Protective role of germanium-132 against paraquat-induced oxidative stress in the livers of senescence-accelerated mice

The role of germanium in diseases: exploring its important biological effects

With the development of organic germanium and nanotechnology, germanium serves multiple biological functions, and its potential value in biochemistry and medicine has increasingly captured the attention of researchers. In recent years, germanium has gradually gained significance as a material in the field of biomedicine and shows promising application prospects. However, there has been a limited amount of research conducted on the biological effects and mechanisms of germanium, and a systematic evaluation is still lacking. Therefore, the aim of this review is to systematically examine the application of germanium in the field of biomedicine and contribute new insights for future research on the functions and mechanisms of germanium in disease treatment. By conducting a comprehensive search on MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Web of Science databases, we systematically reviewed the relevant literature on the relationship between germanium and biomedicine. In this review, we will describe the biological activities of germanium in inflammation, immunity, and antioxidation. Furthermore, we will discuss its role in the treatment of neuroscience and oncology-related conditions. This comprehensive exploration of germanium provides a valuable foundation for the future application of this element in disease intervention, diagnosis, and prevention.

Potential of germanium-based compounds in coronavirus infection

The first germanium compounds which exhibited immunomodulatory and antiviral effects were sesquioxane-type germanates. To date, more than a dozen compounds containing germanium have been synthesized and are being actively studied. They include germanium carboxylates and citrates, complexes of germanium with resveratrol, daphnetin, mangiferin, chrysin, quercetin, ascorbic and nicotinic acids, amino acids, gamma-lactones, germanium-containing spirulina, yeast and others. Germanium-based compounds have shown the ability to influence the replication of various DNA/RNA viruses, stimulate the body's natural resistance, prevent the development of metabolic intoxication of various origin, increase the efficacy of vaccines, and prevent the development of excessive accumulation of reactive oxygen species, which plays a decisive role in the development of inflammatory response caused by a viral infection. It seems reasonable to say that germanium-based complex compounds effectively contribute to the preservation of high--energy bonds in the form of ATP, optimize the activity of metabolic processes by re-oxygenation, and exhibit antimicrobial activity. The purpose of this review is to summarize the pharmacological potential of various germanium-based compounds studied nowadays, taking into account their mechanisms of action, and to analyze their prospects in the development of integrated approaches in the prevention and treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Immune activation of Bio-Germanium in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial with 130 human subjects: Therapeutic opportunities from new insights

Germanium has long been considered a therapeutic agent with anticancer, antitumor, antiaging, antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects. Numerous clinical studies have explored the promising therapeutic effects of organic germanium on cancer, arthritis and senile osteoporosis. The immune activation property of organic germanium is considered the foundation of its various therapeutic effects. However, previous human clinical studies investigating immune activation with organic germanium compounds have certain limitations, as some studies did not strictly follow a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled design. To build a more clinically substantiated foundation for the mechanism underlying its immunostimulation, we structured by far the most rigorous clinical study to-date with a group of 130 human subjects to examine changes in immune profiles following germanium supplementation. We used Bio-Germanium, an organic germanium compound naturally synthesized via a yeast fermentation process. An 8-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study was conducted with 130 subjects with leukocyte counts of 4–8 (×10³/μL) divided into the Bio-Germanium group and the placebo group. Anthropometric measurements; blood collection; biochemical analysis; urinalysis; and natural killer cell activity, cytokine and immunoglobulin assays were conducted. Results showed the Bio-Germanium group exhibited NK cell activity increases at effector cell:target cell (E:T) ratios of 50:1, 10:1, 5:1 and 2.5:1 (12.60±32.91%, 10.19±23.88%, 9.28±16.49% and 7.27±15.28%, respectively), but the placebo group showed decreases (P<0.01). The difference in the IgG1 change from baseline to follow-up between the Bio-Germanium and placebo groups was significant (P = 0.044). Our results and earlier clinical study of Bio-Germanium confirm that Bio-Germanium acts as an effective immunostimulant by increasing the cytotoxicity of NK cells and activating immunoglobulin, B cells and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α (P<0.05). As we have added newly discovered clinical findings for germanium’s immunostimulation mechanism, we believe Bio-Germanium is a highly promising therapeutic agent and should certainly be further explored for potential development opportunities in immunotherapy.

Potential effect of germanium exposure on the risk of influenza-like illness in housewives in Shanxi Province, China

Few studies have examined the relationship between exposure to germanium (Ge) and the risk of influenza-like illness (ILI). Therefore, we investigated the association of Ge exposure and its interaction with single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) related to Phase II metabolism on ILI risk among housewives in Shanxi Province, northern China. This cross-sectional study enrolled 373 housewives. Information on the housewives' characteristics and the frequency of ILI was collected by questionnaire. We analyzed the Ge concentrations in hair samples taken from near the scalp at the back of the head. Blood samples were used to identify SNPs related to Phase II metabolism. The results suggested that the hair Ge concentration was associated with ILI risk with an adjusted odds ratio and 95% confidence interval of 2.59 (1.61-4.19). A significant dose-response relationship was observed without or with adjusting for confounders. We did not observe any interaction effect between the hair Ge concentration and the SNPs on ILI risk. We found that high dietary consumption of meat and fried foods was positively correlated with the hair Ge concentration. Therefore, chronic Ge exposure may be a risk factor for an increased frequency of ILI in housewives.

Magma Seawater Inhibits Hepatic Lipid Accumulation through Suppression of Lipogenic Enzymes Regulated by SREBPs in Thioacetamide-Injected Rats

Thioacetamide (TAA) is known to induce lipid accumulation in the liver. In the present study, we investigated the effects of magma seawater (MS) rich in minerals on hepatic lipid metabolism by evaluating lipogenic enzymes regulated by sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBPs). Rats (n = 10 per group) were intraperitoneally injected with TAA (200 mg/kg bw) thrice a week for seven weeks in combination with a respective experimental diet. Rats in the TAA-treated group received either a chow diet (Control group) or a chow diet containing MS (TMS group, 2.05%) or silymarin (TSM group, 0.05%). Rats in the normal group were injected with PBS as a vehicle and received a chow diet. Rats in the TMS group showed significantly lower hepatic lipid concentrations than rats in the control group (p < 0.05). Hepatic protein expression levels of fatty acid synthase, SREBP-1, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase, and SREBP-2 were significantly downregulated in the TMS group, whereas carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 levels were upregulated (p < 0.05). Hepatic thiobarbituric acid reactive substances levels were lower in the TMS group, whereas protein levels of glutathione peroxidase and catalase were elevated (p < 0.05). The effects of MS were comparable to those of silymarin. Our results evidently showed that MS inhibits hepatic lipid accumulation by suppressing lipid synthesis, accompanied by lipid oxidation and elevation of antioxidative status.

Antioxidant Activity of Ge-132, a Synthetic Organic Germanium, on Cultured Mammalian Cells

Ge-132 is a synthetic organic germanium that is used as a dietary supplement. The antioxidant activity of Ge-132 on cultured mammalian cells was investigated in this study. First, Ge-132 cytotoxicity on mammalian cultured cells was determined by measuring lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels. Ge-132 had no cytotoxic effect on three different cell lines. Second, the cell proliferative effect of Ge-132 was determined by measuring ATP content of whole cells and counting them. Ge-132 treatment of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-K1) and SH-SY5Y cells promoted cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. Finally, antioxidant activity of Ge-132 against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress was determined by measuring the levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and carbonylated proteins. Pre-incubation of CHO-K1 and SH-SY5Y cells with Ge-132 suppressed intracellular ROS production and carbonylated protein levels induced by hydrogen peroxide. Our results suggest that Ge-132 has antioxidant activity against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress.

Carboxyethylgermanium sesquioxide (Ge-132) treatment during in vitro culture protects fertilized porcine embryos against oxidative stress induced apoptosis

Compared with the in vivo environment, porcine in vitro embryo-culture systems are suboptimal, as they induce oxidative stress via the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). High ROS levels during early embryonic development cause negative effects, such as apoptosis. In this study, we examined the effects of the antioxidant carboxyethylgermanium sesquioxide (Ge-132) during in vitro culture (IVC) on embryonic development in porcine in vitro fertilization (IVF) embryos. Zygotes were treated with different concentrations of Ge-132 (0, 100, 200 and 400 μg/ml). All of the Ge-132 treatment groups displayed greater total cell numbers after IVC (98.1, 98.5 and 103.4, respectively) compared with the control group (73.9). The 200 μg/ml Ge-132 treatment group exhibited significantly increased intracellular GSH levels compared with the control group, whereas the ROS generation levels decreased in Ge-132 dose-dependent manner (P < 0.05). The mRNA expression levels of the KEAP1 gene and proapoptotic genes BAX and CASPASE3 were lower in the Ge-132 treated blastocysts compared with the control group (P < 0.05). The percentages of apoptotic and necrotic cells in the Ge-132 treated embryos on day 2 (48 h) were significantly lower than the untreated embryos (9.1 vs. 17.1% and 0 vs. 2.7%, respectively). In the day 7 blastocysts, the percentages of apoptotic cells in 200 µg/ml Ge-132 treated group were lower compared to controls (1.6 vs. 2.5%). More KEAP1 protein was found to be localized in cytoplasm of the 200 μg/ml Ge-132 treated blastocysts, whereas KEAP1 protein was predominantly nuclei in the control blastocysts. These results indicate that the developmental competence of embryos cultured under Ge-132 treatment may be associated with KEAP1 signaling cascades involved in oxidative stress and apoptosis during porcine preimplantation embryo development.

Analysis of Blood Concentrations of Zinc, Germanium, and Lead and Relevant Environmental Factors in a Population Sample from Shandong Province, China

Trace elements, including zinc (Zn) and germanium (Ge), are essential for health; deficiency or excess levels of trace elements results is harmful. As a result of industrial and agricultural production, Pb widely exists in people’s living environment. It is absorbed mainly through the respiratory and digestive tracts, producing systemic harm. Reference values for a normal, healthy population are necessary for health assessment, prevention and treatment of related diseases, and evaluation of occupational exposures. Reference ranges for the Chinese population have not been established. From March 2009 to February 2010; we collected data and blood samples (n = 1302) from residents aged 6–60 years living in Shandong Province, China. We measured blood concentrations of Zn, Ge, and Pb using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry to determine reference ranges. Results were stratified by factors likely to affect the concentrations of these trace elements: sex, use of cosmetics or hair dye, age, alcohol intake, smoking habits, and consumption of fried food. The overall geometric mean (GM) concentrations (95% confidence interval) were 3.14 (3.08–3.20) mg/L for Zn, 19.9 (19.3–20.6) μg/L for Ge, and 24.1 (23.2–25.1) μg/L for Pb. Blood Zn concentrations were higher in women than in men (p < 0.001), while the opposite was found for Pb (p < 0.001) and sex did not influence Ge (p = 0.095). Alcohol use was associated with higher blood concentrations of Zn (p = 0.002), Ge (p = 0.002), and Pb (p = 0.001). The GM concentration of Zn was highest in 20–30-year-olds (p < 0.001), while Pb concentrations were highest in 12–16-year-olds (p < 0.001). Use of hair dye was associated with lower blood concentrations of Ge (p < 0.05). GM blood concentrations of Pb differed significantly between those who consumed fried foods 1–2 times/month (18.7 μg/L), 1–2 times/week (20.9 μg/L), and every day (28.5 μg/L; p < 0.001). Blood Pb concentrations were higher in subjects who used cosmetics (p < 0.05), hair dye (p < 0.05), and who smoked cigarettes (p < 0.001) than in those who did not.

The bipyridyl herbicide paraquat produces oxidative stress-mediated toxicity in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells: relevance to the dopaminergic pathogenesis

Paraquat (PQ) is a cationic nonselective bipyridyl herbicide widely used to control weeds and grasses in agriculture. Epidemiologic studies indicate that exposure to pesticides can be a risk factor in the incidence of Parkinson's disease (PD). A strong correlation has been reported between exposure to paraquat and PD incidence in Canada, Taiwan, and the United States. This correlation is supported by animal studies showing that paraquat produces toxicity in dopaminergic neurons of the rat and mouse brain. However, it is unclear how paraquat triggers toxicity in dopaminergic neurons. Based on the prooxidant properties of paraquat, it was hypothesized that paraquat may induce oxidative stress-mediated toxicity in dopaminergic neurons. To explore this possibility, dopaminergic SH-SY5Y cells were treated with paraquat, and several biomarkers of oxidativestress were measured. First, a specific dopamine transporter inhibitor GBR12909 significantly protected SY5Y cells against the toxicity of paraquat, indicating that paraquat exerts its toxicity by a mechanism involving the dopamine transporter (DAT). Second, paraquat increased intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), but decreased the levels of glutathione. Third, paraquat inhibited glutathione peroxidase activity, but did not affect glutathione reductase activity. On the other hand, paraquat increased GST activity by 24 h, after which GST activity returned to the control value at 48 h. Fourth, paraquat dissipated mitochondrial transmembrane potential (MTP). Fifth, paraquat produced increases of malondialdehyde (MDA) and protein carbonyls, as well as DNA fragmentation, indicating oxidative damage to major cellular components. Sixth, paraquat increased the protein level of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). Taken together, these findings verify our hypothesis that paraquat produces oxidative stress-mediated toxicity in SH-SY5Y cells. Thus, current findings suggest that paraquat may induce the pathogenesis of dopaminergic neurons through oxidative stress.

Effects of paraquat on essential antioxidant elements in osteogenic disorder Shionogi rat

This study reports the effect of paraquat (PQ) on concentrations of four elements (Cu, Fe, Mg, Zn) in lung, kidney, spleen, liver, and heart of male osteogenic disorder Shionogi (ODS) rats, a strain not able to synthesize vitamin C. PQ significantly increased the Cu concentrations in lung, liver, and plasma, accompanied by a fall in renal levels. Fe levels were elevated in liver and spleen but lowered in plasma. PQ produced an increase in kidney Mg and a rise in liver Mg and Zn levels. Cardiac elemental levels were not affected by PQ treatment. PQ, a known oxidant, produced changes in tissue elements involved in antioxidant mechanisms.

Effect of germanium-132 on low-density lipoprotein oxidation and atherosclerosis in Kurosawa and Kusanagi hypercholesterolemic rabbits

Germanium-132 (Ge-132) was given at 200 mg/kg of body weight to 8-week-old Kurosawa and Kusanagi hypercholesterolemic (KHC) rabbits. Thirty-six weeks later, the susceptibility of plasma low-density lipoprotein to oxidation and the morphology of atherosclerosis in the aorta and coronary artery were investigated. Treatment with Ge-132 resulted in decreases in the oxidation rate and in the formation rate of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances following copper-induced oxidation of LDL. Ge-132 is suggested to possess antioxidative properties, but this did not lead to any attenuation of atherosclerotic progression in the KHC rabbits.

Effects of yukmi, an herbal formula, on the liver of senescence accelerated mice (SAM) exposed to oxidative stress

The effects of yukmi (Decoction of six plants including rehmannia), an herbal formula, were studied on liver oxidant damage induced by paraquat (PQ) administered intravenously in the senescence accelerated mice (SAM-P/8). The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase as two major antioxidant enzymes and lipid peroxidation levels were determined for six days. Data show that the activities of hepatic SODs and catalase were increased by oral administration of yukmi extracts following PQ pretreatment. Herbal medicine effectively blocked the PQ-induced effects on liver malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. For the histopathological changes in SAM-P/8 liver, yukmi extracts inhibited PQ-induced damage to the hepatic mitochondria and their membranes. Data suggest that yukmi extracts may be useful in protecting against oxidative damage.

Hairless mouse epidermal antioxidants and lipid peroxidation assessed by He-Ne laser

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the possibility of oxygen radical damage in the skin after He-Ne laser irradiation according to dose intensity and time.

STUDY DESIGN/MATERIALS AND METHODS

The He-Ne laser (lambda = 632.8, 10 mW) was used on the skin of mice with 1, 3, and 5 joule (J/cm2) dose rates for 1, 5, and 7 days in each case, and the results were compared with normal and anesthetic nonirradiated skins. The efficacy was determined by the formation of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) in a 10-minute period and expressed as a concentration of malondialdehyde (MDA) from the lipid peroxidation of epidermal tissue, and total superoxide dismutases (SODs) and catalase activities, correlated with histologic biopsies.

RESULTS

Data from epidermal SODs, catalase activity and the degree of lipid peroxidation at low-power radiation showed that repeated exposure had led to the induction of free radical damage and of epidermal changes as confirmed by microscopic study. The application of the He-Ne laser at 1, 3, and 5 J intensity for 5 days caused a gradual increase in the SODs and catalase activities, while the levels of TBARS were slightly decreased in the mouse epidermis. However, these patterns were reversed after 3 and 5 J irradiations for 5 and 7 days laser treatment. Furthermore, microscopic examinations revealed that the laser-irradiated skin changed the release of stratum granule from epidermis to hair follicle, and produced blood vessel thrombosis of the dermal capillary plexus.

CONCLUSION

The presence of lipid peroxidation in the hairless mouse skin after exposure to He-Ne laser energy intensity of over 3 J for over 5 days was demonstrated. This lipid peroxidation could have been generated from oxygen free radicals. The histologic and oxidative enzymatic correlations on lipid peroxidation in the skin have provided a better understanding of He-Ne laser therapy-tissue interactions. It is possible to take advantage of these findings to evaluate pathologic skin conditions and effective laser dosage more efficiently.