAF3 specifically interacted with MFF as demonstrated by co-immunoprecipitation and GST pull-down assays. We further found that in the absence of stimulation, increased protein levels of mitochondrial TRAF3 were associated with altered mitochondrial morphology, decreased mitochondrial respiration, increased mitochondrial ROS production and membrane permeabilization, which eventually culminated in mitochondria-dependent apoptosis in resting B cells. Loss of TRAF3 had the opposite effects on the morphology and function of mitochondria as well as mitochondria-dependent apoptosis in resting B cells. Interestingly, co-expression of TRAF3 and MFF resulted in decreased phosphorylation and ubiquitination of MFF as well as decreased ubiquitination of TRAF3. Moreover, lentivirus-mediated overexpression of MFF restored mitochondria-dependent apoptosis in TRAF3-deficient malignant B cells. Taken together, our findings provide novel insights into the apoptosis-inducing mechanisms of TRAF3 in B cells: as a result of survival factor deprivation or under other types of stress, TRAF3 is mobilized to the mitochondria through its interaction with MFF, where it triggers mitochondria-dependent apoptosis. This new role of TRAF3 in controlling mitochondrial homeostasis might have key implications in TRAF3-mediated regulation of B cell transformation in different cellular contexts. Our findings also suggest that mitochondrial fission is an actionable therapeutic target in human B cell malignancies, including those with TRAF3 deletion or relevant mutations.

Anti-CD40 Antibodies Fused to CD40 Ligand Have Superagonist Properties

CD40 is a potent activating receptor within the TNFR family expressed on APCs of the immune system, and it regulates many aspects of B and T cell immunity via interaction with CD40 ligand (CD40L; CD154) expressed on the surface of activated T cells. Soluble CD40L and agonistic mAbs directed to CD40 are being explored as adjuvants in therapeutic or vaccination settings. Some anti-CD40 Abs can synergize with soluble monomeric CD40L. We show that direct fusion of CD40L to certain agonistic anti-CD40 Abs confers superagonist properties, reducing the dose required for efficacy, notably greatly increasing total cytokine secretion by human dendritic cells. The tetravalent configuration of anti-CD40-CD40L Abs promotes CD40 cell surface clustering and internalization and is the likely mechanism of increased receptor activation. CD40L fused to either the L or H chain C termini, with or without flexible linkers, were all superagonists with greater potency than CD40L trimer. The increased anti-CD40-CD40L Ab potency was independent of higher order aggregation. Moreover, the anti-CD40-CD40L Ab showed higher potency in vivo in human CD40 transgenic mice compared with the parental anti-CD40 Ab. To broaden the concept of fusing agonistic Ab to natural ligand, we fused OX40L to an agonistic OX40 Ab, and this resulted in dramatically increased efficacy for proliferation and cytokine production of activated human CD4⁺ T cells as well as releasing the Ab from dependency on cross-linking. This work shows that directly fusing antireceptor Abs to ligand is a useful strategy to dramatically increase agonist potency.

K63-linked ubiquitination of DYRK1A by TRAF2 alleviates Sprouty 2-mediated degradation of EGFR

Dual specificity tyrosine phosphorylation regulated kinase 1A, DYRK1A, functions in multiple cellular pathways, including signaling, endocytosis, synaptic transmission, and transcription. Alterations in dosage of DYRK1A leads to defects in neurogenesis, cell growth, and differentiation, and may increase the risk of certain cancers. DYRK1A localizes to a number of subcellular structures including vesicles where it is known to phosphorylate a number of proteins and regulate vesicle biology. However, the mechanism by which it translocates to vesicles is poorly understood. Here we report the discovery of TRAF2, an E3 ligase, as an interaction partner of DYRK1A. Our data suggest that TRAF2 binds to PVQE motif residing in between the PEST and histidine repeat domain (HRD) of DYRK1A protein, and mediates K63-linked ubiquitination of DYRK1A. This results in translocation of DYRK1A to the vesicle membrane. DYRK1A increases phosphorylation of Sprouty 2 on vesicles, leading to the inhibition of EGFR degradation, and depletion of TRAF2 expression accelerates EGFR degradation. Further, silencing of DYRK1A inhibits the growth of glioma cells mediated by TRAF2. Collectively, these findings suggest that the axis of TRAF2-DYRK1A-Sprouty 2 can be a target for new therapeutic development for EGFR-mediated human pathologies.

TNF receptor-associated factor 3 restrains B-cell receptor signaling in normal and malignant B cells

TRAF3 has diverse signaling functions, which vary by cell type. Uniquely in B lymphocytes, TRAF3 inhibits homeostatic survival. Highlighting the role of TRAF3 as a tumor suppressor, loss-of-function TRAF3 mutations are associated with human B-cell malignancies, while B-cell-specific deletion of TRAF3 in mice leads to autoimmunity and lymphoma development. The role of TRAF3 in inhibiting noncanonical NF-κB activation, CD40 and BAFF-R signaling to B cells is well documented. In contrast, TRAF3 enhances many T-cell effector functions, through associating with and enhancing signaling by the T-cell receptor (TCR)-CD28 complex. The present study was designed to determine the role of TRAF3 in signaling via the B-cell antigen receptor (BCR). The BCR is crucial for antigen recognition, survival, proliferation, and antibody production, and defects in BCR signaling can promote abnormal survival of malignant B cells. Here, we show that TRAF3 is associated with both CD79B and the BCR-activated kinases Syk and Btk following BCR stimulation. BCR-induced phosphorylation of Syk and additional downstream kinases was increased in TRAF3^−/− B cells, with regulation observed in both follicular and marginal zone B-cell subsets. BCR stimulation of TRAF3^−/− B cells resulted in increased surface expression of MHC-II, CD80, and CD86 molecules. Interestingly, increased survival of TRAF3^−/− primary B cells was resistant to inhibition of Btk, while TRAF3-deficient malignant B-cell lines showed enhanced sensitivity. TRAF3 serves to restrain normal and malignant BCR signaling, with important implications for its role in normal B-cell biology and abnormal survival of malignant B cells.

Molecular basis and therapeutic implications of CD40/CD40L immune checkpoint

The CD40 receptor and its ligand CD40L is one of the most critical molecular pairs of the stimulatory immune checkpoints. Both CD40 and CD40L have a membrane form and a soluble form generated by proteolytic cleavage or alternative splicing. CD40 and CD40L are widely expressed in various types of cells, among which B cells and myeloid cells constitutively express high levels of CD40, and T cells and platelets express high levels of CD40L upon activation. CD40L self-assembles into functional trimers which induce CD40 trimerization and downstream signaling. The canonical CD40/CD40L signaling is mediated by recruitment of TRAFs and NF-κB activation, which is supplemented by signal pathways such as PI3K/AKT, MAPKs and JAK3/STATs. CD40/CD40L immune checkpoint leads to activation of both innate and adaptive immune cells via two-way signaling. CD40/CD40L interaction also participates in regulating thrombosis, tissue inflammation, hematopoiesis and tumor cell fate. Because of its essential role in immune activation, CD40/CD40L interaction has been regarded as an attractive immunotherapy target. In recent years, significant advance has been made in CD40/CD40L-targeted therapy. Various types of agents, including agonistic/antagonistic monoclonal antibodies, cellular vaccines, adenoviral vectors and protein antagonist, have been developed and evaluated in early-stage clinical trials for treating malignancies, autoimmune diseases and allograft rejection. In general, these agents have demonstrated favorable safety and some of them show promising clinical efficacy. The mechanisms of benefits include immune cell activation and tumor cell lysis/apoptosis in malignancies, or immune cell inactivation in autoimmune diseases and allograft rejection. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the structure, processing, cellular expression pattern, signaling and effector function of CD40/CD40L checkpoint molecules. In addition, we summarize the progress, targeted diseases and outcomes of current ongoing and completed clinical trials of CD40/CD40L-targeted therapy.

TRAF2 Ser-11 Phosphorylation Promotes Cytosolic Translocation of the CD40 Complex To Regulate Downstream Signaling Pathways

CD40 plays an important role in immune responses by activating the c-Jun N-terminal protein kinase (JNK) and NF-κB pathways; however, the precise mechanisms governing the spatiotemporal activation of these two signaling pathways are not fully understood. Here, using four different TRAF2-deficient cell lines (A20.2J, CH12.LX, HAP1, and mouse embryonic fibroblasts [MEFs]) reconstituted with wild-type or phosphorylation mutant forms of TRAF2, along with immunoprecipitation, immunoblotting, gene expression, and immunofluorescence analyses, we report that CD40 ligation elicits TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1)-mediated phosphorylation of TRAF2 at Ser-11. This phosphorylation interfered with the interaction between TRAF2's RING domain and membrane phospholipids and enabled translocation of the TRAF2 complex from CD40 to the cytoplasm. We also observed that this cytoplasmic translocation is required for full activation of the JNK pathway and the secondary phase of the NF-κB pathway. Moreover, we found that in the absence of Ser-11 phosphorylation, the TRAF2 RING domain interacts with phospholipids, leading to the translocation of the TRAF2 complex to lipid rafts, resulting in its degradation and activation of the noncanonical NF-κB pathway. Thus, our results provide new insights into the CD40 signaling mechanisms whereby Ser-11 phosphorylation controls RING domain-dependent subcellular localization of TRAF2 to modulate the spatiotemporal activation of the JNK and NF-κB pathways.

B Cell Endosomal RAB7 Promotes TRAF6 K63 Polyubiquitination and NF-κB Activation for Antibody Class-Switching

Upon activation by CD40 or TLR signaling, B lymphocytes activate NF-κB to induce activation-induced cytidine deaminase and, therefore, Ig class switch DNA recombination, as central to the maturation of the Ab and autoantibody responses. In this study, we show that NF-κB activation is boosted by colocalization of engaged immune receptors, such as CD40, with RAB7 small GTPase on mature endosomes, in addition to signals emanating from the receptors localized on the plasma membrane, in mouse B cells. In mature endosomes, RAB7 directly interacts with TRAF6 E3 ubiquitin ligase, which catalyzes K63 polyubiquitination for NF-κB activation. RAB7 overexpression in Cd19+/creRosa26fl-STOP-fl-Rab7 mouse B cells upregulates K63 polyubiquitination activity of TRAF6, enhances NF-κB activation and activation-induced cytidine deaminase induction, and boosts IgG Ab and autoantibody levels. This, together with the extensive intracellular localization of CD40 and the strong correlation of RAB7 expression with NF-κB activation in mouse lupus B cells, shows that RAB7 is an integral component of the B cell NF-κB activation machinery, likely through interaction with TRAF6 for the assembly of "intracellular membrane signalosomes."

Molecular characteristics and functional study of tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 2 from the orange-spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides)

In mammals, tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 2 (TRAF2) is a crucial intracellular adaptor protein, which performs a vital role in numerous signaling pathways that activate NF-κB, MAPKs, and IRFs. In the present study, three TRAF2 sequences were identified from the orange-spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides), and named EcTRAF2-1, EcTRAF2-2, and EcTRAF2-3. These sequences contained conserved structure features that were similar to those of mammals. EcTRAF2-1 shared relatively low sequence identity with the other two EcTRAF2s. In healthy E. coioides, EcTRAF2s were widely expressed in all tissues tested, but with distinct expression profiles. After infection with Cryptocaryon irritans, EcTRAF2s was markedly upregulated in the gill and head kidney at most time points, implying that EcTRAF2s may be involved in host defense against C. irritans infection. In HEK293T cells, EcTRAF2s were scattered in the cytoplasm. EcTRAF2-1 and EcTRAF2-2 increased the activity of NF-κB, while EcTRAF2-3 reduced NF-κB activation mediated by EcTRAF2-1 implying that EcTRAF2-3 might be a negative regulator of EcTRAF2-1.

New insight into the interaction of TRAF2 C-terminal domain with lipid raft microdomains

In this study we provide the first evidence of the interaction of a truncated-TRAF2 with lipid raft microdomains. We have analyzed this interaction by measuring the diffusion coefficient of the protein in large and giant unilamellar vesicles (LUVs and GUVs, respectively) obtained both from synthetic lipid mixtures and from natural extracts. Steady-state fluorescence measurements performed with synthetic vesicles indicate that this truncated form of TRAF2 displays a tighter binding to raft-like LUVs with respect to the control (POPC-containing LUVs), and that this process depends on the protein oligomeric state. Generalized Polarization measurements and spectral phasor analysis revealed that truncated-TRAF2 affects the membrane fluidity, especially when vesicles are heated up at physiological temperature. The addition of nanomolar concentration of TRAF2 in GUVs also seems to exert a mechanical action, as demonstrated by the formation of intraluminal vesicles, a process in which ganglioside GM1 plays a crucial role.

TRAF3, ubiquitination, and B-lymphocyte regulation

The signaling adapter protein tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR)-associated factor 3 (TRAF3) is both modified by and contributes to several types of ubiquitination events. TRAF3 plays a variety of context-dependent regulatory roles in all types of immune cells. In B lymphocytes, TRAF3 contributes to regulation of signaling by members of both the TNFR superfamily and innate immune receptors. TRAF3 also plays a unique cell type-specific and critical role in the restraint of B-cell homeostatic survival, a role with important implications for both B-cell differentiation and the pathogenesis of B-cell malignancies. This review focuses upon the relationship between ubiquitin and TRAF3, and how this contributes to multiple functions of TRAF3 in the regulation of signal transduction, transcriptional activation, and effector functions of B lymphocytes.

B cells from African American lupus patients exhibit an activated phenotype

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex systemic autoimmune disease driven by both innate and adaptive immune cells. African Americans tend to present with more severe disease at an earlier age compared with patients of European ancestry. In order to better understand the immunological differences between African American and European American patients, we analyzed the frequencies of B cell subsets and the expression of B cell activation markers from a total of 68 SLE patients and 69 normal healthy volunteers. We found that B cells expressing the activation markers CD86, CD80, PD1, and CD40L, as well as CD19⁺CD27^-IgD^- double-negative B cells, were enriched in African American patients vs. patients of European ancestry. In addition to increased expression of CD40L, surface levels of CD40 on B cells were lower, suggesting the engagement of the CD40 pathway. In vitro experiments confirmed that CD40L expressed by B cells could lead to CD40 activation and internalization on adjacent B cells. To conclude, these results indicate that, compared with European American patients, African American SLE patients present with a particularly active B cell component, possibly via the activation of the CD40/CD40L pathway. These data may help guide the development of novel therapies.

TRAF3 as a powerful and multitalented regulator of lymphocyte functions

This review summarizes the current state of knowledge regarding the roles of the signaling adapter protein tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR)-associated factor 3 in regulating the functions of B and T lymphocytes. In B lymphocytes, TNFR-associated factor 3 inhibits signaling by TNFR superfamily receptors, Toll-like receptors, and interleukin-6R. In contrast, signaling to B cells by the virally encoded oncogenic protein latent membrane protein 1 is promoted by TNFR-associated factor 3. An important B cell-specific role for TNFR-associated factor 3 is the inhibition of homeostatic survival, directly relevant to the common occurrence of TNFR-associated factor 3 mutations in human B cell malignancies. TNFR-associated factor 3 was recently found to be a resident nuclear protein in B cells, where it interacts with and inhibits gene expression mediated by the cAMP response element-binding protein transcription complex, including expression of the prosurvival protein myeloid leukemia cell differentiation protein 1. In T lymphocytes, TNFR-associated factor 3 is required for normal signaling by the T cell antigen receptor, while inhibiting signaling by the interleukin-2 receptor. Cytoplasmic TNFR -associated factor 3 restrains nuclear factor-κB2 activation in both T and B cells. Clinical implications and future directions for the study of this context-dependent signaling regulator are discussed.

RIP1 Cleavage in the Kinase Domain Regulates TRAIL-Induced NF-κB Activation and Lymphoma Survival

Although TRAIL is considered a potential anticancer agent, it enhances tumor progression by activating NF-κB in apoptosis-resistant cells. Cellular FLICE-like inhibitory protein (cFLIP) overexpression and caspase-8 activation have been implicated in TRAIL-induced NF-κB activation; however, the underlying mechanisms are unknown. Here, we report that caspase-8-dependent cleavage of RIP1 in the kinase domain (KD) and intermediate domain (ID) determines the activation state of the NF-κB pathway in response to tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) treatment. In apoptosis-sensitive cells, caspase-8 cleaves RIP1 in the KD and ID immediately after the recruitment of RIP1 to the receptor complex, impairing IκB kinase (IKK) recruitment and NF-κB activation. In apoptosis-resistant cells, cFLIP restricts caspase-8 activity, resulting in limited RIP1 cleavage and generation of a KD-cleaved fragment capable of activating NF-κB but not apoptosis. Notably, depletion of the cytoplasmic pool of TRAF2 and cIAP1 in lymphomas by CD40 ligation inhibits basal RIP1 ubiquitination but does not prompt cell death, due to CD40L-induced cFLIP expression and limited RIP1 cleavage. Inhibition of RIP1 cleavage at the KD suppresses NF-κB activation and cell survival even in cFLIP-overexpressing lymphomas. Importantly, RIP1 is constitutively cleaved in human and mouse lymphomas, suggesting that cFLIP-mediated and caspase-8-dependent limited cleavage of RIP1 is a new layer of mechanism that promotes NF-κB activation and lymphoma survival.

Involvement of the cytoplasmic cysteine-238 of CD40 in its up-regulation of CD23 expression and its enhancement of TLR4-triggered responses

CD40, a member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily, plays a key role in both adaptive and innate immunity. Engagement of CD40 with its natural trimeric ligand or with cross-linked antibodies results in disulfide-linked CD40 (dl-CD40) homodimer formation, a process mediated by the cysteine-238 residues of the cytoplasmic tail of CD40. The present study was designed to elucidate the biological relevance of cysteine-238-mediated dl-CD40 homodimers to the expression of CD23 on B cells and to investigate its possible involvement in the innate response. Our results indicate that cysteine-238-mediated dl-CD40 homodimerization is required for CD40-induced activation of PI3-kinase/Akt signaling and the subsequent CD23 expression, as inhibition of dl-CD40 homodimer formation through a point mutation-approach specifically impairs these responses. Interestingly, cysteine-238-mediated dl-CD40 homodimers are also shown to play a crucial role in Toll-like receptor 4-induced CD23 expression, further validating the importance of this system in bridging innate and adaptive immune responses. This process also necessitates the activation of the PI3-kinase/Akt cascade. Thus, our results highlight new roles for CD40 and cysteine-238-mediated CD40 homodimers in cell biology and identify a potential new target for therapeutic strategies against CD40-associated chronic inflammatory diseases.

B cell Rab7 mediates induction of activation-induced cytidine deaminase expression and class-switching in T-dependent and T-independent antibody responses

Class switch DNA recombination (CSR) is central to the maturation of the Ab response because it diversifies Ab effector functions. Like somatic hypermutation, CSR requires activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID), whose expression is restricted to B cells, as induced by CD40 engagement or dual TLR-BCR engagement (primary CSR-inducing stimuli). By constructing conditional knockout Igh(+/C)γ(1-cre)Rab7(fl/fl) mice, we identified a B cell-intrinsic role for Rab7, a small GTPase involved in intracellular membrane functions, in mediating AID induction and CSR. Igh(+/C)γ(1-cre)Rab7(fl/fl) mice displayed normal B and T cell development and were deficient in Rab7 only in B cells undergoing Igh(C)γ(1-cre) Iγ1-Sγ1-Cγ1-cre transcription, as induced--like Igh germline Iγ1-Sγ1-Cγ1 and Iε-Sε-Cε transcription--by IL-4 in conjunction with a primary CSR-inducing stimulus. These mice could not mount T-independent or T-dependent class-switched IgG1 or IgE responses while maintaining normal IgM levels. Igh(+/C)γ(1-cre)Rab7(fl/fl) B cells showed, in vivo and in vitro, normal proliferation and survival, normal Blimp-1 expression and plasma cell differentiation, as well as intact activation of the noncanonical NF-κB, p38 kinase, and ERK1/2 kinase pathways. They, however, were defective in AID expression and CSR in vivo and in vitro, as induced by CD40 engagement or dual TLR1/2-, TLR4-, TLR7-, or TLR9-BCR engagement. In Igh(+/C)γ(1-cre)Rab7(fl/fl) B cells, CSR was rescued by enforced AID expression. These findings, together with our demonstration that Rab7-mediated canonical NF-κB activation, as critical to AID induction, outline a novel role of Rab7 in signaling pathways that lead to AID expression and CSR, likely by promoting assembly of signaling complexes along intracellular membranes.

Scaffold protein JLP is critical for CD40 signaling in B lymphocytes

CD40 expression on the surface of B lymphocytes is essential for their biological function and fate decision. The engagement of CD40 with its cognate ligand, CD154, leads to a sequence of cellular events in B lymphocytes, including CD40 cytoplasmic translocation, a temporal and spatial organization of effector molecules, and a cascade of CD40-induced signal transduction. The JLP scaffold protein was expressed in murine B lymphocytes. Using B lymphocytes from jlp-deficient mice, we observed that JLP deficiency resulted in defective CD40 internalization upon CD154/CD40 engagement. Examination of interactions and co-localization among CD40, JLP, dynein, and Rab5 in B lymphocytes suggested that CD40 internalization is a process of JLP-mediated vesicle transportation that depends on Rab5 and dynein. JLP deficiency also diminished CD40-dependent activation of MAPK and JNK, but not NF-κB. Inhibiting vesicle transportation from the direction of cell periphery to the cell center by a dynein inhibitor (ciliobrevin D) impaired both CD154-induced CD40 internalization and CD40-dependent MAPK activities in B lymphocytes. Collectively, our data demonstrate a novel role of the JLP scaffold protein in the bridging of CD154-triggered CD40 internalization and CD40-dependent signaling in splenic B lymphocytes.

MHC class II association with lipid rafts on the antigen presenting cell surface

MHC class II (MHC-II) molecules function by binding peptides derived from either self or foreign proteins and expressing these peptides on the surface of antigen presenting cells (APCs) for recognition by CD4 T cells. MHC-II is known to exist on clusters on the surface of APCs, and a variety of biochemical and functional studies have suggested that these clusters represent lipid raft microdomain-associated MHC-II. This review will summarize data exploring the biosynthesis of raft-associated MHC-II and the role that lipid raft association plays in regulating T cell activation by APCs. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Nanoscale membrane organisation and signalling.

Roles for TNF-receptor associated factor 3 (TRAF3) in lymphocyte functions

TRAF3 is an adapter protein that serves and regulates the functions of several types of receptors, located both inside the cell and at the plasma membrane. These include members of the TNF receptor superfamily (TNFR-SF), toll-like receptors (TLR), and cytokine receptors. It has become increasingly evident that the roles and functions of TRAF3 are highly context-dependent. TRAF3 can serve distinct roles for different receptors in the same cell, and also has highly cell-type-dependent functions. This review focuses upon the current state of knowledge regarding how TRAF3 regulates the biology and effector functions of B and T lymphocytes, two major cell types of the adaptive immune response in which TRAF3 has markedly distinct roles.

A Complex Relationship between TRAF3 and Non-Canonical NF-κB2 Activation in B Lymphocytes

The adaptor protein TRAF3 restrains B cell activating factor receptor (BAFFR) and CD40-mediated activation of the NF-κB2 pathway in B cells. Mice lacking TRAF3 specifically in B cells revealed the critical role of TRAF3 in restraining homeostatic B cell survival. Furthermore, loss-of-function mutations of the traf3 gene have been associated with human B cell malignancies, especially multiple myeloma (MM). It has been proposed that receptor-induced TRAF3 degradation leads to stabilization of the NF-κB inducing kinase (NIK), and subsequent NF-κB2 activation. However, it is unclear how receptor-mediated TRAF3 degradation or loss-of-function contributes to B cell-specific NF-κB2 activation. In the current study, we employed two complementary models to address this question. One utilized a mutant traf3 gene found in a human MM-derived cell line called LP1. The LP1 mutant TRAF3 protein lacks the TRAF-N and TRAF-C domains. Consistent with the paradigm described, expression of LP1 TRAF3 in B cells promoted higher basal levels of NF-κB2 activation compared to Wt TRAF3. However, LP1 did not associate with TRAF2, CD40, or BAFFR, and no LP1 degradation was observed following receptor engagement. Interestingly, LP1 showed enhanced NIK association. Thus, TRAF3 degradation becomes dispensable to activate NF-κB2 when it is unable to associate with TRAF2. In a second model, we examined several mutant forms of BAFFR that are unable to induce NF-κB2 activation in B cells. Signaling to B cells by each of these BAFFR mutants, however, induced levels of TRAF3 degradation similar to those induced by Wt BAFFR. Thus, in B cells, receptor-mediated TRAF3 degradation is not sufficient to promote NF-κB2 activation. We thus conclude that there is not a simple linear relationship in B lymphocytes between relative levels of cellular TRAF3, induced TRAF3 degradation, NIK activation, and NF-κB2 activation.

Regulation of PI-3-Kinase and Akt Signaling in T Lymphocytes and Other Cells by TNFR Family Molecules

Activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and Akt (protein kinase B) is a common response triggered by a range of membrane-bound receptors on many cell types. In T lymphocytes, the PI3K-Akt pathway promotes clonal expansion, differentiation, and survival of effector cells and suppresses the generation of regulatory T cells. PI3K activation is tightly controlled by signals through the T cell receptor (TCR) and the co-stimulatory receptor CD28, however sustained and periodic signals from additional co-receptors are now being recognized as critical contributors to the activation of this pathway. Accumulating evidence suggests that many members of the Tumor Necrosis Factor receptor (TNFR) superfamily, TNFR2 (TNFRSF1B), OX40 (TNFRSF4), 4-1BB (TNFRSF9), HVEM (TNFRSF14), and DR3 (TNFRSF25), that are constitutive or inducible on T cells, can directly or indirectly promote activity in the PI3K-Akt pathway. We discuss recent data which suggests that ligation of one TNFR family molecule organizes a signalosome, via TNFR-associated factor (TRAF) adapter proteins in T cell membrane lipid microdomains, that results in the subsequent accumulation of highly concentrated depots of PI3K and Akt in close proximity to TCR signaling units. We propose this may be a generalizable mechanism applicable to other TNFR family molecules that will result in a quantitative contribution of these signalosomes to enhancing and sustaining PI3K and Akt activation triggered by the TCR. We also review data that other TNFR molecules, such as CD40 (TNFRSF5), RANK (TNFRSF11A), FN14 (TNFRSF12A), TACI (TNFRSF13B), BAFFR (TNFRSF13C), and NGFR (TNFRSF16), contribute to the activation of this pathway in diverse cell types through a similar ability to recruit PI3K or Akt into their signaling complexes.

TNFR1 signaling kinetics: spatiotemporal control of three phases of IKK activation by posttranslational modification

TNFα is a pleotropic cytokine that plays a central role in the inflammatory response by activating the NF-κB signaling pathway, and is targeted in a range of chronic inflammatory diseases, underscoring the therapeutic importance of understanding its underlying molecular mechanisms. Although K63-linked ubiquitination of RIP1 by TRAF2/5 and cIAP1/2 was thought to serve as a scaffold to activate the NF-κB pathway, the recent accumulation of conflicting results has challenged the necessity of these proteins in NF-κB activation. In addition, several serine/threonine kinases have been implicated in TNFα-induced IKK activation; however, the targeted disruption of these kinases had no effect on transient IKK activation. The recent discovery of RIP1-dependent and -independent activation of the early and delayed phases of IKK and TRAF2 phosphorylation-dependent activation of the prolonged phase of IKK offers a reconciliatory model for the interpretation of contradictory results in the field. Notably, the TNFα-induced inflammatory response is not exclusively controlled by the NF-κB pathway but is subject to regulatory crosstalk between NF-κB and other context-dependent pathways. Thus further elucidation of these spatiotemporally-coordinated signaling mechanisms has the potential to provide novel molecular targets and therapeutic strategies for NF-κB intervention.

Roles of the kinase TAK1 in TRAF6-dependent signaling by CD40 and its oncogenic viral mimic, LMP1

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-encoded protein latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) is essential for EBV-mediated B cell transformation and plays a critical role in the development of post-transplant B cell lymphomas. LMP1 also contributes to the exacerbation of autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). LMP1 is a functional mimic of the tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) superfamily member CD40, and relies on TNFR-associated factor (TRAF) adaptor proteins to mediate signaling. However, LMP1 activation signals to the B cell are amplified and sustained compared to CD40 signals. We previously demonstrated that LMP1 and CD40 use TRAF molecules differently. Although associating with CD40 and LMP1 via separate mechanisms, TRAF6 plays a significant role in signal transduction by both. It is unknown whether TRAF6 mediates CD40 versus LMP1 functions via distinct or shared pathways. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that TRAF6 uses the kinase TAK1 to trigger important signaling pathways following both CD40 and LMP1 stimulation. We determined that TAK1 was required for JNK activation and interleukin-6 (IL-6) production mediated by CD40 and LMP1, in both mouse and human B cells. Additionally, TRAF3 negatively regulated TRAF6-dependent, CD40-mediated TAK1 activation by limiting TRAF6 recruitment. This mode of regulation was not observed for LMP1 and may contribute to the dysregulation of LMP1 compared to CD40 signals.

Interleukin-1 assembles a proangiogenic signaling module consisting of caveolin-1, tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6, p38-mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and MAPK-activated protein kinase 2 in endothelial cells

OBJECTIVE

Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) is a major cytokine linking inflammation and angiogenesis in pathological vascular processes, such as atherosclerosis and tumor neoangiogenesis. However, signaling pathways mediating IL-1β-induced proangiogenic processes in endothelial cells (ECs) have barely been elucidated yet. Therefore, the present study investigated IL-1β-induced proangiogenic signaling in ECs.

METHODS AND RESULTS

IL-1β potently induced tube formation and migration of ECs. This was associated with and dependent on activation of p38-mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and MAPK-activated protein kinase 2 (MK2) as determined by pharmacological inhibition and gene silencing. Furthermore, silencing of the adaptor protein tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) (lentiviral short hairpin RNA) inhibited these IL-1β-induced processes. Moreover, IL-1β promoted translocation of TRAF6 to insoluble cellular fractions (containing membrane rafts/caveolae) and interaction of TRAF6 with caveolin-1. Accordingly, cellular cholesterol depletion (cyclodextrin) and silencing of caveolin-1 (small interfering RNA) inhibited IL-1β-induced activation of p38-MAPK and MK2, as well as IL-1β-induced tube formation and migration. Finally, silencing of TRAF6 and MK2 deficiency inhibited IL-1β-induced microvessel outgrowth in murine aortic rings ex vivo, and deficiency of MK2 or caveolin-1 significantly reduced IL-1β-induced angiogenesis in mice in vivo (Matrigel plug assay).

CONCLUSIONS

IL-1β assembles a proangiogenic signaling module consisting of caveolin-1, TRAF6, p38-MAPK, and MK2 in ECs, representing a potential target to intervene into angiogenesis-dependent processes and diseases.

Roles of tumor necrosis factor receptor associated factor 3 (TRAF3) and TRAF5 in immune cell functions

A large and diverse group of receptors utilizes the family of cytoplasmic signaling proteins known as tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR)-associated factors (TRAFs). In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest and exploration of the roles played by TRAF3 and TRAF5 in cellular regulation, particularly in cells of the immune system, the cell types of focus in this review. This work has revealed that TRAF3 and TRAF5 can play diverse roles for different receptors even in the same cell type, as well as distinct roles in different cell types. Evidence indicates that TRAF3 and TRAF5 play important roles beyond the TNFR-superfamily (SF) and viral mimics of its members, mediating certain innate immune receptor and cytokine receptor signals, and most recently, signals delivered by the T-cell receptor (TCR) signaling complex. Additionally, much research has demonstrated the importance of TRAF3-mediated cellular regulation via its cytoplasmic interactions with additional signaling proteins. In particular, we discuss below evidence for the participation by TRAF3 in a number of the regulatory post-translational modifications involving ubiquitin that are important in various signaling pathways.

CD40-mediated cell death requires TRAF6 recruitment

CD40 has an important role in T cell-B cell interaction which rescues B lymphocytes from undergoing apoptosis. However, various studies have demonstrated that CD40 can also play a direct role in the induction of specific cell death and thus in the inhibition of tumour cell proliferation. Our previous studies showed that CD40-mediated cell death was independent of caspases and required no de novo protein synthesis. Knowing that CD40 signaling is mediated by its association with several intracellular effectors, including members of TNFR-associated factors (TRAFs) family, the goal of the present study is to investigate the mechanisms involved in the induction of cell death by CD40. Our data reveals that CD40-mediated cell death required lysosomal membrane permeabilization and the subsequent cathepsin B release. In addition, CD40 homodimer formation, a phenomenon known to be necessary for some CD40-mediated signals, was shown to negatively regulate cell death induced by CD40. Moreover, using HEK293 cells ectopically expressing CD40 deficient in TRAF binding, we showed that CD40-mediated apoptosis occurred in the absence of TRAF2 and TRAF3 association, but was significantly reduced when CD40 was deficient in its TRAF6 binding. Therefore, by outlining the role of lysosomal pathways and intracellular effectors, namely TRAF6 in CD40-mediated cell death, our study identifies new targets for anti-cancer therapy.

Molecular mechanisms of TNFR-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) utilization by the oncogenic viral mimic of CD40, latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1)

Latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1), encoded by Epstein-Barr virus, is required for EBV-mediated B cell transformation and plays a significant role in the development of posttransplant B cell lymphomas. LMP1 has also been implicated in exacerbation of autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus. LMP1 is a constitutively active functional mimic of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member CD40, utilizing tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor (TRAF) adaptor proteins to induce signaling. However, LMP1-mediated B cell activation is amplified and sustained compared with CD40. We have previously shown that LMP1 and CD40 use TRAFs 1, 2, 3, and 5 differently. TRAF6 is important for CD40 signaling, but the role of TRAF6 in LMP1 signaling in B cells is not clear. Although TRAF6 binds directly to CD40, TRAF6 interaction with LMP1 in B cells has not been characterized. Here we tested the hypothesis that TRAF6 is a critical regulator of LMP1 signaling in B cells, either as part of a receptor-associated complex and/or as a cytoplasmic adaptor protein. Using TRAF6-deficient B cells, we determined that TRAF6 was critical for LMP1-mediated B cell activation. Although CD40-mediated TRAF6-dependent signaling does not require the TRAF6 receptor-binding domain, we found that LMP1 signaling required the presence of this domain. Furthermore, TRAF6 was recruited to the LMP1 signaling complex via the TRAF1/2/3/5 binding site within the cytoplasmic domain of LMP1.

Differential B-lymphocyte regulation by CD40 and its viral mimic, latent membrane protein 1

CD40 plays a vital role in humoral immunity, via its potent and multifaceted function as an activating receptor of various immune cells, most notably B lymphocytes. The Epstein-Barr virus-encoded transforming protein latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) serves as a functional mimic of CD40 signals to B cells but lacks key regulatory controls that restrain CD40 signaling. This allows LMP1 to activate B cells in an abnormal manner that can contribute to the pathogenesis of human B-cell lymphoma and autoimmune disease. This review focuses upon a comparative analysis of CD40 versus LMP1 functions and mechanisms of action in B lymphocytes, discussing how this comparison can provide valuable information on both how CD40 signaling is normally regulated and how LMP1 disrupts the normal CD40 pathways, which can provide information of value to therapeutic design.

TNF receptor-associated factor 3 is required for T cell-mediated immunity and TCR/CD28 signaling

We recently reported that TNFR-associated factor (TRAF)3, a ubiquitously expressed adaptor protein, promotes mature B cell apoptosis. However, the specific function of TRAF3 in T cells has remained unclear. In this article, we report the generation and characterization of T cell-specific TRAF3(-/-) mice, in which the traf3 gene was deleted from thymocytes and T cells. Ablation of TRAF3 in the T cell lineage did not affect CD4 or CD8 T cell populations in secondary lymphoid organs or the numbers or proportions of CD4(+),CD8(+) or double-positive or double-negative thymocytes, except that the T cell-specific TRAF3(-/-) mice had a 2-fold increase in FoxP3(+) T cells. In striking contrast to mice lacking TRAF3 in B cells, the T cell TRAF3-deficient mice exhibited defective IgG1 responses to a T-dependent Ag, as well as impaired T cell-mediated immunity to infection with Listeria monocytogenes. Surprisingly, we found that TRAF3 was recruited to the TCR/CD28 signaling complex upon costimulation and that TCR/CD28-mediated proximal and distal signaling events were compromised by TRAF3 deficiency. These findings provide insights into the roles played by TRAF3 in T cell activation and T cell-mediated immunity.

Differential TRAF3 utilization by a variant human CD40 receptor with enhanced signaling

CD40 is required for T cell-dependent humoral immunity, but it can also contribute to the pathogenesis of autoimmunity and B cell malignancy. The TNFR-associated factor (TRAF)2 and TRAF6 adaptor proteins are positive regulators of CD40 signaling required to activate downstream kinase cascades and transcription factors. In contrast, TRAF3 can serve as a negative regulator of CD40 signaling, and CD40 signals are amplified in TRAF3(-/-) B cells. We previously reported a gain-of-function polymorphism of the human CD40 receptor, hCD40-P227A, which signals in an amplified manner to B lymphocytes. In this study, we show that hCD40-P227A binds more TRAF3 and TRAF5, as well as certain associated proteins, than wild-type-CD40. Studies in TRAF-deficient B cell lines revealed that hCD40-P227A uses TRAF3 as a positive rather than negative regulator. Although located outside of any known TRAF binding sites, the P227A polymorphism can alter TRAF binding and dramatically changes the role played by TRAF3 in CD40 signaling.

HOIL-1L interacting protein (HOIP) as an NF-kappaB regulating component of the CD40 signaling complex

The tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) superfamily mediates signals critical for regulation of the immune system. One family member, CD40, is important for the efficient activation of antibody-producing B cells and other antigen-presenting cells. The molecules and mechanisms that mediate CD40 signaling are only partially characterized. Proteins known to interact with the cytoplasmic domain of CD40 include members of the TNF receptor-associated factor (TRAF) family, which regulate signaling and serve as links to other signaling molecules. To identify additional proteins important for CD40 signaling, we used a combined stimulation/immunoprecipitation procedure to isolate CD40 signaling complexes from B cells and characterized the associated proteins by mass spectrometry. In addition to known CD40-interacting proteins, we detected SMAC/DIABLO, HTRA2/Omi, and HOIP/RNF31/PAUL/ZIBRA. We found that these previously unknown CD40-interacting partners were recruited in a TRAF2-dependent manner. HOIP is a ubiquitin ligase capable of mediating NF-κB activation through the ubiquitin-dependent activation of IKKγ. We found that a mutant HOIP molecule engineered to lack ubiquitin ligase activity inhibited the CD40-mediated activation of NF-κB. Together, our results demonstrate a powerful approach for the identification of signaling molecules associated with cell surface receptors and indicate an important role for the ubiquitin ligase activity of HOIP in proximal CD40 signaling.

Classical and/or alternative NF-kappaB pathway activation in multiple myeloma

Mutations involving the nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) pathway are present in at least 17% of multiple myeloma (MM) tumors and 40% of MM cell lines (MMCLs). These mutations, which are apparent progression events, enable MM tumors to become less dependent on bone marrow signals that activate NF-kappaB. Studies on a panel of 51 MMCLs provide some clarification of the mechanisms through which these mutations act and the significance of classical versus alternative activation of NF-kappaB. First, only one mutation (NFKB2) selectively activates the alternative pathway, whereas several mutations (CYLD, NFKB1, and TACI) selectively activate the classical pathway. However, most mutations affecting NF-kappaB-inducing kinase (NIK) levels (NIK, TRAF2, TRAF3, cIAP1&2, and CD40) activate the alternative but often both pathways. Second, we confirm the critical role of TRAF2 in regulating NIK degradation, whereas TRAF3 enhances but is not essential for cIAP1/2-mediated proteasomal degradation of NIK in MM. Third, using transfection to selectively activate the classical or alternative NF-kappaB pathways, we show virtually identical changes in gene expression in one MMCL, whereas the changes are similar albeit nonidentical in a second MMCL. Our results suggest that MM tumors can achieve increased autonomy from the bone marrow microenvironment by mutations that activate either NF-kappaB pathway.

TRAF2 must bind to cellular inhibitors of apoptosis for tumor necrosis factor (tnf) to efficiently activate nf-{kappa}b and to prevent tnf-induced apoptosis

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor-associated factor-2 (TRAF2) binds to cIAP1 and cIAP2 (cIAP1/2) and recruits them to the cytoplasmic domain of several members of the TNF receptor (TNFR) superfamily, including the TNF-TNFR1 ligand-receptor complex. Here, we define a cIAP1/2-interacting motif (CIM) within the TRAF-N domain of TRAF2, and we use TRAF2 CIM mutants to determine the role of TRAF2 and cIAP1/2 individually, and the TRAF2-cIAP1/2 interaction, in TNFR1-dependent signaling. We show that both the TRAF2 RING domain and the TRAF2 CIM are required to regulate NF-kappaB-inducing kinase stability and suppress constitutive noncanonical NF-kappaB activation. Conversely, following TNFR1 stimulation, cells bearing a CIM-mutated TRAF2 showed reduced canonical NF-kappaB activation and TNF-induced RIPK1 ubiquitylation. Remarkably, the RING domain of TRAF2 was dispensable for these functions. However, like the TRAF2 CIM, the RING domain of TRAF2 was required for protection against TNF-induced apoptosis. These results show that TRAF2 has anti-apoptotic signaling roles in addition to promoting NF-kappaB signaling and that efficient activation of NF-kappaB by TNFR1 requires the recruitment of cIAP1/2 by TRAF2.

Cholesterol depletion associated with Leishmania major infection alters macrophage CD40 signalosome composition and effector function

CD40, a costimulatory molecule expressed on macrophages, induces expression of interleukin 12 (IL-12) in uninfected macrophages and IL-10 in macrophages infected with Leishmania major. IL-12 suppresses, whereas IL-10 enhances, L. major infection. The mechanisms that regulate this difference in CD40-induced cytokine production remain unclear, but it is known that L. major depletes cholesterol. Here we show that cholesterol influenced the assembly of distinct CD40 signalosomes. Depletion of membrane cholesterol inhibited the assembly of an IL-12-inducing CD40 signalosome containing the adaptors TRAF2, TRAF3 and TRAF5 and the kinase Lyn and promoted the assembly of an IL-10-inducing CD40 signalosome containing the adaptor TRAF6 and the kinase Syk. Thus, cholesterol depletion might represent an immune-evasion strategy used by L. major.

cIAP1-dependent TRAF2 degradation regulates the differentiation of monocytes into macrophages and their response to CD40 ligand

Peripheral blood monocytes are plastic cells that migrate to tissues and differentiate into various cell types, including macrophages, dendritic cells, and osteoclasts. We have described the migration of cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein 1 (cIAP1), a member of the IAP family of proteins, from the nucleus to the Golgi apparatus in monocytes undergoing differentiation into macrophages. Here we show that, once in the cytoplasm, cIAP1 is involved in the degradation of the adaptor protein tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 2 (TRAF2) by the proteosomal machinery. Inhibition of cIAP1 prevents the decrease in TRAF2 expression that characterizes macrophage formation. We demonstrate that TRAF2 is initially required for macrophage differentiation as its silencing prevents Ikappa-Balpha degradation, nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) p65 nuclear translocation, and the differentiation process. Then, we show that cIAP1-mediated degradation of TRAF2 allows the differentiation process to progress. This degradation is required for the macrophages to be fully functional as TRAF2 overexpression in differentiated cells decreases the c-Jun N-terminal kinase-mediated synthesis and the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-8 and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) in response to CD40 ligand. We conclude that TRAF2 expression and subsequent degradation are required for the differentiation of monocytes into fully functional macrophages.

ERK-dependent Bim modulation downstream of the 4-1BB-TRAF1 signaling axis is a critical mediator of CD8 T cell survival in vivo

During an acute immune response, CD8 T cells undergo rapid expansion followed by a contraction phase during which the majority of activated T cells die, leaving a few survivors to persist as memory cells. The regulation of T cell survival is critical at each stage of this response. 4-1BB, a TNFR family member, has been implicated in prolonging the survival of activated and memory CD8 T cells; however, the precise mechanisms by which 4-1BB sustains T cell survival are incompletely understood. Upon aggregation on T cells, 4-1BB associates with two TNFR-associated factors (TRAF), TRAF1 and TRAF2. TRAF2 is essential for downstream signaling from 4-1BB; however, the role of TRAF1 in 4-1BB signaling has not been elucidated and there have been conflicting data as to whether TRAF1 provides a positive or a negative signal in T cells. In this study, we report that TRAF1 plays a critical role in survival signaling downstream of 4-1BB during CD8 T cell expansion in response to viral infection in vivo. Further analysis reveals that TRAF1-deficient cells are impaired in their ability to up-regulate the prosurvival Bcl-2 family member Bcl-x(L) and show increased levels of the proapoptotic Bcl-2 family member Bim following 4-1BB signaling. TRAF1-deficient CD8 T cells fail to activate ERK in response to 4-1BB ligation and inhibition of ERK signaling downstream of 4-1BB in wild-type cells leads to increased Bim levels. Thus, TRAF1 has a prosurvival effect in CD8 T cells via the 4-1BB-mediated up-regulation of Bcl-x(L) and ERK-dependent Bim down-modulation.

Ceramide-enriched membrane domains--structure and function

Membrane lipids seem to be organized and not randomly distributed in the cell membrane. In particular, sphingolipids seem to interact with cholesterol in the outer leaflet of the cell membrane resulting in the formation of distinct membrane domains, i.e. rafts. The generation of ceramide within rafts alters their biophysical properties and results in the formation of large ceramide-enriched membrane platforms. These platforms serve to cluster receptor molecules and to organize intracellular signalling molecules to facilitate signal transduction via a receptor upon stimulation. Thus, ceramide-enriched membrane domains amplify not only receptor-, but also stress-mediated signalling events. Although many receptors cluster, the molecular mechanisms mediating this important and general event in signal transduction need to be identified.

A novel polymorphism of the human CD40 receptor with enhanced function

CD40 signaling is critical for innate and adaptive immunity against pathogens, and the cytoplasmic domain of CD40 is highly conserved both within and between species. A novel missense single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the cytoplasmic domain of CD40 at position 227 (P227A) was identified, which resides on a conserved ancestral haplotype highly enriched in persons of Mexican and South American descent. Functional studies indicated that signaling via human (h) CD40-P227A stably expressed in several B-cell lines led to increased phosphorylation of c-Jun, increased secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-6 and TNF-alpha, and increased Ig production, compared with wild-type hCD40. Cooperation between hCD40-P227A signaling and B-cell receptor (BCR)- or Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9)-mediated signaling was also enhanced, resulting in elevated and synergistic production of IL-6 and Ig. We have thus identified a novel genetic variant of hCD40 with a gain-of-function immune phenotype.

Altered lipid raft composition and defective cell death signal transduction in glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor-deficient PIG-A mutant cells

Paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria (PNH) is a clonal disorder of haematopoietic stem cells caused by somatic PIGA mutations, resulting in a deficiency in glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins (GPI-AP). Because GPI-AP associate with lipid rafts (LR), lack of GPI-AP on PNH cells may result in alterations in LR-dependent signalling. Conversely, PNH cells are a suitable model for investigating LR biology. LR from paired, wild-type GPI(+), and mutant GPI(-) cell lines (K562 and TF1) were isolated and analysed; GPI(-) LR contained important anti-apoptotic proteins, not found in LR from GPI(+) cells. When methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (MbetaCD) was utilized to probe for functional differences between normal and GPI(-) LR, increased levels of phospho-p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and phospho-p65 nuclear factor NF-kappaB were found in control and GPI(-) cells respectively. Subsequent experiments addressing the inhibition of phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K) suggest that the PI3K/AKT pathway may be responsible for the resistance of K562 GPI(-)cells to negative effects of MbetaCD. In addition, transduction of tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) signals in a LR-dependent fashion increased induction of p38 MAPK in GPI(+) and increased pro-survival NF-kappaB levels in K562 GPI(-) cells. Therefore, we suggest that the altered LR-dependent signalling in PNH-like cells may induce different responses to pro-inflammatory cytokines from those observed in cells with intact GPI-AP.

CD40 ligation decreases its protein half-life at the cell surface

CD40 is expressed on a variety of tumors; anti-CD40 agonists promote tumor cell apoptosis and subsequent tumor regression. Because the effectiveness of anti-CD40- agonists is dependent upon CD40 surface expression, the current study examined ligation-mediated changes in CD40 protein half-life (t(1/2))( )at the cell surface. This study utilized a CD40(+) epithelial cell line (9HTEo-), a CD40 null epithelial cell line (HT-29) engineered to express either wild-type (WT) or mutant (T254A, Q263A, E235A, Delta201) CD40, and the anti-CD40 antibody G28.5. Ligation of endogenous CD40 expressed on 9HTEo- cells decreased CD40 surface protein t(1/2 )from 13 to 4 h (p <0.05). Ligation of WT-, Q263A-, or T254A-CD40 expressed on engineered HT-29 cells decreased CD40 surface protein t(1/2) from an average of 8 to 4 h (p <0.05); T254A and Q263A contain mutated TNF receptor-associated factor (TRAF)2/3-binding sites. In contrast, ligation of E235A and Delta201-CD40 had no affect on its surface protein t(1/2) (p <0.05); E235A contains a mutated TRAF6-binding site while Delta201 lacks an intact cytoplasmic tail. These results suggest that anti-CD40 agonists decrease CD40 surface protein t(1/2) via a mechanism that involves TRAF6 but not TRAF2/3. The therapeutic implications for CD40-mediated tumor regression are discussed.

Constitutive CD40 signaling in B cells selectively activates the noncanonical NF-kappaB pathway and promotes lymphomagenesis

CD40, a member of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor family, plays an essential role in T cell–dependent immune responses. Because CD40 is widely expressed on the surface of tumor cells in various B cell malignancies, deregulated CD40 signaling has been suggested to contribute to lymphomagenesis. In this study, we show that B cell-specific expression of a constitutively active CD40 receptor, in the form of a latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1)/CD40 chimeric protein, promoted an increase in the number of follicular and marginal zone B cells in secondary lymphoid organs in transgenic mice. The B cells displayed an activated phenotype, prolonged survival and increased proliferation, but were significantly impaired in T cell-dependent immune responses. Constitutive CD40 signaling in B cells induced selective and constitutive activation of the noncanonical NF-κB pathway and the mitogen-activated protein kinases Jnk and extracellular signal–regulated kinase. LMP1/CD40-expressing mice older than 12 mo developed B cell lymphomas of mono- or oligoclonal origin at high incidence, thus showing that the interplay of the signaling pathways induced by constitutive CD40 signaling is sufficient to initiate a tumorigenic process, ultimately leading to the development of B cell lymphomas.

TRAM couples endocytosis of Toll-like receptor 4 to the induction of interferon-beta

Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) induces two distinct signaling pathways controlled by the TIRAP-MyD88 and TRAM-TRIF pairs of adaptor proteins, which elicit the production of proinflammatory cytokines and type I interferons, respectively. How TLR4 coordinates the activation of these two pathways is unknown. Here we show that TLR4 activated these two signaling pathways sequentially in a process organized around endocytosis of the TLR4 complex. We propose that TLR4 first induces TIRAP-MyD88 signaling at the plasma membrane and is then endocytosed and activates TRAM-TRIF signaling from early endosomes. Our data emphasize a unifying theme in innate immune recognition whereby all type I interferon-inducing receptors signal from an intracellular location.

Roles of TRAF6 in CD40 signaling

CD40 provides signals crucial to the activation of antigen-presenting cells during humoral and cell-mediated immune responses. A complex cohort of proteins interacts with the cytoplasmic domain of CD40 and mediates signaling. One member of this cohort is TNF receptor associated factor six (TRAF6). TRAF6 contributes to the CD40-mediated activation of NF-kappaB, stress-activated protein kinases, and perhaps other signaling molecules. TRAF6 may have roles as an adapter molecule, an activator of mitogen-activated protein kinases, and as a repressor of certain signaling circuits. Establishing the significance and interplay of these roles will lead to a more complete understanding of mechanisms important to the CD40-mediated activation of the immune system and will reveal novel targets for the development of therapeutic agents.

Characterization and expression analysis of TNFR-associated factor 1 (TRAF1) in grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella

TNF receptor associated factor 1 (TRAF1) plays an important role in regulating the TNF signaling and protecting cells from apoptosis. In the present study, a TRAF1 gene has been cloned from grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) by reverse transcription (RT)-PCR and rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE). The full-length cDNA is 2235bp, including a 250bp 5' UTR (untranslated region), a 1659bp open reading frame, and a 326bp 3' UTR. The polyadenylation signal (AATAAA, AATAA) and one mRNA instability motif (AUUUA) were found followed by a poly (A) tail in the 3' UTR. No signal peptide or transmembrane region has been found in the putative amino acids of grass carp TRAF1 (gcTRAF1). The putative amino acids of gcTRAF1 share 72% identity with the homologue in zebrafish. It is characterized by a zinc finger at the N-terminus and a TRAF domain (contains one TRAF-C and one TRAF-N) at the C-terminus. The identity of the TRAF domain among all the TRAF1 homologues in vertebrates varies from 52% to 58%, while the identities of TRAF-C were almost the same as 70%. The recombinant gcTRAF1 has been constructed successfully and expressed in Escherichia coli by using pET-32a expression vector. The polyclonal antibody for rabbit has been successfully obtained. The expression of gcTRAF1 in different organs was examined by real-time quantitative PCR and Western blotting, respectively. It was widely distributed in heart, head kidney, thymus, brain, gill, liver, spleen, and trunk kidney. This is the first report of TRAF1 homologue molecule found in fish.